TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS

A Proposal on

Treatment Efficiency of Rapid Sand Filter

(A case study of Nayabazar Townplanning Water Supply Plant)

By:

Dinesh Bikram Singh

075MSEnE006

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

IOE, PULCHOWK CAPMPUS

January 2020
Contents
1. List of Abbreviations..........................................................................................................................1
2. Background............................................................................................................................................2
3. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................3
4. Rationale of the study..............................................................................................................................4
5. Description of the project........................................................................................................................5
5.1 General description............................................................................................................................5
5.2 Treatment plant setup........................................................................................................................6
5.2.1 Aerator........................................................................................................................................6
5.2.2 Flocculator..................................................................................................................................6
5.2.3 Tube settler.................................................................................................................................6
5.2.4 Rapid sand filter..........................................................................................................................6
5.2.5 Chlorinator..................................................................................................................................7
5.2.6 Clear Water Reservoir................................................................................................................7
5.2.7 Pumps.........................................................................................................................................7
5.3 Design specification of the treatment units........................................................................................7
6. Objectives................................................................................................................................................8
7. Limitations..............................................................................................................................................8
8. Literature review.....................................................................................................................................9
9. Methodology.........................................................................................................................................10
9.1 Design of rapid sand filter...............................................................................................................10
9.2 Sample collection............................................................................................................................10
9.3 Sample analysis and data analysis...................................................................................................10
9.4 Flow Measurement..........................................................................................................................10
10. Work schedule and cost estimate.........................................................................................................11
References:................................................................................................................................................12
1. List of Abbreviations

% Percentage

mm Millimeters

cm Centimeters

° Degree

°C Degree Celsius

l/s litre per second

mg/l milligram per litre

NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit

Q Discharge

WHO World Health Organization

RSF Rapid Sand Filtration

Cu Uniformity coefficient

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2. Background

Man’s search for pure water dates back to the very beginning of ancient human civilization. The fact that
the earlier civilizations originated near the water bodies; the presence of the wells, aqueducts, reservoirs
and siphons, which are identified as the work of ancient people: supports the above-mentioned assertions.
Only many centuries later, the ever-progressing scientific discoveries and engineering innovations led to
the advent of the purposeful quality control of water supply. The concept of water treatment focuses on
collecting water from the best available sources and treating it so that the resultant water is of good
physical quality, free from unpleasant taste or odour and, free from everything that has a negative health
significance. It aims at improving the quality of water. It limits the level of certain quality parameters
within the guidelines. Among them, turbidity is considered as one of the major water quality parameters.

On simple terms, turbidity can be understood as the cloudiness or murkiness of a fluid. It is defined as the
measure of resistance to the passage of light through it (Kansakar, 2015, 110). It makes the water cloudy
or opaque which is caused by the presence of suspended particles such as clay, silt, finely divided organic
and inorganic matter, soluble coloured organic compounds and microorganisms. Turbidity can provide
food and shelter to the disease-causing organisms. So, higher the turbidity, higher is the negative health
impact. Turbidity is of major consideration in public water supply because of three reasons which are
aesthetics, filterability and disinfection. It is expressed in parts per million (ppm) or milligram per litre
(mg/l) on silica scale. The standard unit of turbidity is the turbidity produced by one milligram of Fuller’s
earth in the form of finely divided silica in one litre of distilled water, is considered as the standard unit of
turbidity. It is also expressed in Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU), Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
The units depend on the process and equipment used for the measurement. The permissible value for
turbidity is 5 NTU for drinking water, but the turbidity up to 10 NTU may be tolerated (Kansakar, 2015,
110-111).

In an effort to keep the turbidity to a safer value, different filters were introduced. The first filter was
constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland. It was a slow sand filter and worked in
conjunction with a settling basin and roughening filter. Slow sand filters were the first effective method
devised for the treatment of water contaminated by pathogenic bacteria. However effective in removing
the turbidity and pathogens, it has a large land area and filter media requirement which is the reason it
was superseded by Rapid sand filters(RSF). RSP quickly gained popularity due to its less land
requirement and high filtration rate. So, in the context of a larger population to distribute and less land
availability, RSF is more fitting. Therefore, it will be a subject of interest for years to come.

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3. Introduction

Rapid sand filters evolved at the end of the 19th century, and by 1920s, they were widely used in the
water treatment facilities (Bruni & Spuhler, 2020). It is of two types: gravity type and pressure type. The
rapid sand filters of gravity types are most commonly used in water treatment systems. It consists of the
following units:

a) Enclosure tank
b) Filter media
c) Base material
d) Underdrainage system

e) Appurtenances

Figure : Typical rapid sand filter

a) Enclosure tank

It is a watertight open rectangular tank which is constructed of stone or masonry or concrete. The depth of
the tank is about 2.5-35 m whereas surface area may vary from 10 to 50 m 2. Depending on the surface
areas, the required number of filter units are provided. The length to width ratio of the tank is generally
kept 1.25 to 1.35.

b) Filter media

The filter media consists of sand layers 60 to 75 cm thick. Its effective size varies from 0.45 to 0.70mm.
The uniformity coefficient Cu of sand is in the range of 1.3 to 1.7. Due to the higher value of effective size
and lower value of uniformity coefficient than that of SSF, the void space in the filter media is more
which results in a higher filtration rate.

c) Base material

Gravel serves as the base material for the support of the sand layer. The gravel bed is 45 to 60 cm thick
which is graded and laid in layers. The topmost layer should be of small size gravel and the bottom-most
layer should be of bigger size gravel.

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d) Underdrainage system

The main purpose of the under drainage system is to collect the filtered water uniformly over the area of
the gravel bed and provide uniform distribution of backwash water without disturbing or upsetting the
gravel bed and the filter media. The commonly used drainage systems are a perforated pipe system and
pipe strainer system.

e) Appurtenances

The more important appurtenances are wash water troughs, air compressors and rate control device. Wash
water troughs are provided at the upper portion of the filter tank to collect the backwash water as it
emerges from the sand and to conduct it to the wash water drain. Air compressor is used to agitate the
sand grains during the backwashing of the filter. The rate control device is used to maintain a constant
filtration rate. The increase in the filtration rate may cause water to break through the filter material
without treatment while the sudden reduction in the rate may release a bubble of gas entrapped in the
sand, causing it to make a hole through the filter bed. Other appurtenances include head loss indicators,
meters for measuring the flow rate and so on.

Rapid sand filtration is a purely physical treatment process which can be explained by two physical
principles: mechanical straining and physical adsorption (Bruni & Spuhler, 2020). Firstly, Mechanical
straining: larger suspended particles get stuck between the sand particles as they pass through the filter
media. Secondly, Physical adsorption: smaller particles adhere to the sand particles due to the Van der
Waals force of attraction. An additional chemical such as a coagulant or flocculant can be added to
increase the adhesion process.

During the course of filtration, more and more particles get stuck in the filter media which leads to the
clogging of the filter and a decrease in the performance of RSF. So, to re-achieve the previous
performance of the filter, cleaning should be done. Cleaning is done by backwashing. The flow of water
is reversed so that the treated water flows backwards through the filter. During this process, the sand is
resuspended and the solid particles are suspended in the surface water. Generally, the air is used for
agitation and further aids the cleaning process. The filter is again put back to its original operation when
most of the particles are washed out and back flowing water is clear.

4. Rationale of the study

Turbidity removal is a major part of the drinking water supply project. RSFs are excellent at turbidity
removal producing high filtration rate which is more viable for the high demand or populated areas. RSFs
are used in many water treatment systems but the use of these filters for the groundwater source is quite a
new topic in the context of Nepal. Further, the treatment plant which is going to be studied had been
unoperational long since its construction. So, this study aims at assessing the condition of the plant and
finding out ways for influencing the efficient operation of the treatment system.

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5. Description of the project

figure: Layout of the treatments units arragement

5.1 General description

Nayabazar town planning is located at the bank of sacred river Bishnumati inside the Kathmandu valley.
Naya Bazar Land Pooling Project(NLPP) Area is situated in the low-lying area of Naya Bazar, Balaju,
Kathmandu  Ward No. 16 and 17. It  is bounded on north and west by Bishnumati River and on east by 
Balaju-Sorhakhutte road . It is connected to the city core towards the south direction. 

Municipal Infrastructure Improvement Project (MIIP) decided in 1994/95 to improve the area by
implementing a land pooling scheme using the road alignment proposed under Guided Land Development
(GLD) Scheme of Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee (KVDTC) as collector roads . The
project was initially implemented by the MIIP through the loan assistance of Asian Development
Bank(ADB). After the expiry of contract between the ADB and Kathmandu Metropolitan City(KMC)
regarding the concept of MIIP, KMC took over to finish the remaining implementation works. After the
completion of construction works, the project had been unoperational for about 18 years. Then the project
was undertaken by KUKL, Chhetrapati who assessed the project's conditions and performed the required
renovations to restart the project. Currently, the project is still not fully operational. Frequent testing is
being carried out and distribution is only done partially. KUKL, Chhetrapati aims to reach full
distribution and operation within this month of February.

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The project area covers 45.1 hectares with a design population taken as 15000. The per capita
consumption during the design is taken as 100 liters per capita per day and the average daily water
demand as 17.36  liters per second.

5.2 Treatment plant setup

The source for the water supply is a deep well which is situated near the project area. The major
characteristics of the water of the well is observed as turbidity of 54.7 NTU, electrical conductivity of  
932 µs/cm, pH of 7.2, total iron 4.6 mg/l, total ammonia 32 mg/l and total hardness of 264 mg/l as CaCO . 3

 The different treatments units of the project are as follows:

5.2.1 Aerator

The aeration system consists of five number of tray aerators. It is important for the removal of impurities
like iron and dissolved gases like ammonia which are present in the source water. During the aeration
process, scrubbing action and oxidation takes place. Scrubbing is caused by turbulence created which
removes the dissolved gases from water. Oxidation is the process in which the impurities like iron and
manganese are oxidized to form precipitates. These precipitates remain suspended in the water and can be
removed through other processes in the treatment like filtration.

5.2.2 Flocculator

A Baffled type hydraulic mixing flocculator has been used. At the beginning of the flocculator, a separate
chamber for the mixing of alum is provided. As the coagulant is added to the water, the colloidal particles
are destabilized and they start to aggregate. When the water strikes the baffles, a mixing effect is created
which increases the chance of particle collisions and hence, facilitates the aggregation. Also, it holds the
bigger flocs in suspension which allows them to grow even bigger. The flocculator is designed for 10
minute detention time.

 5.2.3 Tube settler

The water from the flocculator is then sent forward for the sedimentation process. For sedimentation, a
single unit of tube settler has been provided. The tubes are 50 mm  dia High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE)  pipes. The tubes provide larger effective settling areas due to which the area requirement for the
tube settlers are much less than the conventional tanks. 

 5.2.4 Rapid sand filter

The two units of the RSF are provided which receive water from the tube settlers separately. The RSFs
are run simultaneously to get the purer water. A set of four valves are provided which can be easily used
to get one filter running while the other is undergoing backwashing. The  interval  between successive
backwashing depends on the quantity of floc not settled down in the sedimentation tank. The water for

6
backwashing  is pumped from the clear water reservoir. For this purpose a vertical pump of 7.5 HP 
capacity is used. The under drainage system consists of main fold and laterals of HDPE pipe.

5.2.5 Chlorinator

The water obtained after filtration is disinfected with  bleaching powder solution. A chlorine dozer is
installed to  feed bleaching powder solution from a 200 l  capacity solution tank . It is installed in the
section of the pipe line from filter to reservoir. The dosing is adjusted based on  chlorine demand. The
chlorination process is for the pathogen removal, So, after the filtration process all other parameters
except the pathogens should be under the desirable range.

5.2.6 Clear Water Reservoir

An  underground  RCC reservoir has been constructed for the storage of the treated water. The shape of
the reservoir is circular and its roof is dome shaped. The  volume  of the reservoir has been worked out on
the basis of the water consumption pattern recommended for small towns of Nepal( DWSS, STWSSP,
2000).  The capacity of the reservoir is taken as 500 cubic meter with a radius of 6.6m. The water reserve
to be used in case of emergency like firing has not been taken into consideration.  

5.2.7 Pumps

Booster pump with a hydro pneumatic system has been installed. Four numbers of submersible pumps
with 15, 15, 7.5 and 2 HP capacity are installed in series. Water demand determines the pressure in the
pneumatic tank. Operation of various pumps is controlled by the pressure in the pneumatic tank. Water
can be supplied 24 hours. 

5.3 Design specification of the treatment units

Aerator  number of units= 5

 tray size 1m x 1m with 5mm size holes
 tray to tray distance 50 cm

Alum mix  size 1m x 0.7m

 alum dosing 30 ppm
 alum required 1.7kg per day

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 Flocculator  size 7.3m x 2.5m, height 2.5m
 baffle thickness 15cm and length of 55cm
 detention time 10 min
 velocity gradient G = 46 per sec

Tube settler  size 5.2m x 3.5m, height 2m

 particle size 576 micron
 detention time 4.6 minutes
 SOR 1.3 m3 / m2/hour
 weir loading 204 m3/d/m
 pipe dia 0.04m, length 0.92m, inclination 600
 number of pipes 4620
 pipe thickness 4mm

Rapid sand filter  2 units each with size 2.7m x 3.8m and height 2.6m
 filtration rate 4000 l/m2/hr
 sand depth 60cm, gravel depth 60cm, water depth 1m
 back flow rate 600 l/m2/min, backwash duraion 10 min
 mainfold pipe dia 30cm, lateral pipe dia 5 cm at spacing
30cm, number of laterals 22
 perforation hole 1.2cm at spacing 20cm

Chlorinator  chlorine demand 0.5ppm

 bleaching powder needed= 1.04kg/day

6. Objectives

a) To find out the turbidity removal efficiency of the filter.

b) To analyze the backwashing time of the filter.

c) To find out the improvements that can be done to increase the efficiency of the filter.

7. Limitations

a) The evaluation of the filter is only done on the basis of turbidity, other water quality parameters
like colour, coliforms, microorganisms etc.
b) Effects due to the temperature variation are not taken into account.

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 c) The required improvement to increase the effectiveness of the filter may be difficult to
implement.

8. Literature review

Since the advent of RSF for treatment of water, many studies have been done and also various literatures
provide enough information about the working and design of the filter. As the water flows through several
layers of coarse-grained sand and gravel, relatively large particles are held back safely. However, RSFs never
provide safe drinking water without adequate pre-treatment and final disinfection(Bruni & Spuhler, 2020).
Usually, coagulation and flocculation and chlorination are applied for that purpose which is generally the case
in the water treatment systems.

RSF are found to perform well when it comes to turbidity removal. A well-operated RSF reduces turbidity to
less than 1 NTU and often less than 0.1 NTU (WHO, 1996). The RSF are also found to be highly effective in
colour removal. The intensity of colour removal can be brought down below 3 on the cobalt scale (Kansakar,
2015, 215). However, RSFs are less effective in bacterial removal. Most literatures suggest that they remove
about 80-90% of the initial bacterial load.

The size of sand required for a particular purpose will vary depending on the purpose. The finer the suspended
particles to be removed, the smaller the sand size should be in order to increase the surface area of sand grains
in the sand depth of the bed (Punmia et al., 1995, 321). Due to the higher value of effective size and lower
value of uniformity coefficient than that of SSF, the void space in the filter media is increased which results in
a higher rate of filtration (Kansakar, 2015, 201). The filtration rate of the RSF is expected to be 4,000 – 12,000
litres per hour per square metre of surface (WHO, 1996).

During the filter running time, more and more particles get stuck in between the sand particles and clogs the
filter. Due to this, the treatment efficiency of the filter is reduced. So, there is provision for backwashing to
regain the initial efficiency. The period between backwashes depends on the quality of the influent water and
normally lies between 24 – 72 hours (Bruni & Spuhler, 2020).Periodic repacking of the filter bed may be
required at infrequent intervals to ensure efficient operation.

Banejad et al., 2010 evaluates the iron removal in RSF. It concludes that increase in iron concentration leads to
decreased removal efficiency and if high concentrations of iron exist, a series of rapid sand filters must be
used.

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9. Methodology

9.1 Design of rapid sand filter

a) Design period : 10-15 years

b) Depth of supernatant : 1 to 2 m
c) Filtration rate : 3000 to 6000 litre/m2/hour
d) Sand depth : 60 to 75cm
e) Effective size of sand: 0.45 to 0.7mm
f) Uniformity coefficient: 1.3-1.7, normally 1.5
g) Gravel depth: 45-60cm
h) Gravel size: 2-50mm
i) depth of enclosure tank: 2.5 to 3.5
j) Free board: 0.5m
k) length/breadth ratio: 1.25-1.35, normally 1.3
l) Turbidity of the filtrate: 1 NTU
m) Desirable turbidity level of water process: 30-45 NTU
n) Final head loss: 1.8 to 2m

o) Area of single filter unit: 10-50 m2

9.2 Sample collection

Water samples from inlets and outlets of the rapid sand filter were collected.

9.3 Sample analysis and data analysis

a) Turbidity of the water samples collected are found using a turbidity meter.

b) The removal efficiency of the filter was found as:

E = (Inlet turbidity – Outlet turbidity)/(Inlet turbidity) * 100

9.4 Flow Measurement

Discharge was controlled by using a valve provided at the inlet pipe. Weir formula was used to calculate
discharge in the channel.

10
 5
8 θ
Q= C d √ 2 g tan H 2
15 2

H = height of water

Θ = Central angle of weir

Cd = coefficient of discharge = 0.68

10. Work schedule and cost estimate

Table: Work Schedule

Duratio
S.N
Dec

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

July
Task Name n

Jan

Feb
.
(month)
Concept Development & literature  
1 1
Review                
2 Proposal Writing 1                
Experiment Setup, Check &
3
Maintenance 1                
4 Test Analysis 4
5 Data Analysis and Interpretation 1
Draft Report Preparation and Mid
6
Term Defense 1
7 Final Report Preparation 1
8 Final Defense 1

Table 2: Cost Estimation

S.N. Description Charges

1. Site model clearing, labor charges 2,000
2. Chemicals and Lab charges, lab reagents 15,000
3. Stationary Charges 5,000
4. Miscellaneous 10,000
Total 32,000

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References:
1. Banejad, H., Hamedany, R. P., & Daneshi, N. (2010). Evaluation of Head Loss, Sediment

Value and Iron Removal in Rapid Sand Filter. Journal of American Science, 6, 12.

https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/51695280/Evaluate_of_Head_Loss_Sediment_Value_

and20170208-9567-1rdm0bu.pdf?1486551117=&response-content-disposition=inline

%3B+filename

%3DEvaluate_of_Head_Loss_Sediment_Value_and.pdf&Expires=1611827382&Signature=

CCM70UL

2. Bruni, M., & Spuhler, D. (2020). Rapid Sand Filtration. SSWM. Retrieved jan 26, 2020,

from https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/module-6-disaster-situations-planning-and-

preparedness/further-resources-0/rapid-sand-filtration

3. Bruni, M. A., & Spuhler, D. (2020). Slow Sand Filtration. SSWM. Retrieved jan 26, 2020,

from https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/module-6-disaster-situations-planning-and-

preparedness/further-resources-0/slow-sand-filtration

4. Hassan, H. N., AL-Baidhani, J. H., & Al-Saadi, R. J. M. (2020). Evaluating the effects of the

flow direction on the performance of the rapid sand filter. IOP Conference Series: Materials

Science and Engineering, 928(022080). https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-

899X/928/2/022080/pdf

5. Kansakar, B. R. (2015). Water Supply Engineering. Prakash Man Shakya.

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6. Lenntech Water treatment & purification. (n.d.). WATER TREATMENT. Turbidity.

https://www.lenntech.com/turbidity.htm#:~:text=Turbidity%20is%20a%20measure

%20of,of%20the%20quality%20of%20water

7. Punmia, B.C., Jain, A. K., & Jain, A. K. (1995). Water Supply Engineering. Laxmi

Publications.

8. USGS. Turbidity and Water. Water Science School. https://www.usgs.gov/special-

topic/water-science-school/science/turbidity-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-

science_center_objects

9. WHO. (1996). Fact Sheets on Environmental Sanitation.

http://helid.digicollection.org/es/d/Js13461e/2.14.html#Js13461e.2.14

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