Mechanical properties of materials

Composites lecture 3

Stephen Lee

Page 1
Outline

• Introduction
• Particle-reinforced Composites
• Fiber-reinforced Composites
• Structural Composites

Page 2
Definition of Advanced Composite Materials

 A combination of materials differing in composition or form on a macroscale. The

constituents retain their identities in the composite; that is, they do not dissolve or merge
completely into each other. However, they act in concert with one another normally, and
individual component can be physically identified and lead to an interface between
components. Advanced composites feature two elements, see Fig..

Fig Continuous Fibers with Thermoset Resin

Why Composites

 High Strength-to-Density Ratio

 High Stiffness-to-Density Ratio
 Formable to Complex Shape
 Non-conductive and conductive
 Corrosion Resistance
 Improve Fatigue Resistance
 Improve Creep-Lifetime
 Controlled (Low) Thermal Expansion
 Lower Manufacturing Coast
- Part Count Reduction
- Less Machining and Secondary Fabrication
Introduction – Application (1)

Page 5
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long-range, mid-size wide-body, twin-engine jet airliner developed by
Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Its variants seat 210 to 330 passengers. Boeing states that it is the
company's most fuel-efficient airliner and the world's first major airliner to use composite materials as
the primary material in the construction of its airframe.
Page 6
 Composites replacing Metals are taking-off in the Boing 787 Dreamliner

Ultralight composites results in the reduction of :

 80% in fasteners
 30-40% in assembly time
 30% in maintenance cost
 20% in fuel usage and emissions
Page 7
Introduction – Application (2)

GFRP: Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymers CFRP: Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

Page 8
Terminology/Classification

• Composite:
-- Multiphase material that is artificially
made.

• Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous or continuous and
surrounded by matrix

Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a), Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

9
Terminology/Classification

• Matrix phase: woven

-- Purposes are to: fibers
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC
0.5 mm
metal ceramic polymer cross
section
• Dispersed phase: view
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase σy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase KIc
0.5 mm
PMC: increase E, σy, TS, creep resist.
Reprinted with permission from
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to
Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.

10
Introduction

Two phase composites:

 Matrix is the continuous phase
and surrounds the other phase
 Reinforcement is the dispersed
phase, which normally bears the
majority of stress

Classification of composites
 Particle reinforced: large,
dispersion strengthened
 Fibre reinforced: continuous,
discontinuous (short)
 Structural: laminates, sandwich
panel
Page 11
Introduction – Classification Scheme for the
Composites

Page 12
Part II
Particle-reinforced Composites

Part II

Particle-reinforced Composites

Page 13
Composite Survey: Particle-I

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles:
ferrite (a) cementite
steel
(ductile) (Fe 3 C )
(brittle)
60 mm

- WC/Co matrix: particles:

cemented cobalt WC
(ductile) (brittle,
carbide
Vm : hard)
10-15 vol%! 600 mm

- Automobile matrix: particles:

tires rubber C
(compliant) (stiffer)

0.75 mm
Page 14
Classifications

 Large-particle
– The particulate phase is harder and stiff
than the matrix material
– The particles are of macroscopic scale, and
restrain the movement of matrix, which
transfer the applied load to the particles
– The improvement of mechanical behaviour
depends on the interface bonding
– Examples:
 Cermets: ceramic-metal composites (WC or
TiC reinforced cobalt or nickel) for cutting tool
applications
 Concrete (aggregate-gravel and sand-
reinforced cement)
 SiC or Al2O3 particle reinforced Al matrix.
 Tires contain 15-30 Vol% carbon black
particles with diameters between 20 and 50
nm to enhance tensile strength, toughness,
tear and abrasion resistance.

Page 15
Classification: Particle-Reinforced (ii)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete – gravel + sand + cement + water

- Why sand and gravel? Sand fills voids between gravel particles

Reinforced concrete – Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete
- Rebar/remesh placed under tension during setting of concrete
- Release of tension after setting places concrete in a state of compression
- To fracture concrete, applied tensile stress must exceed this
compressive stress

Posttensioning – tighten nuts to place concrete under compression

threaded
rod
nut

16
Large-Particle Composites

 For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and

evenly distributed throughout the matrix
 Volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior
 Rule of mixtures to express the elastic modulus, Ec
Ec = EpVp + EmVm
where the subscripts c, p and m refer to composite, particle and matrix,
respectively

• Application to other properties:

-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace E in equations with
se .
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E in equations with k.

Page 17
Part III
Fiber-reinforced Composites

Part III

Fiber-reinforced Composites

Page 18
Fibre-reinforced Composites (FRC)

 Mechanical properties of FRC depend on

– Fiber properties

– Degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix

phase: good interfacial bond between fiber and matrix is necessary

 Design goals of FRPs

– High strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis

– Specific strength = ratio of tensile strength to specific gravity

– Specific modulus = ratio of elastic modulus to specific gravity

Page 19
Stress transfer

d 2 d 2
 F  s
x f  ds f 
4
s f
4
  d dx  0

4
ds f  dx
d

x 4 4
sf  dx  x
0 d d

There are two ends in a fiber and the maximum

Stresses acting on a differential stress occurs at the fiber middle, x=L/2
element of fiber

Page 20
Influence of Fibre Length (2)

 Definition of continuous
fiber: l >> l c (normally l >>
15 l c)
 l < l c  matrix deforms
around the fiber such that
there is virtually no stress
transfer and little
reinforcement by the fiber

s (x)
s (x)

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

Page 21
Influence of Fibre Length (1)

Critical Transfer Length

– Minimum fibre length above which
the fibre axial stress reaches its
tensile strength.
– Critical fibre length is necessary for
effective strengthening and
stiffening

s *f d
lc =
2 c
sf* = ultimate fiber tensile strength
d = fiber diameter,
c = fiber-matrix interface bond strength

Page 22
Critical length of continuous fiber

Longitudinal tensile loading of a unidirectional continuous fiber lamina.

23
Critical length of continuous fiber

 An infinitesimal length at a distance from one

of the fiber ends. The force equilibrium equation
for this length is

24
Critical length of continuous fiber

 Which on simplification gives

(3.11)

where

= longitudinal stress in the fiber at a distance from one of its

ends

= shear stress at the fiber-matrix interface

= fiber diameter
25
Critical length of continuous fiber

 Assuming no stress transfer at the fiber ends, that is

at and integrating Equation 3.11, we
determine the longitudinal stress distribution in the
fiber as
(3.12)

26
Critical length of continuous fiber

 For simple analysis, let us assume that the interfacial shear

stress is constant and is equal to . With this assumption,
integration of Equation 3.12 gives

(3.13)

 From Equation 3.13, it can be observed that for a composite lamina

containing discontinuous fibers, the fiber stress is not uniform.
According to Equation 3.13, it is zero at each end of the fiber (i.e.,
) and it increases linearly with .
27
Critical length of continuous fiber

 The maximum fiber stress occurs at the central portion of the

fiber. The maximum fiber stress that can be achieved at a
given load is
(3.14)

 Where load transfer length from each fiber end.

Thus, the load transfer length, , is minimum fiber length in
which the maximum fiber stress is achieved.

28
Critical length of continuous fiber

 For a given fiber diameter and fiber-matrix interfacial condition,

a critical fiber length is calculated from Equation 3.14 as

(3.15)

where

= ultimate tensile strength of the fiber

= minimum fiber length required for the maximum fiber

stress to be equal to the ultimate tensile strength of the
fiber at its midlength

= shear strength of the fiber-matrix interface or the shear 29

Critical length of continuous fiber

Significance of critical fiber length on the longitudinal stresses of a continuous

fiber.
30
Influence of Fiber Orientation and
Concentration

 Better overall composite properties are realized when the fiber

distribution is continuously and aligned than discontinuously and aligned
or randomly oriented
Page 31
Tensile Stress-Strain Behavior
Longitudinal Loading

 Assumption:
– Fracture strains *m > *f
 Stage I
– Both fibers and matrix deform linear
elastically
 Stage II
– Matrix yields and starts deforming plastically,
while fibers continue to stretch elastically
– Nearly linear, with diminished slope relative
to Stage I
– Proportion of the applied load acting upon the
fibers increases
 Stage III
– Composite fails as the fibers start to fracture
– Composite failure is not catastrophic
 Not all fibers fracture at the same time due to
variation in fracture strength
 Even after fibers fail, the matrix can still intact
(*m > *f ) for a low fibre Vf
Page 32
Elastic Behavior-Longitudinal Loading

When load is applied along the

longitudinal direction
Fc = Fm + Ff

sc Ac = sm Am + sf Af

sc = sm Am/Ac + sf Af/Ac= sm
Vm + sf Vf

c = m = f (for an
isostrain state)

sc/c = sm/m Vm + sf/f Vf

Ecl = EmVm + EfVf = Em(1 - Vf)

+ E f Vf

Page 33
Equation 16.11

Verify that the expression for the fiber load-matrix load ratio
(Ff /Fm), is valid.

In order to show that the relationship in Equation 16.11 is valid, we begin with Equation 16.4
𝐹 =𝐹 +𝐹

Which may be manipulated to the form

𝐹 𝐹
= 1+
𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 𝐹
𝑜𝑟 = −1
𝐹 𝐹

Page 34
Equation 16.11

For elastic deformation, combining Equations 8.1 and 8.5

𝐹
𝜎= = 𝜖𝐸
𝐴

or 𝐹 = 𝐴𝜖𝐸

We may write expressions for Fc and Fm of the above form as

𝐹 = 𝐴 𝜖𝐸

𝐹 = 𝐴 𝜖𝐸

which, when substituted into the above expression for Ff / Fm, gives

𝐹 𝐴 𝜖𝐸
= −1
𝐹 𝐴 𝜖𝐸

Page 35
Equation 16.11

But, Vm = Am / Ac, which, upon rearrangement gives

𝐴 1
=
𝐴 𝑉

which, when substituted into the previous expression leads to

𝐹 𝐸
= −1
𝐹 𝐸 𝑉

Also, from Equation 16.10a, 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑉 + 𝐸 𝑉 ,which, when substituted for Ec into the previous
expression, yields

𝐹 𝐸 𝑉 +𝐸 𝑉
= −1
𝐹 𝐸 𝑉

𝐸 𝑉 +𝐸 𝑉 −𝐸 𝑉 𝐸𝑉
= = the desired result.
𝐸 𝑉 𝐸 𝑉 Page 36
Example Problem 16.1

Page 37
Example Problem 16.1

Page 38
Example Problem 16.1

Page 39
Example Problem 16.1

Page 40
Example Problem 16.1

Page 41
Example Problem 16.1

Page 42
Elastic Behaviour-Transverse Loading

When the aligned fibre composite is

loaded in the transverse direction, the
stress is assumed the same in both
phases (isostress state):
sc = sm = sf = s

The strain of composite is

c = mVm+ f Vf

sc/Ect = (sm/Em) Vm + (sf/Ef) Vf (since

 = s/E)

1/Ect = Vm/Em + Vf/Ef Em E f

E ct =
Vm E f  V f E m

Page 43
Example Problem 16.2

Page 44
 Longitudinal Tensile & Transverse Strength

Longitudinal Tensile Strength – maximum stress that a composite can

sustain: (assuming *m > *f )
s*cl = s’m (1 - Vf ) + s*fVf
s’m is the stress in the matrix at fibre failure
s*f is the fibre tensile strength
Transverse Tensile Strength
 The strength of continuous and unidirectional fibre composites is highly anisotropic.
Transverse tensile strength is much lower than the longitudinal tensile strength of
composites, often lower than the matrix tensile strength

Page 45
The Fiber Phase (1)

 Small diameter fiber is much stronger than the bulk material

– The probability of the presence of a critical flaw decreases with decreasing
specimen volume
 Fiber Classifications:
– Whiskers: very thin single crystals with very large length to diameter ratio,
high degree of crystalline perfection and very high strength. e.g. graphite,
SiC, Si3N4 , Al2O3 ,
– Fibers: Polycrystalline or amorphous with small diameter. Either polymer
or ceramic. E.g. carbon, aramid, UNMWPE, B, SiC, Al2O3
– Wires: large diameter steel, Mo. W for radial reinforcement for automobile
tires, filament-would rocket casings, wire-wound high pressure hoses.

Page 46
Matrix Phase

 Continuous phase
 Metal (MMC), polymer (PMC) or ceramic (CMC)
-- Purpose of reinforcements: enhance matrix properties.
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resistance.
CMC: increase Kc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resistance
 Functions
– Binds the fiber together
– Load transfer to the fibers
– Protect the fibers from surface damage due to abrasion or chemical attacks
– Prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from fiber to fiber
– High bonding strength between fiber and matrix is important

Page 47
Benefits of Composites

• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r

Force ceramics
particle-reinf 3
10
E(GPa) PMCs
10 2
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
K=E
.01
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10
-4 Density, r [mg/m3]
-1 6061 Al
 ss (s )
• MMCs: -6
10
Increased
creep -8
10 6061 Al
resistance
w/SiC
whiskers
-10 s (MPa)
10
20 30 50 100 200 Page 48
Polymer-Matrix Composites

 Consists of a polymer resin as the matrix

 Being used in the greatest diversity and
largest quantities
 Glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites
(GFRPs)
– Produced in the largest quantities
 Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites
(CFRPs)
– High performance composites
 Aramid fiber-reinforced polymer composites
(AFRPs)
– High strength, high modulus & high impact
resistance composites

Page 49
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

E-glass fibers:
 Easy to manufacture, strong (high specific strength),
chemical resistance
 A coupling agent is used to promote a bond with
matrix material
 Use temperature is limited below 200C due to
polymer flow
 Some GFRPs (with high purity fused silica for glass
fibres and polyimide) can be used up to 300C
 Major applications
– Automotive, marine vehicle bodies, pipes, storage
containers, industrial flooring

Page 50
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP)

Carbon fibers:
 High specific modulus and specific strength even at
high temperature
 Have a diversity of physical and mechanical
properties
 Insensitive to moisture, solvents, acids, bases at
room temp.
 Composed of crystalline hexagonal carbon network
and amorphous regions
 Three different organic precursors: rayon,
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch
 Classification of carbon fibers: standard,
intermediate, high, and ultrahigh tensile modulus
fibers
 Diameter: 4 to 10 mm, coated with epoxy size to
improve adhesion with matrix
 Major Applications: aircraft structural components,
sporting goods, rocket motor cases, pressure
vessels, etc.
Page 51
Aramid-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (AFRP)
Composites

Aramid fibers (Kevlar, Kevlar 19, 49, 149)

 Thermoplastic material: poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide (PPTA)
 Rigid molecules in the fibre axis, hydrogen bond between adjacent chains
 High tensile properties and weak compressive properties.
 High toughness, impact resistance, resistance to creep and fatigue
 Mechanically stable between –200 and 200C; chemically susceptible to degradation by strong
acids and bases.
Major applications
 Bullet-proof vests, sporting goods, ropes, missile cases, pressure vessels, automobile brakes
and clutch linings

Page 52
53
Properties of Continuous and Aligned Glass-,
Carbon- and Aramid-Fiber Reinforced Epoxy-
Matrix Composites

Page 54
Polymer Matrix Materials

 Polyester & vinylester resins

– low cost applications

 Epoxies
– for aerospace application due to the better resistant against moisture and
mechanical properties

 Polyimide
– higher temperature applications

 Thermoplastics
– Ultra high temperature application like polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) & polyetherimide (PEI)

Page 55
Metal-Matrix Composites (MMC) (1)

 The matrix is usually a ductile metal relative to the fillers

 The reinforcement may improve specific strength/stiffness, abrasion
resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity and dimensional
stability of the overall composites
 Advantages over PMC
– Higher operating temperatures
– Non-flammability
– Greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids
 Disadvantages
– Expensive & higher density

Page 56
Metal-Matrix Composites (MMC) (2)

 Matrix materials
– Superalloy (e.g. single crystal Ni
based alloys), Al, Mg, Ti, Cu
 Reinforcements
– C, SiC, B, Al2O3 fibers, SiC, Al2O3
particles
Applications:
 Automobile engine components
 Aerospace structures (e.g. space
shuttle orbiter, telescope made from
B or C fibers-Al matrix composites)
 Turbine engines (SiC,C fiber-
superalloy composites)

Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites

Page 57
Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMC) (1)

Re-entry T
 For use in high temperature and
severe stress applications, e.g. Distribution
automobile and aircraft gas turbine
engines
 Advantages
– High strength and modulus reinf C-C silica tiles nylon felt, silicon rubber

– Very high service temperature (1650°C) (400-1260°C) coating (400°C)

– Reduced weight (decreased fuel

consumption)
 Disadvantages
– Inherent brittleness with very low
toughness (15 MPa m1/2)

Page 58
 Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMC) (1)

Thermal Protection System of Space Shuttle

• Silica tiles (400-1260C):

-- large scale application -- microstructure:

~90% porosity!
Si fibers
bonded to one
another during
heat treatment.

100 mm
Fig. 19.3W, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.3W courtesy the National Aeronautics and Fig. 19.4W, Callister 5e. (Fig. 219.4W courtesy Lockheed Aerospace Ceramics
Space Administration.) Systems, Sunnyvale, CA.)

59
Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMC) (2)

Transformation toughening in
partially stabilised ZrO2
– Addition of stabilizers such as
CaO, MgO, Y2O3 and CeO
– The stress field in front of crack tip
allows transformation from
tetragonal to monoclinic phase
– The particle volume increase
induces compressive stresses that
close the crack tip and arrest its
growth

Page 60
Carbon-Carbon Composites (1)

C fibers:
very stiff
very strong

(b)
C matrix:
less stiff
less strong
view onto plane

fibers lie
in plane
(a)

 Impregnation of carbon fibre preform with polymer resin (phenolic)

 The resin is ‘pyrolized’ to convert into carbon and remove other gasses like O2, H2
and N2
 High temperature treatment results in a material consisting of original carbon fibre
and pyrolized carbon matrix with high density and strength.
Page 61
Carbon-Carbon Composites (2)

Advantages
 Retention of high strength-modulus at high
temp (over 2000C)
 Resistance to creep
 Higher fracture toughness than most
CMCs
 High resistance to thermal shock
Disadvantage
 Potential to high temp oxidation
Major Applications
 Space shuttle heat shields, leading edges,
rocket motors
 Nuclear reactor components
 Brake assembly for commercial airliners
(high friction and low wear rate)

Page 62
Hybrid Composites

 Two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix

 Better all-around combination of properties than composites containing

only a single fiber type

 A variety of fiber combinations and matrix materials

Page 63
Processing of Fibre-reinforced Composites

 Ideal Conditions
– Uniformly distributed fibers within the plastic matrix

– All oriented in the same direction

 Three techniques to be discussed:

– Pultrusion

– Prepreg

– Filament Winding

Page 64
Pultrusion

 The process involves drawing the reinforcement through a bath of liquid

resin and then directly and continuously through a heated die to produce
a continuous section
 Advantages
– Excellent mechanical properties
– Very good fibre alignment
– Very high fibre volume fraction
– Continuous process-automatic
– Versatile fibre form: unidirectional roving, tapes, woven cloths or mats
Page 65
Prepreg Production Processes

 Fibre bundles are sandwiched and

pressed between sheets of release
paper which are precoated with a
thin film of resin and carrier paper:
"calendering“
 Prepregs should be stored at 0C
or lower to avoid unwanted curing
reactions
 Most widely used for structural
applications in the aerospace
industries

Page 66
Filament Winding

 The continuous filament is wound onto a mandrel in layers of different angles to form
the composite.
Two types of patterns
– Helical winding: constant angle
– Bi-axial winding: two or more separate winding angles
Advantages
– Ideal for mass production of simple axi-symmetric shapes (e.g. tubes)
– Amenable to computer control (CAD/CAM)
– moderate production cost, low labour
– Adaptable to thermoplastic matrix composites (commingled yarn can be continuously welded)
Disadvantage
– high capital cost Page 67
Part IV
Structural Composites

Part IV

Structural Composites

Page 68
Structural Composites

• Laminar composites: Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Page 69
70
71
Classification: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Laminates -
-- stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
- benefit: balanced in-plane stiffness Adapted from Fig.
16.16, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

• Sandwich panels
-- honeycomb core between two facing sheets
- benefits: low density, large bending stiffness

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Fig. 16.18, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Reprinted with permission from Engineered
Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
72
Summary

• Composites types are designated by:

-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement (particles, fibers, structural)

• Composite property benefits:

-- MMC: enhanced E, σ, creep performance
-- CMC: enhanced KIc
-- PMC: enhanced E/ρ, σy, TS/ρ

• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Types: large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
-- Properties are isotropic

• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Types: continuous (aligned) discontinuous (aligned or random)
-- Rule of Mixture can accurately predict the longitudinal and transverse modulus of
continuous fiber reinforced matrix

• Structural:
-- Laminates and sandwich panels 73
Example Problem 16.3

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Example Problem 16.3

Page 75
Example Problem 16.3

Page 76
Example Problem 16.3

Page 77
Example Problem 16.3

Page 78
Example Problem 16.3

Page 79
Example Problem 16.3

Page 80