Swine production, ARSc 342

SWINE PRODUCTION

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION
Swine were domesticated much later than other livestock. The primary purpose of pig farming
all over the world is the production of meat (i.e. including pork, bacon or fat). Secondary
considerations are the production of pigskin, bristle and manure. Processed pork is now finding a
ready acceptance among many consumers in tropical countries, and consumers’ preferences are
slowly changing everywhere as industrialization advances.

Pig skin has generally been used only for the manufacture of light goods (i.e. localized
production). Pig manure is useful everywhere: as a fertilizer, for the soil or for fish ponds; for the
production of the methane gas (Biogas). It contains on average 0.7, 0.68 and 0.7% of N, P, and K
respectively.

To supply human population with animal protein, pig production plays a great role. In the
growing human population in the world and especially in the developing countries, swine
production is one of the best suitable practice and activity to secure human beings with food.
The fertility and characteristics of swine reproduction is one of the advantages to insure human
population with animal protein and energy.

1.1. ORIGIN DOMESTICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SWINE

Pigs were first domesticated in 9000 B.C. in east India and south East Asia. The East Indian pig
was taken to China about 5000 B.C. Biblical references to swine occur as early as 1500 B.C. The
first use of swine for food probably occurred in the Neolithic age, and the first people to tame
swine were the Chinese. Then Chinese pig were taken to European where they were crossed and
forming the foundation of the present day breeds. The actual origin of this animal is not yet well
known but all today’s pigs must have come from European wild boar called Sus scrofa.
 Swine production, ARSc 342

Table 1. The classification of swine is as follows:

Commo Phylum Subphylu Class Order Famil Genu Species
n name m y s
Swine Chordat Vertabrata Mammali Artiodactyl Suidae Sus scrofa (evolved
a a a (Even- from wild hog of
toed Europe)
ungulates)
Swine Chordat Vertabrata Mammali Artiodactyl Suidae Sus Vittatus (evolved
a a a from wild hog of
East India)

As it is known, all domesticated breeds of pigs are believed to have originated from two major
wild types:
A. Sus vittatus and/or indicus ; the wild pig of china, Japan and Southeast Asia ,
B. Sus scrofa; the wild pig of Europe, which probably also originated from Asiatic
continent, which may have been introduced by settlers.

In 18th century Chinese and Siamese pigs were introduced into the British Isles and crossed with
local breeds. The Siamese pigs were copper – colored with black hair. This type of pig was also
introduced to America during colonization of America and later crossed with improved English
breeds or pigs from other parts of the world. Domesticated pigs were also introduced in the
Pacific the Caribbean and Australia. Europe type pigs and the Indian pig known as Sus vittatus,
possibly arrived in Melanesia by way of Southeast Asia. Indigenous and introduced pigs are now
being improved through breeding and selection to meet the demand of the market and to fit into
specific environments.

Three types of pigs have been developed into their highest efficiency in Europe and America.
 Meat type
 Bacon type and
 Lard types.

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1.2. IMPORTANCE OF SWINE

Swine contribute to society in two important ways:
 As source of food and other products of value
 As an increasingly used animal model in Biomedical research
According to some authors, pig can yield on the average 4 to 5 times more meat than cattle per
tone of live weight. This ration varies from country to country and from region to region. In
Asia and America pigs yields only trice as much as much meat as cattle. In Asia and Africa, the
mat yields per tone of live weight were 25 and 8 times as much, respectively.

SWINE (PIG) REARING HAS THE FOLLOWING IMPORTANCE:

1. Swine converts feeds into products of higher specific value (High feed conversion efficiency):
Transforms directly or indirectly, the material and energy, contained in feeds in to quality
meat twice as efficient as ruminants. Utilize by- products that have otherwise no value for
human diet and are not particularly adapted to the deeding of other animals’ for example, fish
meal etc
2. Swine utilize unused and damaged feeds: Grains that are unmarketable can be converted into
pork. Other by- products also can be utilized to produce valuable protein.
3. Swine utilize waste products: Hogs separate grains from assorted (hardware nails bolts bits of
wire glass & stones in the ruins such as material fed to cattle, usually results in heavy death
losses whereas pigs are seldom injured. Table garbage, bakery wastes, cull potatoes
unmarketable fruits and many such other products can be used to feed hogs. Hogs can utilize
so large quantities of such products. Tolerant to a wide variety of feeds (Pigs of all classes
except young piglet can tolerate all kinds of feeds  Low quality, highly fibrous feed).
4. Financially rewarding and helps in food security: The capital investment can be realized and
returned in a relatively short period (they have short turn over rate). It takes 6 to 7 months
feeding period to raise a weaning pig to a market weight of 90 kg under average feeding and
management conditions in tropical climate. Pigs can be raised in small areas rather than
cattle. A sow can easily produce litters of 8 to 12 piglets after a relatively short gestation
period of 112- 120 days (average 114). In many developing tropical countries, in which
pork consumption in not restricted by religious customs and beliefs, pig raising can be a

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means of filling the gap between the production of protein food and the rapid rate of
population increase. Pork is rich in protein and good source of energy.
5. Swine produce high percentage of useful product per pig. For example, a finished pig can
yield 70 – 75% dresses carcass.
 According to some research results, finishing pig can yield 70 – 75% of dressed
carcass.
 Entrails and blood can be used for sausages
 The skin maybe cocked to produce crackling (crisp skin on roast pork) which can be
sold in supermarket. The hairs are made into brushes & hoofs into glue. Bones into
bone meal for livestock feed.
 Average dressing % = kg dressed carcass x 100
Kg live weight

Table 2. Average dressing percentage of different farm animals.

No Animals Dressing Percentage
1 Poultry (broiler) 64.3
2 Hog (70 – 90 kg live weight) 75.6
3 Steer (170 – 310 kg live weight 52.2
4 Sheep 50.0
5 Goat 44.0
6 Rabbit 48.1
7 Horse 49.1
Source: J.A. Eusebio; pig production in the tropics, 1984
6. Swine aid in maintaining and improving soil fertility:
 Like other farm animals, pigs contribute a considerable amount of fertilizing ingredients
to the soil through manure.
 A reduce pig cam produce 600 – 730 kg of manure annually.
 The nitrogen content of fresh pig manure ranges from 0.55 – 0.60 %, Phosphorus 0.50%,
and Potassium 0.40%
7. Swine have fecundity (high production ability): Produce large litter size, 8 – 12 piglets, after
short gestation period of 112 – 120 days.

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8. Pig can produce meat without contributing to land degradation, since they are mostly kept in
indoor management.
9. Swine well adapted to the practice of self-feeding thereby minimize labor
10. Suitable for marketing and consumption (slaughter)
11. Swine meat is suitable for processing  Processed meat has also relatively longer shelf life

UNIT 2. BREEDS OF SWINE

Swine types are the result of three contributing factors:
 The demand of the consumer
 The character of the available feeds
 Breeding and pursuit of type fads by breeder. These are Lard type, Bacon type, and
Meat type

EUROPEAN BREEDS
A. ENGLISH BREEDS
1. Yorkshire (Large white): First developed in Yorkshire, England.
 Popular breed throughout the world
 Fast growing and strong framed with good length
 Renowned for its strength of legs
 Females are prolific
 Good mothers and adapt well to confined conditions
 Its white hair and skin render the carcass more acceptable to the consumer than that
of other colored breeds.
Have large litters, high feed efficiency, and good mothering ability. They are often used in
cross breeding program and found all over the world.
2. Berkshire: Are medium sized pig; is originated is England. Produces good quality meat;
and hence described as excellent meat type.. The animal is black with 6 white points (4
on feet, on the face and on the tip of tail). The ear is created and head slightly dished.
Grows rapidly and is good grazer; withstand cold weather; and weighs 70 – 80 Kg at
about six months of age (with good feeding and management)

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3. English landrace: It is improved for become as well as Porte and processing. It is early
growing, good efficiency of feed good result of carcass.
4. Welsh: is originated in England and for its good adaptability to different climatic
condition is exported to different countries. The saw has good maturity behavior.
5. Tamworth: is originated in England. It is big and red pig. It is characterized by its red,
co lour, erect ears and long, narrow shout: Its face is straight. It is better for extensive
farming it is used for cross breeding purposes
6. Wessex saddle back: Has white saddle across the shoulder with the rest of the body
black all over. It is called a saddleback because the white hair over the shoulder
resembles that of horseman’s saddle. It has large floppy ears, matures slowly of puts on
fat quickly. The sow is good Mother
7. Large black (Cornwall): Has large floppy ears that fall over its eyes like those of the
saddleback and the landrace. A slow mature, put on fat very quickly, but is good matter –
is used for cross – Breeding in some countries.
8. Hampshire: is black pig with a distinct white saddle encircling the forepart
(forequarter) of the body. The forelegs are included in the white belt. Hampshire sows
are highly prolific and good mothers. Has an erect ear. It is known for its muscle and
carcass leavers (It is a meaty, well-muscled breed  shows good efficiency of feed
conversion). It is popular breed and Used in many cross breeding programs.

B. BELGIUM
1. Belgium landrace: is one of the top pigs for leave meat. It is used in many Countries
including Africa. It has medicine to large body frame. It is super meat animal. It is
improved for the purpose of excellent car cars leaves and because of this developed stress
(PSS). Can be used for cross breeding programs.
1. Pietrain: is also originated near the village of pie train Belgium during the early 1950s.
The pietrain is hog is white with black spots. It is medium sized and erect ears, short legs
and muscular hams.
2. It superior in its carcass and also developed stresses (PSS).

C. DENMARK: In Denmark because hogs are important and they are most known produces.

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1. Danish landrace: - is one of the known pig in the country and is exported to Sweden,
Holland, Belgium and Scandinavian countries for cross breeding purposes. The others
are: - Danish Yorkshire, Danish duroc, Danish Hampshire.
D. FRANCE:-
1. Large white – it evolved by crossing do metric pig with imported large white from
England. On by birding it is used as parents of female. Has large size, good feeding
efficiency.
2. French landrace, Belgium landrace and pie train are the other used in this county.
E. Holland: The mostly import processed meat and breeds of swine, There fore they improved
in their county Holland landrace and Holland large white
F. Italy: They keep in the large – large white next landrace breed. Nowadays duroc is also
seen. The others are pie train, Belgium landrace, Hampshire.
Germany: - is one of the county producing swine produces in Europe.
The breeds are – Dutch landrace and the next are pie train, Dutch improved white pig,
Belgium landrace. Imported are also Duroc and Hampshire,

BREEDS OF SWINE IN NORTH AMERICA

1. USA. On producing swine meat they use crossing between breeds (90 %). From the pure
breeds 2/3 are duroc, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.
2. Duroc: - is originated in the eastern USA before 1865. The color of the breed is red
shades ray from light to dark with a medium eatery being the preferred shade,
- Ears drop forwards. The breed has good mothering ability, growth rate, and feed
conversion; it is one of the most popular hog in the country.
3. The others are Hampshire, Yorkshire - imported – landrace- Berkshire
4. Chester White; is originated in England. White color, the ears droop forward. Is known
for its mothering ability, has medium size, early maturing,
4. Hereford; Developed in USA. Hereford is red with white face, Ears are forward
drooping, they are good mothers, prolific and muscling, Medium body size,
5. Poland China; the oldest American breed, developed in 1878, It might be encored by
crossing with pigs brought from polish imgranls with Chinese pigs and classy with
Berkshire ,

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- It is black with six white points like Berkshire

- Poland – china pig has forward – drooping ears,
- It is one of the burger breed,
- They produce carcasses with low back fat & Large Loin eyes; they are used for
many cross-breeding programs,
6. Spotted Poland – china: avulsed by crossing Poland China with English Gloucester old
sports, Howe white cot our with black spots, Ears are floppy, with modicum buoy size,
Early maturing , There are may inbred breeds used in USA,
7. Chinese pigs:
- Many Chinese breeds are used in cross breeding programs,
- The mail reason for this interest the large litter sizes that are common for these
breeds.
-The most prolific of the Chinese breeds include: The meishare and The Fengsing. -These
breeds average is live pigs per litter at birth and weaning pigs per litter. They reach puberty at
about 3 months of age require 40% less feed intake per kg live wt as compared to breeds
currently used. But, these breeds have proved carcass characteristics and thus use in cross
breeding would be limited.
Canada: Swine breeds used in Canada are:
- York shire, Landrace, La combe, Hampshire, Duroc and in little, Berkshire, Corn wall &
Tamworth.
Lacombe: is breed improved in Canada. It is a result of crossing – breeds of – Berkshire,
Landrace & chestier white. It is white breed with ears flops and large body size. Has good
growth efficiency (Performance) and meat type.
- It can be crossed with large white from 1986 is expected difference counters to be used
for cross breeding programs.
Latin America:-In Latin America (control and North America) is extensively are used their own
breeds of little importance of pig men teal breeds. Most of then are lard type and does not have
most importance.
- There are imported breeds for improving the indigenous swine breeds and commercial
production.

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- Brazil has about 2 million, Argentina 4.5 million and Peru about 2 million swine. From
1966 impressed breeds are Duroc from USA, Large white from UK and Landrace from
Germany and Holland , There breeds are used in crocs breeding indigenous breeds are
between innersoles,
Asia: - In most Asia indigenous breeds are used to produce meat, Nowadays Large white,
Landrace, Berkshire, Poland- china, Hampshire Duroc and other breeds are reared for
improving indicators breeds by Cross breeding.
China ;- In china swine production has got great important for (Lard) for the consumption of
meal and fat (Lard) for the consumption of its big population number in the world , (1.3 million)
- In 1957 the swine population was 110 million and in 1971 the number increased to be 270
million swine population,
- Now some breeds are exporting to the world. The indigenous breeds are most probably the
reseat of crossing of Siamese – Chinese and Masco tic swine; they have floppy ears and high
fertility. They are pigmented (black) or bleach and white, weight at birth of the piglet is 400mg
to 700mg and growth is slow.
- It is slaughtered at 100kg and meat is full of fat (lard).
-there are also seines of breeds of Nepal and Tibetans, and southland breeds,
- Vietnamic swine are also used in Vietnam.
- In Japan is used, cutinize breed and slaughtered as soaks live weight the imported breeds in
Japan are from USA and Great Britain there are medium while Landrace Large white Berkshire
and Hampshire.
Africa:- In this continent mine production is the lesser (Least).
Big swine populations are found in.
- South Africa – 1.5 million
- Nigeria – abut 1 million
- Ethiopia- abut 1 million
- Zaire – abut 0.6 million
- Madagascar abut 0.5 million
- Except Islamic counties of Africa, the others almost have very leach member of swine.
- In the 19 and 20 centuries slice breeds were comported to Africa from England they were
raised pure breed in the south and Northern part of Africa. In the tropical parts of the central

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Africa they are used for cross breeding with the indigenous breeds and chaise breeds, which
deposited lard (fat). The indigenous people of Africa raise the indigenous breed which can be
killed at 40- 80kg L.W.
- From the imported breeds are – Large white, Landrace (from Sweden and Holland).They are
used to Produce pork..
- In Kenya , Tanzania , Madagascar , and others are used large white and landrace , which
are crossed with Madagascar breeds or between themselves
- In Ethiopian is also used Landrace breeds important from Sweden and Holland,
Australia: - All swine’s are imported. The big imports are from USA and Great Britain. The
main breeds in Australia are – Berkshire, Large white & Landrace.
- Except the pure breeds there are also crossbreeding Because there are milk by- products and
protein feeds for swine and mead of Lean meat without fat they fide at L.wt 75-80kg more
than half of the slaughtered hog . These are used for become and other products such as
sausages.
-Miniature swine: - pig has similar morphological structure of organs and physiological
functions to human beings is very important as laborite animal. They are used to study about
the carnality system and breed skin diseases radiation of the sputa, Gastro international tract
reproduction process reaction of organism to different solutions, etc.
- The first experiment was done with miniature service in USA in the university of
Minnesota in 1949. They brought indecency primitive pig from the island of Guam in Pacific
Ocean, wild black pig from Alabama from the island of catalliva, pigs from piney woods in
Lonsgiana. With different coutinatia by crossing inbreeding and selection of the animals with
32.6 kg in 154 days of age. They aimed to produce the pig of 40 – 60 kg in the adult age.

In 1960 the breed of miniature of miner sofa was impartial to Europe to the University of
Gottingen to Germany. It was crossed with Vietnam pig to increase the live age, fertility,
better breeding characteristics and to get less body size. They succeed to produce the animal
with live weight of 30 – 40 kg with 6 – 7 litter farrowing.
- The next improved signs for the medicinal and biological aim were in the former German
Democratic Republic with commercial name “Mini Lowe” in the age of 140 days the
average live weight was 15 kg and in 250 days 30 kg.

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- Therefore swine had got very important function for the food of the human beings and for
laboratory study for the human beings medicinal experiments.
Others – 1
1. Tropical pigs
A. Central & South America
 Local countral strains of pigs probably originated from pigs of Chinese ancestry.
 Introduced by Spanish conquering of south America in 15th century
 Alonsoole Ojeda – the 1st man to introduce pigs to tropical America.
 30,000 pigs populated in Cuba after the congests
 From Cuba to Peru to Rico, Jamaica & Mexico
 Captain Jaime de pinzon brought to Colombia.
 Pigs in tropical central South America are lard type.
 Peron – is small size Mexican breed the little ear
 Pevira Tali & Pirapitinga – hairless & small lard – type breeds indigenous to Brazil
 Criollo & Nilo :- Native strains in other Latin America
2. Burmese pig Hound at Burma & China
- They are black but some have spotted
- The China dwarf is shoot & weight 50 kg at maturity.
Africa: - west Africa- originated from Mediterranean region.
- Bako – in Cameroon
- black or spotted
- scavenger
3. Dwarf hogs – are common.
4. Bush pig –
- Potamochoerus porous
- Wart hog – phacochoerus acthiopicus .
- The giany tonerh hog – Hylochchoerus meinerthageni are some of the wild
members of suidae family found in Africa. No any domestic breeds have been
developed from them.
- Wart hog – has long legs – 1.5m

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- Tufted tail, Skin slake or clay colored, hated except for few bristly
hairs Possesses mane that continued along the mid – line of the back. Useful is broad
the upward curing tusks
The bush pig – is slightly smaller than the wart hog
- The coat of short hair is reddish, may be black in old maker (boar)
- Ears are long and pointed and end is white tuffs.
- Turks are small, found south of the Sahara
The giant foreth hog: - rare and leash known
- Found in several parts of Kenya ( mount Kenya)
- Montana tours of North Tanzania, Uganda as Liberia.

UNIT 3. REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING

3.1 FEMALE AND MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE: Sow reproductive organ produces the female gamete (ovum). The female
reproductive organ includes:
* Ovaries * Vagina
* Uterine tubes (Oviducts) * Vulva
* Cervix
Swine have bicornuate uterus i.e. two horns, and no body and one cervix. Uterine horns of sow
are long and tortuous (coiled) to accommodate numerous developing fetuses. In the mature sow
it may be one meter (48" – 60" length) or more when extended. But it is straight in Mare and
Bitch, and spiral in Cow and Ewe.

Ovaries of sow usually appear lobulated because of the numerous developing ova (Owing to
follicles at varying stages of development). During the period of pregnancy the placenta of swine
is diffuse type (i.e. with six membranes) and epitheliochorial type of vascular relationship.

MALE: The male reproductive system is characterized by a pair of relatively large testes, which
can weigh over 300gm.The male reproductive system consists of:
* Testes * Epididymis

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* Penis * Vas deferens

* Accessory sex gland
- Seminal vesicles (Very large, less compact)
- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral gland (Very large)

Testes (testicles) produce spermatozoa and testosterone. Seminiferous tubule is site of

spermatogenesis. Intact adult male pig is known as Boar, and the castrated one is termed Barrow.
Sometimes the testicles fail to descend completely: If only one testicle is failed we call it
Monorchid, and if two testicles failed termed Cryptorchids.

In a single ejaculate about a liter of semen can be produced. To facilitate the transfer of such
large quantities of semen at coitus, the end of the penis is spiral in shape, which enables it to lock
into the cervix of the sow. The duration of coitus varies but last 20 minutes.

3.2 REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

Reproductive activity begins in earnest with puberty at which the estrous cycle begins and ova
are made available.

ESTROUS CYCLE: The length of estrous cycle ranges 18 – 24 days (i.e. on average 21 days).
Duration of estrous ranges 48 – 72 hours. But there is no estrous cycle during pregnancy or
lactating, although sows will sometimes show heat during lactation when run in group. The sow
will ovulate simultaneously from both ovaries, normally shedding between 11 and 24 eggs. The
estrous cycle consists of four phases as indicated in the following diagram.

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I. PROESTROUS: Begin with regression of corpus luteum and increased production of

FSH. FSH stimulate follicular growth  Follicles start producing increasing quantities of
Estrogen, which brings on the outward signs of estrous, or heat. When oestrogen reaches
maximum level inhibit further FSH secretion; and causes secretion of LH by pituitary.

II. ESTROUS: Females are receptive to the male during the period of estrous (NB.
Exception of human and other primates). Mature Graafian follicle expands with estrogen-
containing fluid  anterior pituitary releases a surge of LH, triggering ovulation (Graafian
follicle rupture and release ovum).

Signs of estrous (heat) includes: Vulva swollen and congested, Restlessness (Unfailing sign of
the approach of heat), and Peculiar repetitive grunt. Other sows (at proestrous phase) sniff their
vulva and may to ride them, or will be the recipient of such attentions. At the height of estrous
assumes a stationary, rigid attitude with ears cocked, and appears to be quite oblivious to her
environment. Estrous can readily be determined y firmly pressing the loin of the sow with the
palms of both hands  Sow in estrous will stand motionless with cocked ears where as sows
not in heat will object this approach.

III. METESTROUS: Corpus luteum formed from luteum cells during this period. Graafian
follicle leaves a structure called Corpus luteum. It is a temporary endocrine gland that
secretes oestrogen and progesterone. At this stage the vagina loses most of the growth it has
and the wall become thinner. The wall of the uterus also loses much of its mucus layer.

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IV. DIESTROUS: Uterus is ready for implantation of fertilized ovum (i.e. by the effect of
progesterone hormone). If pregnancy occurs diestrous remain throughout pregnancy period and
corpus luteum continue to secrete progesterone. If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum
degenerate  Progesterone level in the blood falls  Uterine wall lose their thickness. Then
the pituitary begins another estrous cycle.
Sows are described as polytocous. Swine are one of the most prolific animals raised for the farm
market. Litter bearing, polytocous, capacity and short generation intervals make large numbers
of marketed animals possible. At the first estrous the number of ovulation is low, but it increases
thereafter so that if mating is delayed until the 3 rd heat a larger letter will result. The
crossbreeding of in-breed lines increases the ovulation rate, as does the provision of a high-
energy diet for 11 – 14 days before the expected estrous.

The generation interval in swine is about one year. The early sexual maturity, prolificacy, and
short gestation period of swine compared with other food animals, and the associated high
degree to which such traits as growth and body composition are passed to the next generation
(high heritability), make possible relatively rapid changes in economically important traits. Some
of the reproductive characteristics (traits) in swine are:
* Age at puberty
* Age to breed
* Heat period (Estrous)
* Gestation length
* Breeding after farrowing

* AGE AT PUBERTY: Age at puberty ranges 4 – 8 months (i.e. in male 5 – 8 months and in
female 4 – 7 months). The wide range, 4 – 8 months of age, to reach to puberty is due to
differences in breeds, sex, and environment. Hence, age at puberty affected by diet, breed (i.e.
including the degree of in-breeding) and season of the birth. Weight of females at first puberty
should be 68 – 90 Kg. Boars reach puberty lately, at age of 5 – 8 months, as compared to gilts,
but should not be used for breeding until 8 -12 months of age, or until the body weight at least 90
Kg.

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In female swine on set of puberty (First estrous) is influenced by social environment, close
proximity to boars during the growing-finishing period hastens it, and the degree of special
confinement. Relocation or exposure to a boar consistently advances puberty.

* AGE TO BREED GILT: Although gilts may come to heat at 4 – 7 months of age, the general
recommendation is to breed at the 3rd heat, i.e. to take advantage of any increase in ovulation
rate.

* HEAT PERIOD (ESTROUS): It is the time when sow will accept boar. On average it lasts
for 2 – 3 days. Older sows generally remain in heat longer than the gilts. Ovulation occurs 38 –
42 hours (Average 40 hours) after the start of estrous. It is well known that ovulation rate, the
number of eggs released/estrous, is associated with:
 Genetic factor
 Age at breeding
 Weight at breeding
 Nutrition
Crossbreeding increases ovulation rate. In gilt the ovulation rate may increase one to two eggs
with each successive heat period. Following the first litter the ovulation rate increases until 5 th or
6th litters. Increasing the energy levels of the diet increases ovulation rate. Some studies
indicated that a low level of energy intake followed by high energy intake increased the number
of eggs released by two folds.

* GESTATION LENGTH: After coitus and fertilization pregnancy occurs. During this the
embryo space themselves evenly throughout the entire uterus before implantation. Competition
for space, nutrients and other unknown factors often results in uneven growth rates in utero,
which gives rise to variation in piglet birth weight. The lighter pigs will then suffer a
disadvantage in their early post-natal life. Pregnancy lasts for 114 days but will tend to be
extended slightly with sows carrying smaller letters.
3.3 BREEDING SYSTEM

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Constructive breeders are those who effect improvement through breeding and selection. This
applies to both purebred and commercial producers. Breeders can use different breeding systems
for breed improvement. The choices of the system of breeding should be determined primarily
by: * Size and quality of the herd
* Finance and skill of breeder
* Ultimate goal for which the animal is to be bred
A. PURE BREEDING: Breeding within the same breed (animals which possess a common
ancestry and distinctive characteristics).

 Inbreeding: It is the mating of animals more closely related than the average of the population
from which they come. Most scientists divide inbreeding into various categories according to
the closeness of the relationship of animals mated and the purpose of the mating. The
categories are:
i. Close breeding: Mating of closely related animals. For example, sir to daughter, son
to dam, brother to sister.
ii. Line breeding: Mating of animals more distantly related than in close breeding. For
example, half brother to half sister, female to grand sire or cousin
Advantages of inbreeding (Close breeding and Line breeding) include:
* It increases degree of homozygosity within animals
* Creates strains animals that are uniform in type and other characteristics
* Keeps the relationships of a desirable ancestor highest
* Due to greater homozygosity, it makes for greater prepotency (i.e. ability of the animals
to stamp its own characteristics on its offspring).
Disadvantages of inbreeding (Close breeding and Line breeding) are:
* Reduction in fertility
* Reduction in general vigor
* Lethal and other genetic abnormalities
 Out Crossing: It is the mating of animals that are members of the same breed,
but which show no relationship close up in the pedigree (i.e. for at least 4 – 6 generation).
B. CROSS BREEDING: Cross breeding is mating of two different breeds. This system is used
by swine producers to:

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* Increase productivity over straight breeds (as a result of heterosis)

* Provide commercial hogs with a desired combination of traits not available in any one
breed.
* Produce foundation stock for developing new breeds
The three common cross breeding systems are followed in swine production are:
1. Two-breed cross: Consists of mating purebred boars to purebred or high grade sows of
another breed. For example, Yorkshire boar X Hampshire so00w
2. Two breed backcross or criss cross: It is a system that uses two breeds alternately, is
recommended where good individuals of only two breeds are available. Boars of two
different breeds (Breeds that complement each other) are used in the alternate generation. For
example,

1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year

Pure bred Boars Duroc Yorkshire Duroc Yorkshire
X X X X
Selected Female Yorkshire Selected from Selected from Selected from
(Purebred) 1st cross 2nd cross 3rd cross

3. Three-breed rotation cross: It is the most widely used system of crossbreeding in swine
production. The optimum amount of hybrid vigor is attained with the three breed cross.
SELECTION: Pigs for breeding purpose should be selected based on certain important
characteristics which are transmitted to future generation so as that the improvement brought
about in the progeny can be permanent. Careful consideration should be given to the following
points:
 Prolificacy ♠ Feed efficiency ♠ Disease resistance
 Mothering ability ♠ Growth rate ♠ Carcass quality
 Strength of the total stock and breeding stock
 Reproductive soundness
Generally selection depends on its adaptability to the area, its merits (i.e. efficiency of
production), personal preference, its popularity in the community and local market demand.
Greater selection reach is possible with boar than gilts since in most herds one boar is selected
for every 15 -20 gilts. When selecting some traits are apparent from records of the animal and
records the relatives.

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BOAR SELECTION: In selecting breeding stock, choose boars from large litters, which is a
heritable trait. Boars from large litters will induce larger litters in sows than small litters. The
ideal number is 10 – 12 pigs per litters. Both the feed conversion and carcass quality are highly
heritable traits. It is known that the careful selection and management of boars will pave way for
increased profitability and productivity of the breeding herd. The boar should have the following
specific breed characteristics:
 Masculine
 Behavior (Docile, Aggressiveness)  Associated with reproductive potential
 Sow productivity  Litter size, Milking ability, Mothering ability, Number of pigs
farrowed and weaned, and Average birth weight in litter. Based on this select only from
those of 10 or more pigs farrowed and 8 or more pigs weaned.
 Good conformation
 Performance (Growth rate measured as gain per day from weaning to market, and feed
conversion)  Boars should reach 104 Kg at 155 days or less of age, consume about 125
Kg of feed per 45 Kg of weight gain or less between weight of 17 – 104 Kg and gain 0.9
Kg or more per day during this same time.
 Possessing light head
 Possessing neat shoulder
 Good length, Well sprung ribs
 Well-rounded hams
 Tail setting should be high and there should be no fat around it
 Legs should be squarely set
 Well developed sex organs
 Testicles should be prominent and of equal size and well descended in the scrotum.
 Reproductive soundness (Number and spacing of teats  12 – 14 uniformly spaced teats;
Free from genetic abnormalities like Hernia and Cryptorchidism)
An animal selected for breeding should be preferably young so that investments on purchase and
maintenance are less. Boars should be selected and purchased at 6 -7 months of age, and can be
used beginning at a minimum age of 8 months.

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SOW (GILT) SELECTION: Select breeding stock of gilts from litters that have a high average
weight at birth and have gained rapidly during the suckling period. Selection must be based on
production factors of economic importance. Gilts selected by the time it reach 82 – 91 Kg.
 Efficient feed conversion (Fast growing)
 A feminine appearance with smooth shoulder, wide, well-muscled loins
 Excellent hair coat
 Capacious chest
 Middle with wide deep sides
 A strong well arched back, and should be lean having 3 cm less back fat (i.e. determined
by lean meter and ultrasonic or probing methods)
 With medium long legs and straight pasterns
 Well developed udder (With 12 or 14 sound teats)  Prominent and well spaced
(Uniformly) teat  Functional teats to nurse a large number of litters
 Reproductive soundness  No anatomical defects of reproductive organs
The animals may be selected at the age of about 6 – 8 months.
Chapter Four
Swine nutrition (Feeding of Swine)
Knowledge of feeding swine is important from economic standpoint because feed accounts for
approximately 65-75% of the total cost of producing pork. In all livestock normally kept under
confinement, feed cost ranges between 55-75% of the total cost of production. For this reason,
every swine producer should endeavor to provide a ration that is both satisfactory & inexpensive.
Extensive survey indicated that 15% of all sow bred fail to give birth to young, and 25-30% of
all pigs farrowed fail to live to weaning age. These could be attributed to:
 Reproductive failure
 Nutritional deficiency
 Diseases

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Nutrition- is a science of the interaction of nutrients with some part of living organism.
Swine is monogastric animal; they do not have micro flora in their digestive tract. Due to
this they need ration in concentrate form since they can’t digest large quantities of fibrous
feed.

Chapter Five
Housing of Swine
The housing of domestic animals is carried out for several different purposes:
 To keep them under control for the purposes of:
 To provide places where they can be conveniently fed
 Doctored and examined under conditions convenient for the human attendants
 To reduce stress of environment conditions such as extremes of heat and cold, dampness
and general interference so that the animal can devote a maximum amount of its feed
and is native energy to produce what its owners require of it.
Unlike cattle and sheep, pigs are poorly provided with hair to effectively protect against loss of
heat. The starting point in designing hog building is the selection of a production system with a
choice between the pasture system, combined pasture and confinement and complete
confinement. Then the plans and specifications adapted to the selected system are made. There is
no standard type or system of housing. Pig raisers in different countries in the tropics use

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different designs, but they have adopted certain similar principles and practices related to the
choice of housing.
In deciding what kind of pig house to construct, pig producers should consider a house:
 That reduces labor input
 Increases efficiency in management & operation
 Consider the ease and degree to which good sanitation can be achieved in the house
 Climatic condition of the area
Pig raisers/producers adopt a housing system appropriate to:
 The size and extent of the operation, as back yard, small scale, medium and large scale
 Capital and demand for pigs in the area
 The reliability of the farm in the future (demand)
Before the pig raiser decide the numbers and types of housing, it is necessary to classify the
kinds of stock for which housing is required depending on the objective of the farm. The stock
can be categorized as:
A/ Breeding stock
 Young breeding gilts
 In-pig sows
 Suckling sow
 Dry sow
 Boars
 Piglets (litters)
B/ Feeding stock (pigs)
 Weaned (growing)
 Finished pigs
1. Farrowing house: in confinement operation, it is used for care and protection of sows and
baby pigs during farrowing and until weaning. It should be designed in such a way that it:
a. is individually pened
b. possess farrowing rail to confine the sow and prevent the sow from laying
on the piglets & keep the piglets away from the sow
c. possess nest & creep-an enclosure or feeder used for supplementing nursing
young

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d. possess feeding & water troughs

2. Nurseries: growing, finishing and gestating (pregnant) houses are included here as nursery
house. Some producers combine two or more of these units in one building. For example, it is
common to have the growing & finishing operation in one building and farrowing and nurseries
in a combined form.
3. Boar house- is a house used:
 for controlled breeding
 should protect the boar from heat (affect the libido and semen quality)
 it must be strongly built
4. Dry sow pens:
5. Weaned pigs pen (decking)- decking refers to housing of weaned pigs
In specialized building, hogs move progressively from one building to another as:
Farrowing Nursery Growing Finishing
Along with these structures, there should also be
 feed troughs
 water troughs
 vaccinating racks
 castrating racks
 weighing chute
 loading
 wallows, sprinklers-hogs have very few sweat glands thus they can not cool themselves
by respiration
 manure disposal
Chapter Six
Swine Health Care
Pig diseases and their control methods
One of the major problems confronting the pork producers in the tropics is the high pig mortality
rate due to diseases. Keeping a hard healthy and disease free can mean the difference between
profitable and un-profitable operation. This is because if the animal is not kept free from disease,
it cannot produce the products to its maximum potential, affect the profit of the farm. Swine men
should also be well informed relative to the relationship of swine diseases & parasites to other

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classes of animals and human health, because many of them are transmissible between species.
Some of the infectious diseases affecting swine are of special significance because the organisms
are also pathogenic to human beings.

There are oven 90 different types of infectious and parasitic diseases that can be spread from
animals to human beings (zoonotic disease). Examples are Brucellosis, leptospirosis, Erysipelas
and Tuberculosis are common in both swine and human.
Specific diseases of the sow
Certain infectious diseases frequently cause abortion, the birth of weak piglets and high mortality
rate among the newly born pigs.
1. Brucellosis-caused by spp. Brucellosis (in swine)
- Brucella abortis (in cattle)
- Brucella melitensis (in goats). These three species are pathogenic to human
being.
Symptom:- Abortion (especially during 2 or 3 months of pregnancy)
-intermittent fever in affected animal
-irregular estrous
Mode of transmission-during copulation (from male to female)
-feed and water contaminated with body discharge
Prevention- strict sanitation
-isolation at the time of parturition
Treatment-no treatment, but culling the already infected animal
2. Leptospirosis (Skin Abrasion)-not common in tropics
Symptoms- abortion occur2-4 weeks before farrowing
-large number of weaklings with high mortality rate
Cause: leptospria Pomona bacteria
Control: vaccination is both economical and efficient.
3. Mastitis and Agalactia: they are difficult to control
-they cause starvation of baby pigs.
Mastitis: is an inflammation or infection of the mammary gland.

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Agalactia: is manifested by a failure of the sow to produce milk (production of little

milk)
Problems of lactation failure (decrease in milk production) may be due to
 Environmental factors-poor nutrition or temperature
 Genetic make-up inherent hormonal deficiency
4. Metritis: a non-specific infection resulting in an inflammation of the uterus. It can be
caused from several factors of reproduction used such as mating, pregnancy, abortion,
retention of placenta or dead pigs that cause blood poisoning in sows.
 This brings sterility
Clinical signs: become evident 2-5 dams after farrowing
-a sticky whitish-yellow discharge from vulva
Treatment: flushing of the genitalia with mild anti-septics
-careful insertion of the uterine tablets
-injection of anti-biotics
A good health condition results not only in the reduction of loss of the productive and
reproductive performance but also reduces loss of the life animals (increase survival of animal)
thereby increase the overall economy of the farm.
Other disease of swine
1. African swine fever: viral disease
Very difficult to control since no appropriate cure or effective serum or vaccine has never
been found. It is fatal –stop eating, depressed and lies in one side and refuse to move.
Mode of transmission: easily spread through contamination. The virus is present in all
organs, blood and other secretions of the animal’s body.
2. Hog Cholera (swine fever): viral disease. It is the most serious tropical pig disease and is
characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates.
Symptoms: partial or complete loss of appetite
: fever (40-410C) normal T0 =38.7-39.8 with an average of 39.2 0C
: dropping head
Prevention: immunization using effective vaccine
Treatment: anti-hog cholera serum –an immunizing agent with anti-bodies against hog
cholera has a curative effect when used at early stage of the disease.

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3. Pneumonia: respiratory disease

Predisposing factors-poor nutrition, parasite infestation and poor management.
Adverse environmental factors such as high ambient T 0, high humidity, inadequate
ventilation in the house.
4. Swine influenza
5. Erysipelas: an acute or chronic infectious disease of swine.
Symptoms: high fever, edema of nose, ears and limbs. Edema of the nose causes affected
animal to breath a snoring sound.
6. Transmissible gastroenteritis: is a sporadic disease of pigs of all ages and kills many pigs
under 10 days old.
 The losses are less in older pigs
 Caused by a filterable virus
Symptoms: vomiting and profuse diarrhea are common
-death losses vary from 100% in one-week old pigs up to 40-60% in two weeks old
pigs.
Treatment: no effective treatment
Parasitic disease; hogs are probably more affected by parasites than any other class of livestock
with exception of sheep.
1. External parasites: hog menge (mites), lice, ticks and fleas.
2. Internal parasites-round worms-ascaris and kidney worm.
-tape worm-common tapeworm in swine is called Tania solium
-Lung- worms etc….

Chapter Seven
Grading & Marketing of Product

10. 1. Grading carcass and meat quality

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Every country has its own system of assessing carcass quality, which usually involves grading
and determines the price paid to the product. There are four main considerations;
 Conformation: - this refers to the shape of the carcass. Those that are poorly developed
in the more valuable areas, such as the hams and loins, are downgraded. Conformation is
mainly genetically controlled, but can be influenced by nutrition.
 Degree of fatness: - the amount of fat in the carcass is normally estimated by measuring
the amount of subcutaneous fat cover at a set position. The fat measurement that qualifies
a carcass for top grade will then be decided according to the market demand.
 Lean content of the carcass: - a major fault of carcass grading system based on
measuring the fat cover is that no account is taken of the amount of lean meat in the
carcass. In fact the meatier pigs in a group will often have the heaviest fat cover and will
be downgraded. Recently equipment has been developed that can measure muscle depth
in the carcass and estimate the total lean content. As result, systems that grade carcass
according to the degree of lean meat in the carcass are now in operation in some
developing countries.
 Fat quality: - carcass exhibiting a soft and oily, rather than hard, fat cover will tend to be
downgraded b/c they cannot be used in the higher priced fresh or cured meat product. The
cause of soft fat can be genetic, but is more likely to be due to high proportion of
unsaturated fats in the diet. Uneven growth rates causing frequent mobilization re-
deposition of fat can also contributing factors.

Meat quality (as distinct from carcass quality) is a measure of the desirability of the meat for
the consumer. It is related to color, texture, flavor and odor. Pig meat is characterically paler
and tenderer than the meat of ruminants, but extreme do occur. Very pale, watery meat is
associated with the condition known as pale, soft, exudative muscle, which occurs in pig that
are homozygous for the halothane gene or as a consequence of poor pre-slaughter than
handling, or both. Such carcass show rapid decrease acidity at slaughter, which reduces the
water-holding capacity of the lean tissue, leading to drip loss from the meat and excessive
paleness. At the other extreme is a condition known as dry, firm dark muscles, which can be
attributed directly to pre-slaughter stress. As the age at which pigs are slaughter increases
there is corresponding reduction in the paleness and tenderness of the meat produced.

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Meat texture can be influenced by the amount of intramuscular or marbling fat deposited.
This can be increase from 1 percent in lean pigs to about 3 percent in fat pigs can improve
the succulence and eating quality of the meat. The duroc breed tends to have higher
percentage breed and its carcass will thus have a relatively higher meat quality.
Pig meat can pick up flavor from s from the diet, particularly if high levels of fish meals from
or rancid fats are fed. However, the main concern is boar taint, which can occur in the meat
from entire males. The problem does not occur if entire males destined for slaughter are
grown out fast enough to allow them to be slaughter at less than 6 month of age.

10.2. Marketing of products

Private sales are the most common marketing method in the tropics among small scale
producers. One or a number of pigs are sold to local consumers, other products, butchers or
middlemen. The pigs are sold live and the price is genetically subjected to negotiation. This
system has the advantage of being the simplest, but in the rural areas individual who are not
aware of current price can be taken advantage of by speculators and dealers. Marketing co-
operative have been formed in some rural areas to overcome this problem and ensure
members achieved adequate prices, small scale producers may also take advantage of public
scales, which involve taking the pigs to a central marketplace where they are sold by auction
on a live basis to the highest bidder.
Direct selling to an abattoir or butchery is more applicable to the larger scale producer. The
big disadvantage of direct sales the effect of the pig cycle. This is the notorious fluctuation in
price that occurs in most countries as the result of fluctuation in supply. When pigs are in
short supply, price raise. This, in turn stimulates increased production, more pigs become
available and consequently, price fall. As it takes about a year for producer to react to price
change, the cycle will occur every 12 to 18 months, leading to lack of stability with process
going in and out of pig production. Large scale producers are advised to pursue contract
scales. These involve entering into a contract with an abattoir to supply a certain number of
pigs over a certain period at a set price, and largely protect the producer from the effect of the
pig cycle. In turn this. Allows him to plan his production output over a longer period.
New marketing opportunity

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Traditionally, pig meat has provided a wide variety of marketable products and opportunity
must be taken to exploit this to the maximum in the developing market situation. In this
respect, there is a need to tailor pig production towards specific end products and markets.
Some opportunities include the following;
 Overall promotion of the qualities of pig meat, emphasizing the nutritional and health
benefits to the consumer.
 Providing the quality expectation of visiting consumers from the developed word
(tourism, businessmen, and expatriates). This requires low level of subcutaneous fat,
firm white fat, good meat texture and succulence.
 Increasing variety of products by more processing, especially of the cheaper cuts.
 Providing small portion of low-income urban consumers.
 Exploring niche markets, e.g. the trend towards ‘organically produced meat’. Tropical
producers are well placed to take advantage of this market due to more expensive,
‘welfare-friendly’ systems of production low use of drugs and chemicals, etc.
Chapter Eight

Record keeping of swine

Objectives of Record Keeping

Record keeping is an essential part of good livestock and farm business management. Recording
can be done most easily if animals have some form of identification. Thus, animal recording and
identification are inseparable. There are two main objectives of animal identification and
recording:
• To identify animals belonging to a particular owner; proof of ownership.
• To use as a management tool to:
¨ undertake performance evaluation,
¨ perform genetic selection,
¨ keep proper health records,
¨ accurately measure production and reproduction, and¨ perform other important management
functions required to run an effective and efficient farm enterprise.
Establishment of a national livestock data-recording system is important for a uniform
development of recording and analysis procedures. The national recording system should:

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• be uniformly used throughout the country.

• be simple to implement and use.
• allow identification of the best and poorest management procedures.
• provide information necessary to make management decisions.
• provide data for research, policy development and extension.
• help in implementing genetic improvement programs.
Effective, reliable and traceable identification and recording systems for live animals and animal
products could enable national or international bodies to rapidly respond to disease outbreaks
and bio-safety concerns. This will help to identify the source or sources of the problem,
understand its implications and take appropriate measures.

Records are essential for monitoring both technical and economic efficiency of the pig
enterprise; they should cover all aspects so that producers can evaluate boar performance, saw
productivity, weaner growth and grower/finisher efficiency. Looking at the recent history of the
enterprise enables each phase of production to examine critically and weakness can be
pinpointed. It is then possible to plan how to rectify any weakness.
 All records should include the identifying of animal; boar, sow date of birth and breed, if
especially different breeds are kept in the farm.
 Many different record systems available, these are:-
1. Growth records: - includes, weaning weight, weight at birth, weight at different age etc.
2. Production record: - includes; carcass weight, weight at slaughtering, weight of lean. On
day slaughtering the animal should be weighed in the morning, the carcass weighed after
complete breeding.
3. Reproduction record: - reproduction record is important for decision making on the herd
breeding operations like when and which animal to breed, animal to culled, herd
projection and the profitability of the enterprise.
 Important records to be kept are:-
 Age at first farrowing
 First mating and the identity of sire used
 Farrowing age and normal farrowing
 Conception rates from pregnancy diagnosis

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 Return to heat after farrowing

 Farrowing interval
4. Health records: - includes; calendar of performing different health control measures
together with actual dates of performing the measures. Diseases control measures to be
recorded should include vaccination, parasite control, etc.
5. Feed consumption: This is difficult to estimate on farms where animals graze, but for
capital-intensive farm businesses, such as finishing or fattening operations, the amount of
concentrate fed should be recorded to calculate profitability. Feed record:-amount of feed
consume per day and daily body weight gain etc should be recorded.

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