1

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
(A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)

PUDUCHERRY-605014

M.Sc. Food Science & Technology

FS&T512 Packaging Technology

Second Year

Contents:
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Chapter 1: Introduction to packaging

Chapter 2: Packaging materials and their properties
Chapter 3: Package forms
Chapter 4: Wrap and closure
Chapter 5: Shipping/transportation containers/containers for distribution (secondary package)
Chapter 6: Special Packaging systems
Chapter 7: Introduction to active packaging, antimicrobial packaging, protective edible coating
Chapter 8: Properties/characteristics of foods, their packaging requirement and packaging
methods
Chapter 9: Product package compatibility
Chapter 10: Testing and evaluation of packaging materials and package performance
Chapter 11: Shelf life of packaged food and its determination
Chapter 12: Quality control and legislative aspects of packaging
Chapter 13: Waste management
Suggested literature

Chapter 1: Introduction to packaging

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(Development of packaging as science and technology, definition, packaging operations,

principle of packaging, levels of packaging, packaging chain, hazards, functions of packaging,
packaging design)

Food packaging today has been an integral part of food production as almost all food is
marketed as packaged. Food packaging has evolved as science and technology, is
interdisciplinary in nature, since knowledge of polymer science, metals, glass, paper, properties
of food and physics and engineering is applicable in food packaging, and it has evolved to give
solutions to various hazards of food during packaging chain.

Definitions

Packaging:

1. Packaging is an operation that ensures delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer in the
best condition intended for their use.
2. Packaging is function of enclosing products in containers to perform one or more of the
functions of containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and
performance.
3. Packaging is a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution,
retailing and end use i.e. a means of ensuring delivery of product to the ultimate
consumer in sound condition.

Distinction between package, packing and packaging

 Package: Package is a physical entity that contains or encloses a product.

 Packing: It is act of enclosing an item or several items in a package.

 Packaging: Packaging is an operation which generally, apart from packing serves other
functions as to take necessary care of the product till it is consumed.

Levels of packaging:
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1. Primary package: It is in direct contact with the product. For example, a product in can
(canned food).

2. Secondary package: It contains number of primary packages. For example, a fibre board
box containing several of cans.

3. Tertiary package: It is made up of number of secondary packages. For example, a

stretch-wrapped pallet of fibre board boxes of canned food.

4. Quaternary package: It is used to facilitate handling (during transportation, shipping) of

tertiary packages. For example, large container containing number of stretch-wrapped
pallets of fibre board boxes of canned food.

Packaging chain (distribution chain):

Food production ooo Packaging operation (primary packaging, secondary packaging) ooo
Palletizing and warehousing ooo Transportation for distribution and delivery to market
(distributor → wholesaler→ retailer) ooo Home or consumer ooo Product use/consumption

Hazards: Food during the time elapsed between production and ultimate consumption is
exposed to various hazards (agents or conditions) which make the food unavailable for
consumption or significantly affect the quality of food (by damage and any other harm).

Type, factors and effects of hazard:

1. Physical hazard

 Operations: handling during warehousing, transportation, distribution

 Actions: stacking, loading and unloading in/from transport vehicles, carrying

 Factors and effects: dropping, tearing, crushing by rope by tying, compression, stack
impact (force) resulting in breakage, leakage, burst, bruising, distortion
(deformation), crushing, spilling and ultimately loss of food

2. Mechanical hazard
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 Operations: handling during packing, warehousing, transportation, distribution

 Actions: stacking, lifting, loading, unloading, transportation

 Factors and effects: piercing, puncturing and tearing by hooks, straps, nails;
dropping, bumping, bounching, vibration (engine of truck, rail, aeroplane) and
impact resulting in breakage, distortion, spilling and exposure to adverse climate
leading ultimately to loss of food.

3. Biological hazard

 Pests (rats, rodents, moths, etc) and microorganisms (molds, etc) are the causing
factors

 Operations: handling during warehousing, transportation, distribution

 Effects: different types of spoilage, insect infestation and loss of food.

4. Climatic hazard

 Operations: handling during warehousing, transportation, distribution

 Factors: rain, sunlight, oxygen and other gases, high and low temperature, high and
low humidity, high and low pressure, chemical pollutants like sulphites, chlorides
and acids

 Effects: extreme climatic conditions produce stress and results in stress crack and
other kind of damage

5. Miscellaneous hazards

Caused by fire, floods, tampering, pilferage, foreign odours, corrosive chemicals,

contamination by other commodities stored together

Functions of Packaging

The primary functions of packaging are:

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 Containment: The package contains its content secured within itself.

 Protection: The package provides protection to the contained food from physical,
mechanical, biological, climatic and miscellaneous hazards during warehousing, loading,
unloading, transportation and distribution.
 Preservation: The package prevents spoilage of food by post-process contamination of
microbiological agents, prevents microbial growth by not providing suitable conditions
for growth, checks abiotic deterioration caused or accelerated by agents such as oxygen,
humidity, light etc (lipid oxidation, oxidation of food constituents, maillard reaction,
texture changes, etc).
 Information (communication): The package provides information to consumer about the
product. The information includes the net weight, ingredients used, nutritional
composition, price, ideal storage conditions, name and address of manufacturer, date of
manufacture and batch number, minimum and maximum storage or shelf life etc.
 Convenience: Packaging provides convenience (comfort) in terms of carrying, storing
and handling of foods.
 Sales promotion: An attractive package (attractive design, colour, graphics) is by itself an
advertisement of the product and enhances product sales.

Desirable features of packaging:

 Product-package compatibility: The package serves all necessary purposes, no

undesirable changes occur in food due to the reaction between the product and
package
 Disposability and environment-friendly: Reuse and recycle as much as possible
 Machinability: Good performance in filling and closing in high speed machines
 Convenience to use in terms of opening, dispensing and re-closing
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1. Packaging design

Designing of successful packaging requires following prerequisite knowledge and must

be considered:

1. Product assessment

 Nature and characteristics (solid, liquid, paste, crystal, powder etc), chemical
composition, size, shape, weight and density of product

 Nature and extent of deterioration (physical breakdown, seepage, sensitivity to

sunlight, moisture, high and low temperature, oxygen, insect infestation etc)

2. Hazards of distribution

 Method (road, rail, sea, air) and duration of transport

 Type and intensity of hazard during distribution

 Kind of impact on product and package (compression, drop, vibration,

puncturing etc)

3. Marketing requirement

 Product size, quantity per package, weight and shape for sale

 Package for enhancing product image (self advertisement)

 Convenience of carrying, opening, dispensing, storing etc.

 Price

4. Selection of packaging materials and machinery considerations

 Properties of packaging materials (barrier properties, strength properties,

machinability, product and package compatibility)
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 Product characteristics

 Market requirement and economic considerations

 Suitability of machinery to handle the packaging materials

 Efficiency of packaging line to cope with the designated size and shape of
package

 Efficiency of printing process

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Chapter 2: Packaging materials and their properties

Ancient use: leaves, bamboo, straw, leather, stoneware, clayware

Modern and main packaging materials: paper, plastics, metal, glass

Packaging materials to less use: wood, ceramics, fabrics of cotton lintre, jute, rubber

1. Paper and paperboard

Common packaging materials

Advantages:
 Billboards the product
 Can be used in combination with plastic to make aseptic pkgg
 Microwavable
 Light in weight
 Can contain products with a variety of geometric shapes
Disadvantages:
 Less strong
 Offers few barrier properties

Process of manufacturing paper:

Wood log
↓
Cutting or chipping in suitable size or length (chips with length of 15 to 20 mm)
↓
Pulping: disintegration of wood to fibrous state or cellulose fibres
(i) Mechanical pulping: a special machine or grinder is used to cut the wood and
reduce it to fibrous state (mechanical pulp)
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(ii) Chemical pulping: wood is digested by heating for enough time in solutions to
remove all materials other than cellulose as fibres (chemical pulp)

Sulphate pulp: wood pulp is obtained by digesting wood chips by heating in the solution of
caustic soda (NaOH) and sodium sulphate at high temp (~140 °C). Process also known as
kraft process.

Sulphite pulp: wood pulp is obtained by digesting wood chips by heating in the solution of
sulphur dioxide and calcium bisulphite at high temp (~140 °C)

Chemical pulping dissolves lignin and the resulting fibre is purely cellulose

(iii) Semi-chemical process: wood chips are treated partly by chemicals and partly
mechanically to reduce them to fibres. The product is used as corrugating (fluting)
medium in CFB

Washing: removing such as soluble lignin from chemical pulp

Bleaching (decolourising/produce white paper): treating with chemicals like calcium

hypochlorite. Treatment done to sulphite pulp. Paper is not as strong as kraft paper.

↓
Beating of pulp

It is rubbing and brushing of individual cellulose fibres to split them lengthwise (fibrillation) to
form thin fibres.

The properties of paper depend on heaviness or lightness of beating the pulp. Longer the
beating, greater is the degree of fibrillation and stronger (high tensile and bursting strength) is
the paper, however, tear strength decreases.

Sheeting, drying

Special processes applied in paper making process

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Chemicals like urea, melamine, resorcinol, and other phenolic and amino resins are cross-linked
with formaldehyde, and condensation products of polyalkylene amines and decarboxylic acids
are cross-linked with epichlorohydrin, which augment the hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl
and carboxyl groups on adjacent fibres. This process increases the wet strength of paper. (the
reactions occur during paper drying process, and hydrogen bonds are formed during this). Wet
strength of paper can also be increased by parchmentizing process.

Main type of packaging papers, their properties and use:

Basic material How made Properties and use

Kraft paper From sulphate pulp High strength, bleached, natural or coloured;
on soft woods may be wet-strengthened or made water-
repellent.

Used as heavy duty paper, used for

manufacturing bags, multiwall sacks (e.g.
grocery bags) and liners for corrugated
board. Bleached varieties for food packaging
where strength is required.

Sulphite paper Generally made Clean bright paper of excellent printing

from mixture of nature
soft wood and hard
Used for making smaller bags, pouches,
wood; usually
envelopes, waxed papers (wax impregnated,
bleached
to improve wet resistance), labels and foil
laminating etc.

Greaseproof Made from heavily It is resistant to oil and grease

paper beaten pulp
Used for baked goods, chicken roll, pizza

Glassine Similar to grease- It is resistant to oil and grease, it is odour

proof paper but barrier
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supercalendered Used for lining bags, boxes etc.

Vegetable Made by Non-toxic, high wet strength, grease and oil

parchment treatment of resistant
unsized paper with
Used for packaging of wet food and greasy
conc. sulphuric
food, e.g. butter, fats, fish
acid; later passed
through bath of dil.
Sulphuric acid and
water, and then
dried.

Mechanical pulp produces paper of relatively high bulk and low strength

Plastic coated paper, parchment, glassine, grease proof paper have grease resistance property
in decreasing order.

Glossary:

Kraft = "strength" in German language, kraft paper = strong paper

Soft wood = wood of coniferes plants or conifers (plants or trees bearing cones) e.g ;Nnf] hft
including w'lk, not necessarily soft.

Soft wood fibrillates more and strong paper can be made from soft wood.

Hard wood = wood of trees of broad leaves (deciduous species of plants). Trees all other than
conifers e.g. ;fn, ;v'jf, lzzf}, l;dn, not necessarily hard

Grease proofness = resistance to penetration of fats and oils

Wet strength = the paper retains strength even though it is saturated with water

Lining = layer

Calendering = any process used to impart desirable properties

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Sizing = it means coating of paper to impart such properties as non-absorption of moisture,

smoothness, gloss etc

Paper ≤ 0.3 mm thickness, paperboard > 0.3 mm thick

Paperboard:

Paperboard (cheaper type) may also be made from straw and grass.

Type of paperboard:

(i) solid fibre board (ii) corrugated fibre board

Solid fibre board is composed of paperboard (usually chipboard) lined on one or both faces with
kraft or similar paper. The total caliper of the board is 0.80 to 2.8 mm.

Single ply, double ply and multi-ply (up to 8 plies)

A single ply board has a single layer of paperboard, double ply board has two layers and so on.

Structure of a 3-ply board: a 3-ply board is made up of liner (top layer), under liner and back
liner (back layer)

Structure of a multi-ply board: liner (top layer), under liner, middles, back liner (back layer or
back)

CFB has corrugating medium (flutes) between two layers of board for better compression
impact resistance. The flutes bear compression (impact) and govern stiffness of the board.
Greater flute height exhibits better property.

Main types of paper board

Board type Uses

Cream lined chipboard Board of lowest grade and price;

Folding box
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(liner of chemical, mechanical or mixed pulp, back

as chipboard)

White lined chipboard Folding cartons for breakfast cereals

(e.g. porridge, beaten rice, corn flakes)
(white pigment + binder/top layer of bleached
chemical pulp/under liner of mechanical pulp
/middles of mixed recycled fibres/back liner of
selected recycled fibres)

White lined manila (triplex) Cartons for cheese etc

Solid white board Strong board; carton and box for frozen
and speciality foods, especially liquids
(board made entirely from sulphate pulp; waxed)

Duplex board As white lined chipboard

(liner and back both made from new pulp, middles

mixture of both)

Liquid packaging board For packaging of milk, cream, fruit juice,

etc.
(construction similar to solid white board; extra
coating or lamination for improved barrier
properties)

Chipboard is made from re-pulped 100% waste pulp.

Quality of chipboard can be improved by various treatments, as a result different types of board
are produced such as white lined chipboard and cream lined chipboard

Barrier properties (e.g. liquid, oil, gas barrier) of board can be improved by such treatments as
coating and lamination (wax, glassine, plastic materials are used).

Properties of paper and paper board:

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Moisture content, Alkalinity/pH, Ash content, Caliper (thickness), Basis wt (substance), Water
absorptiveness, Puncture resistance, Internal tearing resistance, Tensile strength, Grease
resistance, Bursting strength, Gas transmission rate, Water vapour transmission rate,
Elongation, Abrasion resistance, Wax coverage, Resistance to insect penetration, Chloride
content, Stiffness (hardness).

Moisture content:

Moisture content is important for printing, laminating, coating, curing, washing and
machinability of paper. It also affects the thickness of paper and mechanical strength.

Chloride content:

Excessive chloride (from bleaching process) in paper can affect the performance (viz. strength)
of paper.

Caliper (Thickness):

The thickness of paper and paperboard may be defined as the distance between two principal
surfaces.

The thickness varies across the width of web of paper. Uniform thickness or minimum variation
in thickness is important for smooth running of automatic printing and high speed packaging.
Thickness can be related to its strength. Thicker films are in general stronger and have better
barrier properties to moisture and air, but are less transparent and less flexible. Regardless of
thickness all paper are susceptible to damage by sunlight over a period of time.

Thickness of paper and paperboard is measured in mm or mil or point and that of plastic in
gauge.

1 mil=1 point=0.001˝=0.025 mm=100 gauge

Factors affecting thickness of paper are moisture and compressibility.

Basis weight:
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The term basis weight refers to weight of 1 m² of paper measured in grams, and expressed in g/
m² or in USA in lbs/3000 ft². The term grammage or substance is also used to refer to this
property.

Paper and paperboard are customarily bought and sold on weight basis and used on an area
basis. Here it is important that the material should be of the specified weight per unit area.
Another important quality parameter is yield, which refers to the area of paper and hence the
number of packs that can be made from a unit weight of paper or film. Yield is expressed as
m2/kg. As paper is usually sold by weight, especially in larger quantities or on rolls, the yield is
important in ensuring that the most economical use of available supplies.

Water absorptiveness:

It is the property of paper and paper board to resist water penetration. Paper and paperboard
made containers are often exposed to humid conditions and rain during shipping and
transportation. Paper and paperboard are prone to moisture uptake which results in reduced
mechanical strength. High water absortiveness is not desirable.

Puncture resistance:

It is an important property of paper board. It is the resistance of paper board to puncture

caused by any pointed or sharp object. This is important particularly for shipping containers
which are frequently punctured during transportation, handling and storage by the corners of
other containers, lumber, fork trucks etc.

Internal tearing resistance:

It is the property of paper to resist the tear already made. This test is designed to determine the
force (in gram centimeter) required to continue, for a fixed distance, a tear already started in
paper. The property depends on grain direction, fibre length, degree of beating (negative
effect), density, and surface treatment.

Tear strain is usually measured in glassine paper, vegetable parchment paper, wax coated
paper and kraft paper.
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Tensile strength:

Static tensile strength test gives an indication of the resistance of paper to rupture when
subjected to a pulling force applied parallel to the plane of the sample.

This property is important where papers are subjected to direct tensile stress (pulling force)
occuring in operations such as forming, printing, coating, lamination, etc. Important for papers
like tapes, wrapping paper, bags etc.

Dynamic tensile strength test measures the energy required to break a specimen of specified
dimensions by subjecting it to an impact stress. In the measurement of DTS a pendulum falls
swinging with a definite force and cuts the test specimen clamped in sigmoid shape. The
property is important for papers used in the construction of multiwall paper bags.

The strength of paper can also be expressed as % elongation. Elongation refers to the increase
in length, parallel to the direction of applied force, when paper is subjected to tensile stresses.
This quality of stretch has significance in the case of tapes, bags, lining paper, towels etc.

Beating of pulp and degree of fibrillation is important for tensile strength of paper. Higher
degree of fibrillation means that the fibrils hold better together and the paper has higher
strength. Excess fibrillation is not desirable as the fibres are excessively cut and the resulting
paper has low strength.

The tensile strength is influenced by kind, quality and treatment of fibre constituents and also
by the way the sheet of paper is formed on the paper machine. The strength is influenced by (a)
composition (b) formation on the machine (c) moisture content (d) other operations like
coating, creeping and calendering.

Grease resistance:

This test finds the rate at which ordinary oils and fats found in foods penetrate the paper.

Bursting strength:
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It is resistance of paper and paper board to burst. The bursting test gives an indication of tensile
strength and stretch of paper.

Burst can result due to high internal pressure in container viz. box, carton. The test is usually
done for paper board used for fabricating box, carton etc.

Note:

Impact is referred to a force applied on an object from top or other direction and can be static
(e.g. stacking) and dynamic (in motion).

Gas transmission rate (GTR)

The permeability of packaging materials to gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc
(inert gas pkgg, MAP) is an important parameter in deciding the suitability of packaging material
for a particular package. It determines the shelf life of a packaged food.

The shelf-life of consumer packages of frozen foods, instant coffee, fresh produce, fat and oil
foods, meat and meat products, fish and fish products etc. is dependant on the gas
permeability rates of the material used.

The gas transmission rate of a packaging material is defined as the volume of gas flowing
normal to two parallel surfaces, at steady-state conditions, through unit area of the material in
unit time, under unit pressure differential and is under the conditions of the test. The gas
transmission rate is usually expressed as cc/24 hr/sq m/atm press.

Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR)

The permeability of packaging materials to water vapour is an important property to decide its
suitability for food packaging. The shelf-life of consumer packages of frozen foods, baked
goods, instant coffee, dehydrated foods and fresh produce etc is dependant directly on the
moisture permeability rate of the pkgg material used.

WVTR is usually expressed as gm/day/sq m at 37.8 ºC and 90% Rh.

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Wax coverage: It refers to the amount in % of wax impregnated in waxed paper

Abrasion resistance: It refers to resistance to surface wear by abrasion/rubbing/friction

2. Plastics

 Greek word plastikos

 "Plastics is a group of synthetic resins or other substances that can be moulded into any
form" (Oxford dictionary)

 The word Plastics is used to describe the vast range of materials based on
macromolecular organic compounds

 The structures built by the repeated joining of small basic building blocks called
monomers, the resulting compound being called a polymer

Example of polyethylene:

H H
‫׀ ׀‬
‌C=C
‫׀׀‬
H H

The ethylene (C2H4) monomer

H H H HH HH H
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‫׀‬ ‫׀ ׀׀ ׀‬ ‫׀׀‬ ‫׀‬

‌-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-
‫׀‬ ‫׀ ׀ ׀ ׀ ׀׀ ׀‬
H HH HH HH H

The polyethylene polymer

 Plastic: adjective (deformable state of material)

 Widely used packaging material
Advantages:
 Offers cost benefit
 Requires less manufacturing and development time
 Light in weight
 Offers greater versatility in shapes than glass and paperboard
Disadvantages:
 Generates non-degradable waste
 Comparatively lower strength

Properties of plastic:

Sp. gr., softening point, gauge (thickness), basis weight or grammage, yield, tensile strength,
GTR, WVTR, heat sealing property and heat seal strength, chemical inertness, solubility and/or
resistance to corrosive chemicals, softness, hardness and stiffness, stress crack resistance,
opacity or clarity, gloss, impact strength, abrasion resistance, resistance to insect penetration.

See the definitions for paper for following properties:

Gauge (thickness), yield, tensile strength, GTR, WVTR, impact strength, abrasion resistance,

Softening point: Melting point (temp)

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Heat seal strength refers to the integrity of seal.

Gloss: The property is referred to transparency, shining and sparkle. In most applications high
gloss is desirable. The opposite case is haze, and hazy films are not appealing.

Clarity: It is see-through property. It is evaluated subjectively by comparing with the standard

Resistance to insect penetration: Insects can chew and enter through the pkgg materials.

Type of plastics (selected) and description of properties:

1. Low density polyethylene (LDPE)

 Accounts for the biggest proportion of plastics used in packaging
 Versatility
 Prepared in films, bottles, closures, dispensers
 Coating on paper, aluminium foil
 Relatively inert chemically, almost insoluble in all solvents at room temperature
 Some softening and swelling can occur with chlorinated hydrocarbons
 Low water vapour permeability
 Excellent heat sealing property
 High permeability to oxygen and other gases

2. Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)

 Properties similar to LDPE
 Stronger and tougher than LDPE

3. High density polyethylene (HDPE)

 Harder than LDPE
 Barrier properties superior to LDPE
 gives higher rigidity to bottles than LDPE for same wall thickness
4. Polypropylene (PP)
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 Chemically similar to LDPE and HDPE

 Harder than both
 Excellent grease resistance
 High stress crack resistance
 Steam-sterilizable

LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE, PP are called polyolefins (a family of plastics based on ethylene and
propylene), olefin meaning "oil-forming" and constituting "thermoplastics" (melt on heating
and stiffen on cooling)

5. Ionomers (a family of polymers in which there are ionic forces between the polymer chains,
as well as the usual covalent bonds between the atoms in each chain)
- Surlyn has properties similar to polyethylene,
- TPX has good impact strength

6. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

 Good gas barrier properties
 Moderate barrier to water vapour
 Resistant to weak or strong acid, and alkali
 Excellent resistance to oil and grease

7. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)

 Outstanding property of low permeability to water vapour and gases
 Used as shrinkable film (skin wrapping) for wrapping poultry, ham, cheese and other
similar items to keep fresh

8. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)

Soluble in water
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9. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA)

 Good flexibility
 Used for making snap-on caps
 Permeability to water vapour and gases is higher than LDPE
 Good stress-crack resistance

10. Polystyrene (PS)

 Colourless, transparent, hard, brittle
 Fairly high tensile strength
 Resistant to strong acids and alkalies; soluble in esters, aromatic hydrocarbons, higher
alcohols, ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons

11. Polycarbonate (PC)

 High impact strength, high softening point
 High clarity

12. Cellulose acetate (CA)

 Sensitive to moisture and not dimensionally stable
 Tensile strength and impact strength are comparable to PS

13. Nylons
 Tough material, high tensile strength
 Good resistance to abrasion
 High softening point and resist steam sterilization
 Slightly hygroscopic
 Fairly high water vapour permeability
 Good gas and odour barrier property and used in laminates for vacuum packaging
 Excellent transparency
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14. Polyester/Polyethylene terephthalates (PET)

 High softening point
 Used in boil-in-bag
 Not easily heat-sealable

Some important properties of plastics: add CO2 TR from P399

Type of plastic Sp. gr. Soften Yield Tensile str. WVTR OTR
ing (m2/Kg) (kg/cm2) (g/m2/d/atm) at (cc/m2/d/atm)
point 25 µ 90% Rh, 38 ºC
at 25 ºC
(ºC)
25 µ
25 µ

Low density 0.92- 85-87 42 80-240 14-18 7000-8000

polyethylene 0.94
(low) (high) (fairly high)
(LDPE)
(low)

High density 0.95- 120- 41 220-350 5-7 1500-2000

polyethylene 0.96 130
(HDPE)
(higher) (high)

Cast 0.91 150 44 300-400 7-9 2000-3000

polypropylene
(high)
(CPP)

Biaxially 0.91 44 500-550 4 2000-2500

oriented
(v. low)
polypropylene
(BOPP)
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Polyester 1.34- 250 28 800-1700 21 50-90

(PET) 1.39
(high) (v. low)

Polyvinyl 1.3-1.6 82 28 460-560 30-40 300-400

chloride (PVC)
(high)

Polyvinylidene 1.5-1.7 80 24 500-850 2-4 5-25

chloride
(high) (v. low) (v. low)
(PVDC)

Ionomer 0.94 68-76 42 350 20-30 7000-8000

Polystyrene 1.05 78- 37 360-530 100-150 4000-5000

(PS) 103
(v. high)

Polycarbonate 1.20 165 32 680-720 50-150 3000

(PC)
(high)

Ethylene vinyl 1.14- 33 400-1600 20-50 0.5-20

alcohol (EVOH 1.21
(high)
or EVAl)

Ethylene vinyl 0.93 95 155-280 20-50 10000

acetate (EVA)
(high)

Cellulose 1.23- 70 42 100-300 2000-3000

Acetate 1.33

Nylon 11 1.04 216 34 700-1000 60-100 400

(high)

3. Metal packaging material

Advantages:
 High strength
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 Offers the best barrier properties after glass

 Provides the tensile strength needed for operation across aerosol sprays
 Can be re-used as a container and offers “collectible” image/dual image
Disadvantages:
 Limits re-usability (sardines, nuts, cat food). Problem of corrosion.
 Can affect taste of food or beverage. Metallic taste
 Metal can not be microwaved unless special protective coating or layer is provided

Type of metal packaging material:

Tin, tin free steel, tinless steel, aluminized steel, aluminium, aluminium alloy, anodised
aluminium, anodised and laquered aluminium

1. Tin

Advantages of tin:

1. Fabricated readily
2. Strong to withstand processing and handling
3. Easy to handle
4. Light weight
5. Can be handled on high speed machine
Manufacturing of tin plate

Tin plate is manufactured by coating tin on both sides of mild steel plate of low carbon (0.04-
0.12%) called base plate.

Manufacturing of base steel plate:

Iron ore (the metal source)

↓
High temp. heating in blast furnace for reduction of iron oxide (rust)
 27

metallic iron
↓
hot rolling
↓
hot steel ingot (normally a oblong shaped mass of steel)
↓
pickling in bath of hot dil. sulphuric acid to remove scales or oxides formed during hot rolling
(plate will retain bright surface)
↓
cold rolling
↓
steel strip of thickness ~ 1.8 mm
↓
Further thickness reduction to ~0.2 mm (0.15-0.50 mm), strength and hardness also increased
↓
annealing (heating to high temperature of 600-700°C to change the properties like strength)
and temper-rolling (light cold rolling) to give required hardness and surface finish
↓
Steel base plate (mild steel plate)

Note:

Hot rolling is process of passing molten metal which is at high temperature (usually ingot)
between pair of rolls to decrease thickness and increase length (usually a slab results).

Cold rolling is process of pressing metal which is at room temperature to decrease thickness,
and thereby strength due to high force applied (hardness, stiffness, tensile strength). Also,
the metal will have smooth, bright surface called finish.
 28

Type of steel plate: The type depends on the degree of workability, strength and corrosion
resistance. The properties depend on the content of phosphorous (0.01-0.1%) and copper
(0.02-0.6%). Phosphorous gives strength. Steel containing higher amount of copper are more
corrosive.

Type L: used for highly corrosive products

Type MR: moderately corrosive products
Type MC: used for making high strength tinplate

Process of tin coating:

1. Hot dipping: Steel plate is dipped in molten tin bath

2. Electrolytic coating: It is electrolysis process of coating where tin acts as anode and steel
acts as cathode. The tin is deposited on the steel plate.
Tin coating thickness: 0.4 -2.5 um (2.8-17 gsm)
Electrolytic coating method gives thinner coating with the substance as low as 5.6 gsm when it
is minimum of 22 gsm by hot dipping method (11 on each side).

Differential tin coating: it refers to the coating method with different amounts of tin deposit on
the two sides of steel plate. Nomenclature, for example D 100/50.

Tin free steel: It is mild steel coated electrolytically with chromium (chromic acid). It is cheaper
than tin. It may be lacqured to improve its performance.

Tinless steel: It is also called Black Plate. It is mild steel sheet coated with phosphate for
facilitating lacquering. The coating is done by dipping in hot phosphate solution and the process
is called bonderizing (bonderizinf produces good adherend surface for subsequent paint
coating). After bonderizing, cleaning and drying the sheet is lacquered and baked.

Aluminized steel: The steel plate is coated with aluminium by hot dipping process or vapour
coating (vapour deposition coating).

Alluminium:
 29

Light in weight, good gas and light barrier properties, non-corrosive for large number of food
products, expensive

Aluminium alloy: It is Al-Mn alloy and contains 1% manganese as alloying agent. Manganese
increases strength and corrosion resistance. Without manganese to have the same strength as
tin the thickness of aluminium has to be 20% greater.

Anodized alluminium: Anodising is an electrochemical process used to produce durable and

decorative finishes on components made of aluminium or aluminium-based alloys; the process
thickens and toughens the naturally occurring protective oxide.

Anodizing actually makes the aluminum stronger and more durable. Anodizing involves placing
a sheet of aluminum into a chemical acid bath, quite often acetone in laboratory experiments.
The sheet of aluminum becomes the positive anode of a chemical battery and the acid bath
becomes the negative. An electric current passes through the acid, causing the surface of the
aluminum to oxidize (essentially rust). The oxidized aluminum forms a strong coating as it
replaces the original aluminum on the surface. The result is an extremely hard substance called
anodized aluminum.

Anodized aluminum can be nearly as hard as diamond under the right anodizing process. Many
modern buildings use anodized aluminum in places where the metal framework is exposed to
the elements.

Anodized and lacquered aluminium: The aluminium plate is anodized and painted with a
protective coating of resins

Lacquer and lacquering:

Lacquer (UK), enamel (US)

Laquering is done to prevent corrosive reaction between the can and content.

Lacquer type based on resistance to corrosion:

 30

1. AR lacquer (Acid Resistant lacquer): e.g. oleoresin lacquer, gold coloured

Used for anthocyanin (water soluble red pigment) rich fruits like blue grapes, cherry,
plums)
2. SR lacquer (Sulphur Resistant lacquer): e.g. Epoxy lacquer.
Used for sulphur containing foods like meat, fish, poultry

Lacquer type based on composition and synthesis:

1. Natural lacquer: It is oleoresin lacquer and made of natural resin*, solvent, drying oil
and drier. It is used for fruits containing anthocyanin.
* Resin is an inflammable adhesive substance insoluble in water and secreted by most
plants and exuding naturally or upon incision, esp. fir and pine.

2. Synthetic lacquer:
2.1 Phemolic lacquer: made of synthetic resin and solvent. It is made by the acid of alkaline
condensation of a phenol with formaldehyde.
2.2 Vinyl lacquer: Made of synthetic resin and solvent. It is made by copolymerzation of
vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate. It is used for beer and soft drinks cans which are not
processed at high temperature.
2.3 Epoxy lacquer: It is made from eiphlorohydrin and bis-phenol (produced from phenol). It
has fair resistance to sulphide staining.
2.4 Epoxy phenolic lacquer: It is made from polybutadienes and resins based on diphenolic
acid. It is also called general purpose lacquer and used for high acid foods and
condensed milk.

Properties of metal containers:

1. Resistance to fracture on sharp bending

2. Chemical inertness
3. Continuity of tin coating (in case of tin container)
 31

It is important to ensure that no localised corrosion occurs with food in the exposed steel
leading to pinholing and ultimately leakage and loss of shelf life.

4. Glass

The principal ingredient of glass is silica from sand, flint or quartz which is molten at very high
temperature during fabrication of glass containers. Silica is combined with other raw materials
to form glass. Very common soda glass contains apart from silica other minerals like CaO, Na 2O
etc in small amounts.

Advantages:
 Offers tremendous barrier properties
 Chemical inertness. Reinforces consumer security.
 Conveys the “feel” of crystal, and creates a good impression. Good psychological
attribute.
Disadvantages:
 Heavy in weight: weighs more than any other packaging material.
 Breakage problem: can break in filling, shipping, palletizing, storage or use.
Properties:

1. Mechanical properties

1.1 Rigidity: It is desirable property of glass container and is advantageous in operations like
filling, stacking and distribution.
1.2 Internal pressure resistance: This is the property to resist pressure exerted by the filling
or filled products such as soft drink and beer.
1.3 Impact strength: This is the property of glass container to resist the impact (impact
causes breakage) when the containers contacts a stationary object e.g. during falling of
container on floor or when a moving object contacts the glass in filling line.
1.4 Resistance to scratches and abrasion: This is the property to resist scratch and abrasion
as scratch and abrasion can reduce the overall strength of glass container. This property is
important specially in thin walled glass.
 32

1.5 Verticle load strength: It is the strength to resist compression and is important during
high speed filling.
2. Optical properties
Clarity: It is important for making the product revealing. However, products requiring
protection from light need to be packed in coloured containers.

3. Thermal properties

Heat resistance: It is the ability of glass containers to withstand high temperature. The
property is important for hot filling or cooking or sterilization of product in the container.

Thermal shock resistance: It is the property of glass container to withstand shock due to
sudden temperature change. The glass container experiences thermal shock when one
surface only is rapidly chilled or heated and this results in breakage. To determine the
thermal shock resistance of a given glass container the specimen (put in a basket) is
immersed in a hot or cold water tank, held for some time and quickly transferred
(immersed) in cold or hot water tank. The glass container having poor thermal shock
resistance breaks with sudden change in temperature.

4. Chemical properties

4.1 Chemical inertness: Glass is regarded to be chemically inert and it is a desirable

property.

4.2 Alkalinity

Miscellaneous packaging materials

1. Wooden pkgg materials: barrel, cask, crate, drum, box

 33

Advantages:
 Withstands tremendous pressure and keeps its shape
 Offers a cheap way of shipping oddly shaped heavy equipment
 Highly appealing gift boxes can be made
 Offers good impact strength
Disadvantges:
 In general it can only be used for solids
 More expensive than other raw materials
 Inappropriate for high speed packaging

2. Textile and jute

Includes cotton and linen packaging materials and gunny bags
 34

Chapter 3: Package forms

Packaging materials and package forms:

Packaging material Package form

1. Paper and Wrapping paper, bag, box, sachet, pouch, case, carton,
paperboard fitments in board, body of composite container, fittings in case,
multiwall sack, fibre drum, tray, tub

2. Metal Can, crate, box, pallet, collapsible tube, closure, drum, metal
strapping and banding, foil, laminate and label (aluminium)

3. Glass Bottle, jar, tray, tube, ampoule, vial

4. Plastics (including Film, laminate and sheet, bag, pouch and sachet, sack (film and
cellulose and woven tape), bottle, jar, pot, tray, pot, blister and fitment,
rubber) cushioning material and fitting, cap and closure, drum, crate,
box, tub

5. Timber (including Box, crate, cask and keg, case, drum, pallet, basket and punnet
plywood)

6. Textile Sack, bag

3.1 Retail pack

 35

1. Can

Three-piece can: It is open top sanitary (OTS) can, so called because the top side only is open
while filling the can. It is made of three pieces of top side (lid), bottom side (lid) and body.

Fabrication of three-piece can:

Strip of steel base plate

↓
cutting to required size of can
↓
body blank
↓
side seam prepared#
↓
can body
↓
reforming in cylindrical shape
↓
flanging of can ends
↓
seaming of one end of can with bottom lid
↓
Three-piece can body

Fabrication of can lid:

Lid blank
↓
stamping and curling of edges
 36

↓
filling of lining compound (that serves as gasket or seal) in curled edges and drying (the lining
compound is a rubber composition in benzene or toluene)
↓
can lid

#Methods of making side seam:

1. Locked side seam: The edges are notched and hooked and molten solder (98% lead and
2% tin) is applied in the lock
2. Cemented side seam: The lap joint is bonded by heated thermoplastic cement (nylon)
followed by rapid cooling.
3. Welded side seam: The lap joint is bonded by welding under application of heat.

Note:

 In case of some type of metal containers like black plate locking is not possible, and so
welding and cementing are done.

 Welding is process of fusing (joining) two metals when in molten state. Joint or the
overlap of surfaces of two metals is fixed.

 Soldering is process of joining two metals together with the aid of additive material
called solder which is usually mixture of tin and lead.

 Casting is the process of pouring molten material in cast (die) to allow it to solidify and
take shape of the die.

 Forging is process of heating and hammering a material.

Can size nomenclature:

A2½, A1 Tall etc
 37

A2½ (American system) → 41/16" (dia) x 411/16" (ht) → 401 (dia) x 411 (ht) (ISO diameter)

Can shapes: round, rectangular, oval, oblong, pullmon

Two-piece can: It has a body and a lid and so called two-piece can.

Two-piece can (type):

1. Drawn and wall ironed (DWI): The body blank is drawn into a cup and forced by means
of a punch through a series of annular dies (rings). Each die is slightly smaller than the
preceding one, thus elongating the wall by a stretching or ironing action. During ironing
the wall thickness is reduced and the height correspondingly increased. For example,
carbonated beverages.
2. Drawn and redrawn (DRD): This process is used to produce can of bigger height (taller
can) and the can has higher height to diameter ratio. The process is similar to DWI,
except that the height is increased by sequentially decreasing the diameter of container
by drawing cups to smaller diameter.

Advantages of two-piece can:

1. Elimination of two seams reduces the possibility of leakage and removal of a potential
source of lead contamination from solder.
2. Better aesthetic appeal presenting a smooth profile and streamline appearance.
3. Un-interrupted print decoration on the external surface.
4. Bottom of the can be designed and formed for better stackability.
5. Less metal is used in its construction due to elimination of the overlap at the two seams.

Aluminium can

Type of aluminium can

 38

1. Built up can: The can is made by the process similar to making normal 3-piece can. The
lid can be replaced on can and the container is reuseable in household.
2. Shallow formed can: This is made by drawing process ("drawn can"), in which the body
blank is blown with the stroke of "press". The maximum height is half the diameter of
container. The shape is round or rectangular.
3. Deep drawn can: The maximum height is 1.2 times the diameter of container. The
maximum practical diameter is 815 mm. This type of can is made by pressing.
4. Impact extruded can:
In impact extrusion a disc of aluminium known as “slug” of about 2.5 to 6 mm thick is
placed in specially shaped die. A container cylinder is formed inside a confining die from the
cold slug, by a single stroke application of force through a punch (attached with a hydraulic
press generating forces up to 250 psi) causing the metal to flow around the punch. Tall cans are

formed by this process. The maximum height of can is 3 times the diameter. The
practical diameter is 105 mm.

Can by design:

Collar can: It is a reclosable type round can (the lid can be replaced after use unlike the lid of
three-piece can) incorporating a removable tear strip and internally fitting collar.

Seamless can: It is a two-piece can with no seam and made by drawing method.

Lever lid can: It is usually round shaped built-up can, the ring component being secured to the
body and having an orifice into which inverted (hat shaped) lid is pressed.

Slip lid can: The body is usually seamless. The lid fits over the mouth (slip and close). It provides
simple reclosure feature.

Composite can
 39

Paper board composite: The body or side wall is composed of paper board, and the ends can
be metal, plastic etc materials. Plies of paper board or kraft paper are wound, spirally or
convolutely and glued together to form the body.

2. Bag, pouch, sachet

 Bags, pouches and sachets are similar packages made from flexible materials
(paper/paper board, plastic, laminate) they and have closable opening on top. Bag is
also made from textile and jute. Jute or gunny bag can be plain or PE lined (for rice, flour
etc cereals). Film bag is made from LDPE and HDPE. PP, PET, vinyl and saran coated
films.
Type of paper bag:
Flat bag, Gusseted bag, Self-opening bag (crimping the top opening to close the bag),
Rose bottom bag

Open mesh bag: ventilated bag, used for fruits and vegetables, made from PE, hessian and kraft
paper twisted in yarn

Bag in box and Bag in drum:

 Bag is inserted in box
 Bag exhibits barrier properties and machinability for filling while box provides handling
advantages
 Bag (metPET/PE or EVA)
 Powdered products, fruit juices
Type:
1. Bag loose within box
2. Bag spot-glued in box
3. Bag liner secured firmly to the box wall as its integral part

Pouch and sachet are normally made from plastic and laminate
 40

3. Box and carton

Box and carton are similar containers.
They can be set up type and folding type.
Box is normally made from paper board and wood.
Carton is box shaped container made normally from light paper board or card board.

Folding carton
 Made from sheets of light paperboard (thickness 300-1100 um).
 Type: Coated solid bleached and unbleached sulphate board, and recycled board used.
Coating and laminating may be done to improve barrier (water vapour, grease)
properties.
 Cut and scored for bending into desired shape and delivered in collapsed state for
assembly at packing point

Beverage carton
 Packaging of liquid food such as fruit juice, milk, wine etc
 Carton impermeable to liquid
Carton for aseptic packaging:
Aseptic paperboard carton (liquid tight, hermetically sealed, preserves food) consists of
layers of unbleached and bleached paperboard coated internally and externally with PE
and also containing thin layer (6.3 um) of aluminium foil.

It usually contains six layers as PE (outermost layer)/unbleached paper/bleached

paperboard/PE/Al. foil/PE

PE: heat sealing; Bleached paperboard: mechanical rigidity & printing; PE: binds al foil to
PB; Al. foil: gas and light barrier; PE (2 layers of different grammage): liquid barrier.
 Form-fill-seal carton and system of pkgg
 41

 TetraPak packages: tetrahedron, tetrabrik, gable top (purepak)

 Retortable version

Moulded pulp container: carton and tray shaped containers for egg, fruits etc made by
pressure injection and suction moulding processes

4. Tube
Metal tube, plastic tube, laminated tube

Plastic tube:
Coloured PE (LDPE, MDPE, HDPE, L LDPE) granules are mixed and blended and extruded in
continuous tubing; the tubing is cut to desired length; shoulder and nozzle are formed; after
colour printing lacquering is done to give glossy finish; drying by UV light system
 Does not collapse but retains its shape and length on bending and squeezing
 Rust proof
 Strong seals (the seal does not open easily)

Laminated tube:
Plastic/al. foil/paper
Complete ply composition: LDPE with antistat (outermost layer)/LDPE/printing ink/pigmented
white LDPE/paper/LDPE/ethylene acrylic acid copolymer/al. foil/EVA/LDPE (innermost layer)
Advantages
Far better barrier properties than plastic tube
Easily squeezable and eliminated waste
Resistant to cracking, creasing and denting
Superior appearance
Corrosion free

5. Tray, tub and cup:

 42

Tray, a shallow container is made up of fibreboard (e.g. biscuits and snacks) and plastic (e.g.
meat); may be portioned. Portioned tray suitable for assorted (classified) items e.g. biscuits
Laminate is used to fabricate lid and body of tub, e.g. lid (PET/Al.foil/PP), body (PP/EVOH or
PVDC/PP)
Plastic tray, tub (deep) and cup come under semi-rigid type moulded plastic containers.
Flexible type containers lack stand up rigidity.
Semi-rigid and rigid containers have advantage of speedy filling/packing

6. Bottle
Manufacturing process of glass container:
Silica and cullet (returns) are mixed and heated in furnace (T~1500 °C) to melt and remove
gases like CO2, SO2 and water vapour (refining), Forming is done to form the desired container,
followed by annealing (heating the glass to temp. of ~540°C and give the product stability) and
surface treatment (treatment with different elements and organic compounds to increase the
strength).

Bottle and its parts

Plastic bottle: viz. HDPE, PET bottles

Chapter 4: Wrap and closure

4.1 Wrap
Wrapping may be performed on individual item of product (confection, overwrap over a tray of
food) or for unitizing purpose. Wrapping an individual product offers protection to the product
 43

whereas wrapping for unitization would mean making a bundle of the packages (or holding the
load together) for easy handling, for example, stretch (film)-wrapping of a case of milk bottles
or beer cans or strapping or netting of boxes piled up on a pallet (tertiary packaging). Unitizing
thus saves labour costs, warehousing costs (space saving) and simplifies the handling thus
increasing the efficiency of shipping and warehousing.

Shrink-wrapping:
1. Evacuation of air from bag followed by shrinking by immersion in hot water (e.g. PVDC)
for odd shaped product e.g. dressed poultry, cheese
2. Collating of cans, cartons, bottles by exposing to hot air (e.g. LDPE)

Stretch-wrapping:
1. The film is stretched over/around the object e.g. a dressed poultry and then allowed to
retract to its original dimensions.
2. Wrapping around the objects (unitizing) followed by heat sealing

Plastic films: LDPE, EVA, PVC

Materials for strapping: steel, PP, nylon, PET or rayon cord

4.2 Closure
Cap, lid, seal

Functions:
1. Provide effective hermatic (air tight) seal to prevent the passage of solid, liquid or gas
into or out of the container; exposure of content to atmosphere
2. Provide easy opening and reclosing
3. Provide evidence of unlawful access (tampering, pilferage) to the content. For example,
Roll-on pilfer proof (ROPP) closure such as alluminium roll-on closure used on beverage
 44

bottle, and tell-tale ring around the bottom of the neck of bottle (any tampering is
evident of breaking the seal)

 Material of construction: metal (tin, alluminium), plastic (resins, PS, LDPE, HDPE, PP,
PVC), cork (pulp)
 Form (shape) of metal closure: roll-on (spin-on), crown, screw, lug cap

Roll-on tamper evident:

The rotary head rolls to press the closure against the finish of bottle, forms the threads
to match that of bottle thread, and simultaneously forcing the skirt of closure to crimp it
onto the finish.
Crown cork:
The rotary capper (manual batch or automatic) exerts straight downward force on
crown to compress the liner on sealing surface of bottle while clinching heads crimp the
corrugated skirt into a groove on the bottle neck.
Normal, pressure and vacuum seals (closure):
Normal seal: inside and outside pressure are equal.
Pressure seal: the content is filled under pressure e.g. carbonated beverages.
Vacuum seal: inside pressure is lower than outside

Chapter 5: Shipping containers/transportation containers/ containers for

distribution (secondary package)
Box, case, crate, barrel, cask, drum, sack etc
Material of construction and package:
 Wood, fibreboard, plastic, metal, jute
 45

 Wooden box, fibreboard box or case, wooden barrel or cask (wine, whiskey etc), plastic
crate e.g. PP and HDPE (milk, beer, soft drinks etc), metal drum, plastic (PE, expanded
PET) drum (fruits, fish etc)

Chapter 6: Special Packaging systems

Objectives: delay deterioration and extend shelf life of food, maintain quality

Modified atmosphere packaging, controlled atmosphere packaging, vacuum packaging, gas

packaging, hypobaric storage, aseptic packaging

6.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

It is enclosure of food in a package in which the atmosphere (gaseous composition) surrounding

the food is modified or altered to give optimum atmosphere for extension of shelf life (by 40-
50%) and maintaining quality of food.

MAP is normally used in combination with low temperature

Type of MAP

1. Active MAP (active modification): It involves displacing the air with a controlled, desired
mixture of gases (gas flushing).

Active packaging is also sometimes referred to as Active MAP, whereby an active substance
is used to perform some active role. For example, an O 2 adsorber, e.g. ferrous carbonate is
used to adsorb O2.

Method:

1. Vacuumizing

2. Vacuumizing followed by gas flushing

3. Injecting gas without vacuumizing

 46

Equipment:

1. Form-fill-seal

2. Chamber method (filling → vacuumizing → gas flushing → sealing)

3. Snorkel machine (continuous process, similar operation as chamber method)

2. Passive MAP (passive modification): an atmosphere high in CO 2 and low in O2 occurs as a

consequence of the food’s respiration or the metabolism of microorganisms associated
with the food over time.

The package film permeability is such that O 2 can enter the package to avoid anoxic
condition and anaerobic respiration at the same time excess CO 2 can diffuse from the
package (avoids injurious effect).

6.2 Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS)/CAP

In CAS/CAP, the atmosphere inside the package is continuously monitored and adjusted to
maintain the optimum composition within quite close tolerances (so called controlled
atmosphere)

In strict sense, CAP is enclosure of food in a gas impermeable package, the gaseous composition
inside which with respect to CO2, O2, N2, water vapour etc has been changed to increase the
shelf life of food.

 Normally bulk packaging and storage

 Normally fruits and vegetables, and fresh produce

6.3 Vacuum packaging

Sometimes considered as active MAP method.

 47

Package, normally retail package, evacuated mechanically (vacuum pump), and the food is held
in air free atmosphere.

 package is skin-tight

 longer shelf life in oxygen free system

 Normally applied to meat, fish, poultry, cheese

 Suitable pkgg materials: PVDC, EVOH (v. low GTR). Nylon may be used in laminate

Method: batch and continuous process

6.4 Gas packaging

Package is first evacuated, and then filled with inert gases, CO2 or N2

 Package is devoid of O2, provides protection to food against O2, pkgg of oxygen sensitive
products, viz. milk powder

 Provides protection from compressive impact; pkgg of fragile food, viz. potato wafer &
chips;

 Production of pillow pouch

 Suitable pkgg materials: PVDC, EVOH. Nylon may be used in laminate

6.5 Hypobaric storage

It is a storage system (structure) for the storage of food in an environment of precisely

controlled air pressure, temperature and humidity. , and the rate at which air is changed is
closely regulated. Air pressure (which is proportional to O 2 concentration) is the most important
parameter, and it is closely monitored and regulated.

6.6 Aseptic packaging

It refers to filling food in package in contamination free (asepsis/sterile) condition.

 48

 Most cases: filling pre-sterilized food in sterilized container under sterile

environment

 Rare case: filing non-sterile product (yoghurt and similar products) in sterile
container under aseptic condition

Method:

 Product sterilization by heat. Heat exchangers: tubular, plate, scrap film

 Sterilization of packaging materials by irradiation, heat (superheated steam, saturated

steam or hot air) and chemicals (H2O2), in singles or combination

 Sterilization of packaging atmosphere by superheated steam

Advantages:

1. Application of HTST process - efficient heat transfer, superior product quality

(nutritional, sensory)

2. Filling irrespective of container size

3. Product is shelf stable at normal temperature

Packaging materials:

 Packaging materials: metal, glass, plastic or laminate (PE/paper board/PE/foil/PE)

 Package type: carton, can, bottle, bag, pouch, sachet, cup

Filling in pouch, sachet and carton is by form-fill-seal system

 49

Chapter 8: Properties/characteristics of foods, their packaging requirement and packaging

methods

1. Fruits and vegetables

General characteristics:
 High moisture content (85-90%)
 High perishability due to over-ripening, maturing, shriveling, microbial rot. Maturation is
undesirable in vegetables
 Easily damaged mechanically and by heat and cold,

Postharvest physiology:
 Respiring organisms; main metabolic process involves respiration (utilization of oxygen) with
liberation of energy in form of heat, carbon dioxide and water and breakdown of large
organic molecules

 Factors: temperature, level of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases affect the metabolic
process and respiration rate

Techniques of shelf life extension:

1. Low temperature storage

Temperature effect: Metabolic process is dependant on temperature and its rate is high at
higher temperature
 Fruits have their optimum ripening temperature. E.g. tomatoes best ripen at 20-25°C,
bananas 15-22°C
 Most fruits and vegetables are damaged by temperature as high as 38°C and higher
 50

 Cold injury at low temperatures esp. tropical and subtropical fruits e.g ≤ 10°C, banana, ≤7°C
pineapple
 Store at their proper temperatures

Packaging:
 Remove heat of respiration by venting

2. MAP of fruits and vegetables

Shelf life can be increased and quality of fruits and vegetables can be maintained by controlling
the metabolic process by maintaining O2 and CO2 (and other gases) concentrations at proper
levels.

 High oxygen concentration → high respiration rate → early ripening → early decay;

 V. low O2 conc. → anaerobic respiration (ethanol, acetaldehyde, CO 2) and plant tissue

damage

 Desired O2 concn: 2-3 %

 High CO2 depresses respiration, delays ripening, competitive inhibition of C 2H4

production
 Desired CO2 concn: 10% (acceptable for many fruits); range 1-10%
 Very high CO2 conc. ( > 20%): acceleration of respiration rate of root and bulb type
vegetables; ethanol, acetaldehyde produced during anaerobic respiration are toxic to
plant tissue and damage them; pressure build up inside package results in bulging and
bursting
 51

Packaging

 Pkgg materials: normally plastics of selected gas (O 2) permeability; normally high GTR is
desired to allow O2 to enter the package and there is no anoxic condition and anaerobic
respiration; Commonly used plastics: PVC, PS, PE, PP

 Pillow pouch (prevents mechanical injury) of oriented PP used for vegetable salad cuts
like lettuce, green pepper, chopped onion, carrot sticks; PS with high GTR for lettuce and
tomato

 Perforations in plastic pouch or bag or overwrap with high GTR maintains desired
atmosphere

 Venting in flexible packaging for maintaining desired atmosphere

3. Controlled atmosphere packaging

4. Active packaging
Packaging is termed as active packaging when it performs an active role (inhibition of
microbiological, biological, chemical reactions) besides providing an inert barrier to external
environment. The effect is obtained by introducing materials having definite functions into the
packaging or other special techniques. The active substances act by adsorption, absorption and
reaction. It is that packaging technique that dynamically changes permeation properties or the
concentration of different volatiles and gases in the package headspace during storage. AP is
mostly applied to plastic packaging.

4.1 Oxygen scavenging

Oxygen scavengers/oxygen adsorbers: iron, oxygen scavenging enzymes, ascorbic acid, light
activated scavenger, oxygen scavenging reaction system
4.2 CO2 scavenging or scrubbing
1. Absorption of CO2 in hydrated lime or activated carbon.

Calcium hydroxide reacts with CO2 under high humidity condition and produces CaCO3.
 52

2. The scavenger, CaO is packed in a porous envelope and put in a sachet containing hydrating
agent like silica gel. Water is absorbed by the hydrating agent and CaO reacts with CO 2.

4.3 Ethylene scavenging

Ethylene, respiration product of ripening fruit, anaerobic respiration, has detrimental effect on
fruits
Yellowing…
Ethylene scavenger e.g. KMNO4

5. Humidification and humidity buffering

 Fruits and vegetables have high moisture content; leafy vegetables > 90%, and larger
surface area, other vegetables and fruits 85-90%

 Transpiration →loss of moisture → weight loss, wilting, shriveling, shrinkage

Packaging to control of moisture loss and maintain high Rh

 Active packaging: humidification and humidity regulation by use of humectants and like
alcohol, propylene glycol, carbohydrate, etc. impregnated between the layers of water
vapour permeating plastic films

 Humidity buffering (maintaining desired humidity without condensation or drying of packed

goods)

1. Packaging in fibre board cartons with a LDPE liner (low WVTR) or waxed carton
(protection from drying and wilting or shriveling)

2. Active packaging: 1. inclusion of microporous bag or pad of inorganic salts (antifogging

agents) in the carton (prevention of condensation), 2. a multilayer is provided on the
side of carton which absorbs moisture released by the packed produce and releases the
moisture (water vapour) when the humidity is low.
 53

Mechanical injuries of fruits and vegetables

 Mechanical injuries (bruises, cuts, abrasion, puncture) cause loss of fruits and vegetables.

 Mechanical injury gives easy access for infection; damaged fruits (increased contact with
oxygen, increased surface are for reaction) respire at higher rate (do not pack damaged with
undamaged ones); enzymatic browning

Packaging to prevent mechanical injuries:

 Use of cushion pads to protect from impact bruising caused by drop on hard surface
 Proper filling (no over filling) and proper stacking to protect from compression bruising
 Selection of proper package size and internal filler and packaging material e.g paper shreds,
wrap etc to protect from vibration and abrasion bruising during transportation and
movement, including moulded pulp or expaned PS foam trays containing individual items
and separating.

Retail packaging: Fruits are packed in fibre board or plastic tray (e.g. foamed PS or PVC or PP)
with stretch-overwrap or shrink overwrap, LDPE, HDPE bags

Transport container: wooden box, CF box, plastic crate, sacks etc.

Packaging of fruits and vegetables:

 Retail pkgg: ventilated plastic bag (25-40 μ LDPE or 12.5 μ HDPE), net bags, tray of foamed PS
or PVC or PP overwrapped with heat shrinkable or stretch films, semi-rigid containers with a
cover of CA and PS for soft-textured highly perishable fruits like cherries, grapes,
strawberries, plums

 Bulk pkgg- gunny bags*, bamboo baskets, wooden cases and boxes, sacks (with cushioning
or filling of straw, waste paper), CFB boxes, plastic corrugated boxes (PP or HDPE), MAP,
vacuum pkgg, active packaging, Controlled Atmosphere storage
 54

Packaging of fresh cut fruits (convenience, custard pudding and vegetables for salad):
 Higher respiration rate
 Easy microbiological spoilage
 Enzymatic browning
 High moisture loss

Solutions:
 Treatment with antimicrobial agent containing wash water
 Use of antioxidants

6. Cereals and pulses

 Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oat, rye, sorghum, millet, buckwheat
 Factors of hazards: moisture, oxygen, temperature, heat, humidity, respiration,
pests (weevils, borers, moth, rats and rodents)

 Whole grains:
Cereals are respiring entities; respiration rate increases with moisture content
and temperature, evolution of heat, CO2, water

 Moisture increase by respiration and absorption → attack by molds then

bacteria, caking

 Control: storage at 70% ERH (0.70 aw); mold growth at > 0.75 aw, bacterial growth
at 30%

 Brown rice stored under high humidity and warm conditions: lipolysis of fat →
free fatty acids formation due to the activity of lipase present in bran layer of
damaged grain and microbial lipase
 55

 Heat of respiration e.g. wheat → charing and other hazards

Packaging requirement:
 Good moisture barrier
 Protection from insect infestation
 Bulk packaging - bins, transport container and consumer pack - jute sacks and
bags, plastic woven sacks (jute/PE) or bags, multiwall paper sacks

Milled gains e.g. wheat flour, atta (whole wheat flour), bengal gram flour, semolina:
 Fat breakdown by endogenous lipase
 hydrolytic rancidity and oxidative rancidity of fat
 Moisture pick up and caking (>13% moisture content)
 Microbial spoilage
 Insect damage

 Protective packaging and storage conditions: Protection from moisture ingress

and insect damage, and storage in cool and dry environment

Processed products:
Breakfast cereals:
Deteriorative factors:
 Moisture gain and loss of crispness
 Lipid oxidation (2% fat content in cereals like rice, wheat, maize, higher fat
content in other cereals like oats)
 Development of rancidity/off flavor
 Loss of vitamins
 56

 Breakage
 Loss of aroma
 Insect infestation

Protection required:
 Protection against moisture ingression
 Good gas barrier property
 Pkgg materials: HDPE, HDPE-EVA copolymer, fibre board box or carton with
waxed paper or glassine (good odour barrier) liner, duplex board carton
overwrapped with cellophane (corn flakes), oxygen scavenging package
 Storage at cool and dry place

Bakery products (bread, cake, biscuit, pastry, bun, doughnut, roll etc):
 High moisture products like bread, bun, cake:
 Mold growth/microbial spoilage
 Staling (hardening of crumb and loss of freshness etc)

Packaging: gas packaging of bread: CO2 atmosphere in EVOH copolymer package,

alcohol vapour (bacteriocide) in paper-EVA copolymer sachet, oxygen scavenging
system

Biscuit and similar products:

 Moisture gain and loss of crispness
 Microbial spoilage at high moisture content
 Rancidity
 Flavor staling
 Grey discolouration (fat bloom)
 57

Packaging material: plain OPP (economical) or coextruded OPP (superior heat sealing) or
acrylic coated OPP (superior O2 barrier property), acrylic coated OPP-PVDC copolymer
(superior aroma/volatile barrier)

Expanded extruded snacks (cheese balls, popcorn etc) and fried snacks e.g. potato chips:
Deterioration:
 Loss of crispness (critical aw 0.36)
 Rancidity
 Breakage

Packaging:
Composite container made of spiral-wound paper board cans lined with al. foil, OPP-
LDPE-PVC, HDPE-EVA copolymer plus a UV absorbent, HDPE-EVA copolymer with
titanium oxide light barrier lining

7. Dairy products
7.1 Fluid milk, market milk, pasteurized milk
Characteristics:
Cow milk
High moisture content (~87%), fat (4%), protein, lactose, minerals, vitamins

Spoilage:
 Microbiological spoilage
 Light induced flavor changes: fat oxidation, flat taste
 Wavelength based effects of light
 Destruction of vitamins (riboflavin), ascorbic acid
 Oxygen in milk during filling and fat oxidation

 Storage at low temp. ≤ 4°C

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 Protection from O2 and light

Retail pkgg: Glass bottle (preferably coloured), paperboard laminate TetraPak carton (gable
top, TetraBrik), plastic pouch (coextruded LDPE/LLDPE ~70 u) filled by FFS machine

Bulk packaging and transportation: metal containers (aluminium cans, tinned steel cans)
7.2 Yoghurt, kefir etc fermented products
 Plastic (HIPS) cup and tub covered with aluminium foil heat-sealed to the rim of
container
 Glass bottle with foil cap, gable topped PE coated paperboard container

7.3 Cream, butter and ghee

Cream (12-16% fat), butter (~80% fat, ~18% moisture), ghee (100% fat)

Spoilage:
 Fat oxidation, fat seepage
 Microbial and enzymatic spoilage, desiccation and discoloration
 Absorption of foreign odour

Pkgg requirement:
Resistance/ barrier to O2, fat, moisture, foreign odour, light

Pkgg materials:
Butter:
 Vegetable parchment paper, grease proof paper grease proof paper
 Al. foil (0.009 u)/veg. parchment paper or grease proof paper (40 gsm) laminate.
Superior O2 and light barrier properties than paper alone
 Plastic tub (HIPS or PVC)
 59

Ghee:
 LDPE/HDPE laminate pouch, glass bottle
 Bulk pkgg of ghee for long term storage: SS or tin containers

7.4 Cheese
High fat and moisture content

Protection required against microbial spoilage, moisture loss causing drying and O 2 causing
fat oxidation, grease proofness

Pkgg materials of good oxygen, water vapour and light barrier properties

Pkgg materials and package: OPA-LLDPE copolymer for hard cheese (low O 2 transmission
rate), MAP with CO2 flushing, PVC, PET, PP, PVC-PVDC or EVOH copolymer for processed
cheese, small size individual processed cheese cubes wrapped in al. foil

7.5 Milk powder

Low moisture content, hygroscopic, high fat content (20-30%) in WMP

Fat oxidation, moisture uptake

Pkgg requirement: Moisture, light, O2 barrier properties

Pkgg materials, package forms and packaging methods:

 Metal can containing slip lid (opening and closing convenience) or ring-pull lid made
of aluminium for easy opening and al. foil diaphragm sealed to rim of container to
give gas-tight seal. Air is drawn out and inert gas (N2) is flushed in.
 Al. foil (~9 u)/ paper (5 gsm)/ LDPE (25 u) laminate pouch with inert gas. Low cost,
light weight
 60

 Paper/PE/foil/PE laminate for small portion pack

 PET (17 u)/LDPE (9 u)/foil (9 u)/LDPE (70 u) on FFS machine
 Composite can with foil (5 u) and nitrocellulose lacquer for WMP and SMP
 Vacuum pkgg
 Bulk pkgg: multiwall paper sacks with PE liner, bag in box

7.6 Ice cream

 Moisture proofness
 Transport container: bleached sulphite board carton coated with wax or wax and PE
blend
 Retail packing: HIPS cups with wax coated paperboard or plastic (LDPE, PS) lid
 Bar: veg. parchment paper

8. Fats and oils

High oil containing commodities

 Oxidative rancidity: susceptibility to oxygen depends on degree of unsaturation, oils

(high UFA) more susceptible than hydrogenated fats
Unrefined oils containing antioxidants less susceptible than refined oils
 Hydrolytic rancidity: lipase enzyme and presence of moisture, fats and oils with high
saturated FA more susceptible
 Light catalyzed colour degradation
 Absorption of foreign odour
 Microbial spoilage

Pkgg requirement: Maintain low ERH, light and odour barrier property

Pkgg materials and forms: pouch (flat, pillow, stand up), semi-rigid type (carton with
paper/met PET/PE or paper/al. foil/PE laminate liner), HDPE pouch, PET and PVC containers,
 61

bulk container, rigid type: tin

9. Spices and spice products

 Functions: Flavour, colour, preservation, antiseptic properties, health, tenderization,
decoration
 Contribution of volatile and non-volatile compounds, active principle
 Susceptibility to high temperature, high humidity, oxygen, light
 Deterioration:
Loss of aroma due to evaporation and oxidation of volatile compounds, bleaching of
colour, loss of free flowing characteristics (clump formation) due to moisture uptake,
microbial spoilage at 70% ERH, insect infestation and loss, tainting

 Pkgg and storage requirement:

Whole spices:
Low WVTR and GTR, barrier to oxygen and light, oil resistance, low Rh and
temperature

Bulk pkgg: jute sacks and bags (plastic lined), multiwall paper bags, cotton bags,
drums,

Ground spices:
 Large surface area for reaction

 more prone to deterioration

Oleoresins and essential oils:
Air-tight containers/pkgg

10. Dehydrated foods

Note: Pkgg of some selected foods have been previously discussed
 Protection from moisture, air, oxygen, light
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 Microbiological spoilage, enzymatic reactions, oxidative rancidity

 Vac. or inert gas pkgg, oxygen scavenging,

 Dehydrated vegetables: laminated sacks or PE bags

 Dried meat: nitrogen flushed large cans, al. cans, foil topped glass jars, composite
containers
 Bulk pkgg: lever lid containers, drums

11. Meat and poultry

 High moisture content and nutrient density. Hence, highly susceptible to microbial growth
and highly perishable product
 Desiccation, loss of bloom and brown discolouration, rancidity

Packaging requirement and packaging materials and packages for meat and meat products
and poultry:

SN Product Packaging requirement Packaging materials, package form, packaging

system

1. Fresh meat -high gas (Oxygen) -PS foamed tray and other plastic trays with
cuts (cut permeability to maintain overwrap film of 25 µ PE, plasticized 20 µ PVC,
pieces & bright (red) colour Or. PS, with absorbent pad
retail cuts)

- moisture barrier to - shrink films wrap of PVC, PP, PVDC

prevent desiccation

- extend shelf-life by
- laminates of cellophane/PE, PET/PE, PET/al.
vacuum packaging with
foil/PE, PVDC coated PE
good barrier and
 63

mechanical properties - MAP (60-80% 02 and 20-40% CO2 or 70%

oxygen, 20% CO2, 10% N). PVC/PE tray with lid
- maintain bright (red)
of PVDC coated PET/PE or PP, metallized PET or
colour and shelf-life
PE
extension
- hypobaric storage (press=10 mm Hg, T=-1°C,
Rh=95%)
- extension of shelf-life
- active packaging: chitosan based flexible
packaging coated with organic acids such as
lactic, propionic acid followed by vacuum pkgg

- Active Packaging: use of iron and ascorbic acid

systems
- scavenge oxygen
- Protective Edible Coating: use of edible wax
- protect from base
desiccation and oxygen

2. Frozen - prevent freezer-burn - PVC-PVDC copolymer, laminate of PET/PE,

meat and oxidative rancidity, Nylon/PE, vacuum skin packaging
property to expand and
contract during freezing
and thawing, prevent
brown discolouration by
light

3. Cured - prevent discolouration - coloured or opaque PE, PVC, plastic tray with
meats by oxidation of cured shrinkable overwrap, vacuum packaging
pigments (metmyoglobin
formation) and activated
 64

by light, moisture loss

4. Sausages - protect from oxidative - vacuum packaging

colour changes, bacterial
spoilage, dehydration,
light

- prevent drip loss - coating with gelatin

5. Fresh - prevent desiccation, - cellulose acetate tray or PS foamed tray with

poultry oxidative rancidity PVC/PVDC copolymer overwrap film and
(whole through good moisture absorbent pad, stretch film of PVC or laminate
dresssed and gas barrier of LDPE/EVA
bird, cut up properties
parts)

6. Frozen - very high puncture - shrink wrap in PE film for short storage
poultry resistance, skin-tight
- shrink wrap in PVC-PVDC copolymer film
(whole) wrapping to prevent
freezer-burn and - vacuum packaging in shrink film followed by
oxidative rancidity dippig in hot water (90.5ºC) to make skin-tight
wrap (packaging materials among others is EVA
copolymer-PVC/PVDC copolymer-EVA
copolymer

Currently, CO2 concentration in MAP packaging reaches up to 40%. With a device developed in
Spain CO2 conc. in MAP can reach up to 80%. This technology consists in a pre-absorption of
CO2 in food (meat, fish etc) allowing an increase of CO2 content in packed food, thus products
can be better preserved.
 65

Notes:

 Active Packaging and Protective Edible coating systems can be used equally for all meat
products to protect from oxygen and desiccation

 Vacuum packaging squeezes meat and gives drip which is eliminated in MAP. MAP
maintains bright meat colour.

 Vacuum skin packaging is accomplished by vacuum packaging and immersing the

package in hot water to make skin-tight pack (shrink wrap)

 Cans, bottles and retortable pouch made of PET/al. foil/cast PP or modified HDPE
(flexible type) and PP/EVOH or PVDC/PP (semi-rigid type) are used for shelf-stable
products

Effect of packaging and temperature on shelf-life of meat :

Product Storage Condition Shelf life

Minced meat 4ºC 1 day

Minced meat MAS / CAS 20% CO2 + 80%O2, 4ºC 5-6 days

Cured meat and dry 10 – 12ºC 2 months

sausage

Vacuum packed cured

meat and dry sausage
10 – 12ºC 12 months

Shelf life of meat products as functions of packaging condition and storage temperature:

Shelf life is affected by type of packaging, temperature of storage, size and surface area exposed,
chemical composition of meat and meat products.
 66

S.N. Product Packaging Storage condition Shelf life

1 Buff quarter Without pkgg in 0-2C, 90% Rh 3 weeks

cold room

2 Buff quarter Air tight packaging -18C 9-18 months

3 Buff quarter Air tight packaging -30C 2 years

4 Buff retail cuts Ordinary packaging 0-2C 2-5 days

5 Buff retail cuts Vacuum packaging 0-2C 3 weeks

6 Buff retail cuts Air tight packaging -18C 8 months

7 Buff retail cuts Air tight packaging -30C 16 months

8 Pork side (half) As such in cold 0-2C, 90% Rh 10 days

room

9 Pork side (half) Air tight packaging -18C 6 months

10 Pork side (half) Air tight packaging -30C 1 year

11 Pork retail cuts Ordinary packaging 0-2C 3 days

12 Pork retail cuts Vacuum packaging 0-2C 2 weeks

13 Pork retail cuts Air tight packaging -18C 6 months

14 Pork retail cuts Air tight packaging -30C 1 year

15 Mutton quarter As such in cold 0-2C, 90% Rh 1-2 weeks

room

16 Mutton quarter Air tight packaging -18C 9 months

17 Mutton quarter Air tight packaging -30C 18 months

18 Mutton retail Ordinary packaging 0-2C 3 days

cuts

19 Mutton retail Vacuum packaging 0-2C 2 weeks

cuts

20 Mutton retail Air tight packaging -18C 6 months

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cuts

21 Mutton retail Air tight packaging -30C 12 months

cuts

22 Dressed chicken No packaging 0-2C, 90% Rh 1 week

23 Chicken cut up Ordinary packaging 0-2C 3 days

parts viz.
breast,
drumstick

24 Chicken cut up Vacuum packaging 0-2C up to 2

parts viz. weeks
breast,
drumstick

25 Minced meat, Ordinary packaging 0C 2 days

hamburger,
meat ball

26 Minced meat Vacuum packaging 4C 1 week

27 Minced meat Vacuum packaging -18C 4-6 months

28 Cured meat, Ordinary packaging 4C 3 weeks

whole (viz.
ham, bacon,
kasseler)

29 Cured meat, Vacuum packaging 4C 2 months

whole (viz.
ham, bacon,
kasseler)

30 Cured meat, Vacuum packaging 4C 1 month

slices
 68

31 Cooked sausage Ordinary packaging 4C 10 days

(small caliber,
whole)

32 Cooked sausage Vacuum packaging 4C 2 weeks

(small caliber,
whole)

33 Cooked sausage Ordinary packaging 4C 10 days

and meat loaf
(large caliber,
whole)

34 Cooked sausage Vacuum packaging 4C 2 weeks

and meat loaf
(large caliber,
whole)

35 Cooked sausage Vacuum packaging 4C 1 week

and meat loaf
(slices)

36 Dry sausage, Ordinary packaging 8-10C 2 months

whole (viz.
salami)

37 Dry sausage, Vacuum packaging 8-10C 1 month

slices

Dried meat: nitrogen flushed large cans, al. cans, foil topped glass jars, composite containers

12. Egg and egg products

Whole (shell) eggs

 69

 High moisture content (~65%), High protein content (~12%), high fat content (~10%)

 Deteriorative changes: breakage, moisture loss through shell, liquefaction and mixed
rot, absorption of foreign odour, hollow egg, microbiological spoilage

 Packaging requirement: prevent breakage, prevent moisture evaporation, prevent

diffusion of gas

 Packaging materials properties: shock absorption, cushioning, low water vapour and
gas permeabilities

 Packaging materials and package: moulded pulp tray, moulded pulp box, tray and box
made up of expanded plastic, shrink wrapping in low GTR and WVTR flexible pkgg
material e.g PVDC, shrink overwrap on tray, chemical coating to plug shell pores e.g
calcium carbonate or sodium silicate

Liquid egg and frozen egg: Packaging requirement and packaging are similar to whole milk and
evaporated milk and that of dried egg similar to dried milk

13. Fish and sea foods

 Chemical composition, spoilage and packaging requirements are similar to meat and
poultry

 Deterioration: Rapid spoilage, rancidity, discolouration

 Methods of preservation and packaging: Chilling, freezing, MAP, vacuum packaging

MAP:
 MAP (50% CO2 and 50% O2 or 40% CO2, 30% N2 and 30% O2) and storage at 0-2°C
Shelf life 9 days at 0°C and 5 days at 2°C
 Fatty fish: MAP (60% CO2 and 40% N2) and storage at 0-5°C
 70

Vacuum packaging:
 Vacuum pkgg and storage at ≤ 3°C
 Low temperature controls Cl. botulinum

Chapter 9: Total quality protection/Product package compatibility

It is desirable that no interaction between food and packaging material occurs which may harm
the quality of food and pose health hazard to the consumers. Hence, total quality protection is
a necessity.

The food-package interaction can result in:

 Unacceptable changes in food composition

 Unacceptable changes in organoleptic properties

 Toxic effects

Migration is a common process leading to food-package interaction. It refers to the process in

that the monomers and other packaging material components move or transfer to food and
vice versa by leaching or diffusion (evaporation).

Overall migration: Previously termed as global migration, it refers to the migration of sum of all
mobile packaging material components, and measured per unit area under defined test
conditions. All the migrants may not be known and may not be of toxicological interest.

Specific migration: It refers to the migration of a specific, individual and identifiable

component.

The terminologies are commonly and appropriately used in case of plastics

Migration from plastic packaging materials and its effects:

 71

The migrants from plastics can be constituent monomers and additives (solvents, emulsifiers,
wetting agents, antioxidants, antiblock agents, slip agents, heat and light stabilizers, plasticizers,
pigments, lubricants etc)

1. Toxicity
Several monomers and components have been found to be toxic. The effect ranges from
sensitivity to cold and visual disturbance to carcinogenic, mutagenic effects depending upon
type and monomer or component concentration. Monomers like vinyl chloride (PVC),
vinyledene chloride (PVDC), acrylonitrile, styrene (PS) and additives like amides (slip agents)
and ink components have shown toxic effects.

 Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM): Cardiac irritant, liver cancer

 Styrene monomer: potent mutagen, neurological impairment, psychological disorders,

depressant on central nervous system, toxic effect on liver

 Plasticizers (additives used to increase flexibility (make soft and elastic) and
processibility of plastics (mostly PVC) viz. phthalate, acetyltributyl citrate, epoxidized
soybean oil.

2. Change in flavour of food

 Flavour scalping: volatile compounds from aromatic products such as spices and spice
products, coffee etc steadily permeate through plastic packaging material by diffusion
process to environment and the flavour is ultimately lost.

 Styrene taint: development of off-flavour (characteristic, unpleasant, plastic-like

chemical odour or taste) due to migration (contamination) of styrene in foods, observed
in chocolate, lemon cream cookies, cocoa powder

 Acetaldehyde from PET (bottles) adversely affects the flavor of cola-type beverages

 PE on heating produces wax-like odour, fatty acid amide (slip agent) causes odour
problem over long storage time
 72

 Off-flavour is developed in fruity soft drink filled in laminated pouches due to residual
solvents (e.g. toluene, hexane, isopropanol used for dissolving or dispersing printing
inks)

3. Scalping

For example, a fruit juice in polyethylene (used in aseptic packaging) will lose limonene to the
plastic (scalping) and increases ascorbic acid degradation, thus shortening the shelf life.

4. Change in mechanical properties of plastic

Migration of food to plastic, particularly water vapour or solvent vapour can result in loss of
mechanical strength.

5. Change in colour of food (tinting) due to leaching of printing inks

6. Migration of BHT from HDPE in milk powder by evaporation/volatilization from film surface

Interaction of food with metal containers and migration:

1. Can-food interaction

1.1 Canning of fruits containing anthocyanin pigment e.g. blue grapes, cherries, plums results in
bleaching (loss of colour) due to reduction of anthocyanin by Sn⁺⁺ from tin can

Anthocyanin + Sn⁺⁺ → bleaching

1.2 Canning of sulphur containing compounds e.g. meat, poultry, fish and vegetables like peas,
cabbage, cauliflower give rise to following reactions:

i liberated sulphur + Sn⁺⁺ → stannous sulphide (purple colour)

“sulphur staining”

ii liberated sulphur + Fe⁺⁺ → ferrous sulphide (black spots)

 73

1.3 Canning of oxalate containing vegetables e.g. spinach, asparagus in lacquered can causes
detinning and product discolouration.

Prevention of reaction:

Use of AR lacqured can, SR lacquered can, tin fillet

2. Dissolution of tin in food

When food is packed in tin container the iron exposed from tin coating layer (from microscopic
pores) and tin act as electrode system. Iron acts as anode and is dissolved in food. When a
metal reacts with acid the hydrogen gas evolves and this gas makes complex with tin. Due to
this tin becomes sluggish and there will be change in polarity. Hence, tin becomes anode and
iron cathode. Now tin goes into solution.

Normally, tin is poorly absorbed in body (it is excreted out) and so its toxicity is low.

Excess of tin in food at concentration > 250 ppm produces toxic effect (nausea, diarrhoea etc.).

3. Migration of lead present in solder of side seams of three-piece cans in baby foods and its
toxicity (encephalopathy, convulsions, mental retardation) in babies

4. Aluminium toxicity from aluminium cans, al. cookware, etc

Normally, aluminium toxicity can occur in case of excess ingestion

Migrants from paper based packaging:

Dioxins (from bleached paperboard), Benzophenone (used as photoinitiator for inks and
lacquers, wetting agent for pigments etc), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), nitrosamines, TCA
(trichloroanisole).

A reported case: in 2010, potentially harmful mineral oils were found contained within
recycled cardboard packaging which were able to transfer to dry food products inside.
"Cornflakes Cancer Scare" scandal !
 74

Migrants from glass container:

Metal oxides

Factors affecting toxicity:

 Concentration/quantity of migrant (residual monomer) present in pkgg material

 Concentration levels for toxicity

 Ingestion period

 Storage period

Statutory advice:

Keep migration and migrant concentration at a minimum level (maximum permitted level) that
does not endanger human health

Intake within maximum tolerable limit

Package selection:

Nature and composition of specific packaging material and its potential effect on the intrinsic
(compositional) quality and safety of food packaged

Compatibility of package with the method of preservation selected viz. freezing, canning

2. Dissolution of tin in food and corrosion

When food is packed in tin container the iron exposed from tin coating layer (from microscopic
pores) and tin act as electrode system. Iron acts as anode and is dissolved in food. When a
metal reacts with acid the hydrogen gas is evolved and it makes complex with tin. Due to this
tin becomes sluggish and there will be change in polarity. Hence, tin becomes anode and iron
cathode. Now tin goes into solution.
 75

This in course of time leads to localised corrosion. This is the phenomena of sacrificial
corrosion. This process of localised corrosion leads to pinholing (development of tiny holes in
tinplate) and subsequently leakage in can leading ultimately to product spoilage.

Normally, tin is poorly absorbed in body (it is excreted out) and so its toxicity is low.

Excess of tin in food at concentration > 250 ppm produces toxic effect (nausea, diarrhoea etc.).

5. Migration of lead present in solder of side seams of three-piece cans in baby foods and its
toxicity in babies (encephalopathy, convulsions, mental retardation)

6. Aluminium toxicity from aluminium cans, al. cookware, etc

Normally, aluminium toxicity can occur in case of excess ingestion

Migrants from paper based packaging:

Dioxins (from bleached paperboard), Benzophenone (used as photoinitiator for inks and
lacquers, wetting agent for pigments etc), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), nitrosamines, TCA
(trichloroanisole).

A reported case: in 2010, potentially harmful mineral oils were found contained within
recycled cardboard packaging which were able to transfer to dry food products inside.
"Cornflakes Cancer Scare" scandal !

Migrants from glass container:

Metal oxides

Factors affecting toxicity:

 Concentration/quantity of migrant (residual monomer) present in pkgg material

 Concentration levels for toxicity

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 Ingestion period

 Storage period

Statutory advice:

 Keep migration and migrant concentration at a minimum level (maximum permitted

level) that does not endanger human health

 Intake within maximum tolerable limit

Package selection should be done based on:

 Nature and composition of specific packaging material (suitability) and its potential
effect on the intrinsic (compositional) quality and safety of food packaged

 Compatibility of package with the method of preservation viz. freezing, canning

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Chapter 10: Testing of packaging materials, product package

compatibility and package performance

Purposes of testing

1. Selection of packaging material based on its suitability to use

2. Comparison of two or more different packaging materials in offer

3. Help package designing

4. Assure quality

5. Check the specifications (for properties of packaging materials)

Principle and outline of test procedure

1. Testing of paper and paper boards

1.1 Physical and chemical properties

Tests: chloride content, pH, moisture content, alkali staining, wax coverage, grease resistance,
resistance to insect penetration, flute height , flat crush test, static bending test, resistance of
glue bond to water, GTR, WVTR

Chloride content:

The aqueous extract of sample is neutralized with very dilute nitric acid or chloride free sodium
hydroxide and estimated as % sodium chloride following the standard sodium chloride
estimation method by titrating against standard silver nitrate solution using potassium
chromate as indicator.

pH

An aqueous extract of packaging material is prepared and its pH is determined by a pH meter.

Alkali staining:
 78

This test is intended to qualitatively assess the degree of staining of paper by alkali (used in
chemical pulping process). The tint of alkaline extract of paper is matched against standard
reference coloured solution of mixture of potassium dichromate and congo-red.

Wax Coverage:

This test is used to determine the amount of wax impregnated in waxed paper. The wax is
removed by extraction with suitable solvent like 1,1,1 trichloroethane and after evaporation of
the solvent the residue wax is weighed and the wax content is expressed in %.

Moisture content:

Hot air oven and infra red moisture meter methods are used for moisture estimation.

Grease resistance:

The grease resistance of paper is determined by Terpentine Test. It gives an accelerated

comparison of relative rates at which fats and oils commonly found in food stuffs can diffuse or
penetrate through the papers like grease proof, glassine and vegetable parchment paper.

Test procedure:

The sample of paper is placed on a sheet of book paper which is rested on smooth glass
surface, below which an adjustable mirror is provided. A 1 inch glass capillary is allowed to
stand on the sample and filled with sand (5 gm). The capillary is removed after it has been filled
with the sand. With a dropping pipette 1.1 ml coloured terpentine (red) is poured over the sand
and noted the time (called transudation time) required to observe the first stain appearing on
the book paper as seen from the mirror

Resistance to insect penetration:

Two-three weeks old, as far as possible uniform size test insects (Sitophilus oryzae, Rhizopertha
dominica, Tribolium castanum and Oryzophilus suirnamenis) are kept under starvation for 24
hours and the resistance to insect penetration of the test material is determined as following:
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Test procedure:

Place 5 gm food in a petri dish (14.5 cm dia) and cover it with the test packaging material. Put
100 test insects on it and place the lid of dish. Place the dish under the test conditions of (a) 25-
28 ºC & 50 % Rh (b) room temperature & 25 % Rh (c) 21.1 ºC & 70 % Rh (d) 37.8 ºC & 95 % Rh
for three weeks. The test material is examined every day for any penetration or chewing by the
insects. The insects either die or reach the food after chewing the packaging material.

Flute height:

This is the measurement of the height of the fluting (corrugating) medium of corrugated fibre
board. It is measured by traveling microscope.

Flat crush test:

It is the measure of resistance of flutes in corrugated fibre board to a crushing force as a

measure of resistance to compression impact applied perpendicular to the surface.

Static Bending Test:

It is the measure of stiffness of board and gives indication of the quality of component and
adhesive bond.

Test procedure:

The load is placed on test material in increments and deflection noted. From the data, the load
- deflection curve is plotted and bending stiffness is computed with the help of a graph.

Water resistance of glue bond:

The test determines water resistance of glue lines of corrugated fibre board and this property is
particularly important where high degree of bond strength is required.

Note: Flute height, flat crush test, static bending test and water resistance of glue bond are
related with the flutes of CFB.
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Gas transmission rate (GTR):

The test uses a permeability cell that consists of two stainless steel discs and the depression in
each disc form a cylindrical cavity when the discs are superimposed. The packaging material is
clamped airtight between two discs. Test gas is supplied through gas inlet at constant, over-
atmospheric pressure from the bottom of the cell and the permeated gas is allowed to expand
on the opposite side against atmospheric pressure. A short plug of mercury contained in the
glass capillary connected in a vertical position in the centre of the upper disc is displaced
upward by the permeating gas. Displacements at different time intervals are recorded. This
displacement is used to measure of gas transmission rate.

Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR):

WVTR disc (Al) is filled with desiccant (CaCl 2) and the sample paper (50 sq cm) is fixed on the
rim of disc. After the weight is noted it is placed in test chamber at 37.8 ºC (100 ºF) and 90% Rh
for 24 hr. The weight is taken for some successive days. Weight gain in gm versus number of
days are plotted and slope is found.

WVTR is found by calculating as :

WVTR = av. slope x 104

50

1.2 Mechanical properties

Tests: tensile strength, elongation, bursting strength, tear resistance, puncture resistance,
abrasion resistance

Tensile strength:

1.1 Static Tensile Strength

Figure:
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Specimen of 2" length and 15 mm width is clamped between two jaws and pulling force is
applied in the tensile tester. The force at which the specimen breaks is noted as Kg/15 mm.

Elongation is measured direct on the elongation scale and % elongation is calculated as

elongation on scale x 100

2"

Example: elongation=0.2, then % elongation = 0.2 x 100 = 10%

1.2 Dynamic tensile strength

Figure:

The specimen is clamped between the jaws in sigmoid shape (Van der Korput Baarn Tensile
Tester). The pendulum is released which falls swinging and cuts (break) the specimen. The
impact (kg cm) as registered on the scale is noted.

Bursting Strength Test:

Figure:

This is also known as Mullen Test.

The specimen is fixed in the testing equipment (Burst Tester or Mullen) and the pressure
(hydraulic or pneumatic) is applied. The pressure (ksc or psi) at which the specimen ruptures is
recorded.

Tear resistance:

This test is designed to determine the force (gm cm) required to continue, for a fixed distance, a
tear already started. It is therefore also called Internal tearing resistance test.

The energy required to initiate a tear is measured as Edge Tearing.

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Figure:

Equipment: Elmendorf tearing tester

In the test, a tear is made in the specimen of standard dimensions and is subjected to a pulling
force that continues the tear for a fixed distance and the force is measured.

Puncture resistance test:

The test measures the energy required to make a puncture in fibre board. The test gives a
combined assessment of stiffness and tearing resistance of the sample board.

The test is also known as Beach Puncture Test named after the testing equipment T.M.I. Beach
Puncture Tester.

Figure:

The testing equipment is provided with different scales containing weights. The specimen is
clamped between the jaws and the pendulum with sharp edge pointer or head is released. The
pointer is allowed to clearly and completely puncture and pass through the specimen and the
energy required is measured as inch-ounce per inch of tear or as joule per meter as shown on
the scale.

Abrasion resistance:

This test is designed to measure the ability to withstand surface wear during rubbing and
friction.

The procedure consists in abrading the sample with a wheel of standard abradant for a definite
number of revolutions and finding the volume loss of sample as volume loss = weight loss/sp.
gr.

2. Testing of plastics and laminates

2.1 Optical properties

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Tests: test for gloss, clarity

Test for gloss:

Gloss is measured as the amount of reflected light and expressed as fraction of original light
when light (white light) at an angle of 45 ° falls on the surface of the test material. Gloss is
measured by gloss meter equipped with photosensitive cell which measures the amount of
reflected light. A high reading on the meter indicates a high degree of reflected light and high
gloss.

Clarity:

It is see-through property.

It can be evaluated subjectively by comparing with the standard (standard photographs).

In objective method light is allowed to pass through the sample and specular transmittance is
measured, using the expression:

Ts = 100 Is

Io

where,

Ts = specular transmittance

Is = Ts with specimen

Io = Ts without specimen (blank)

2.2 Physical, chemical and mechanical properties

Tests: impact test, test for ink adhesion, test for tinting, abrasion resistance, resistance to insect
penetration, heat seal strength, GTR, WVTR
 84

Test for ink adhesion:

The test assesses the strength of ink adhesion on printed plastic materials, e.g. pouches.

Figure:

A cello-tape is applied on printed surface by pressing firmly and removed after some time by
pulling slowly at 90° angle. There should be no significant removal of ink and the printed
material shall be still readable, in case of good ink adhesion.

Test for tinting:

The test is performed for tinting of oil by printing ink of packaging material like plastic pouch
(migration). The test oil is smeared on printed portion and after one hour rubbed firmly with
tissue paper for 10 times. There shall be no significant removal of print and the printed material
shall still be readable (negative test).

Heat Seal Strength:

Heat seal strength test measures the strength of the welding of sealed joints of heat sealable
films and laminates. It is the test of efficiency of sealing.

The same instrument of tensile tester can be used to find heat seal strength. The test procedure
is same. The pulling force is applied and the force (load) at which the seal gives away is noted.

3. Testing of metal containers

Tests: Jenkin's bend test, thickness of tin coating, lacquer coating weight, Iron solution test,
estimation of tin in canned food, grain structure and size

Jenkin's bend test:

This test assesses the resistance of metal to fracture on sharp bending. This property varies
usually exhibiting a directional effect and perpendicular to the direction of rolling. In the test,
the forces in these two directions are applied and the forces at which the specimen breaks are
measured. There should not be large difference between these two forces and effects. Too
 85

much difference in these two forces directions is not considered good as there will be tendency
to split during flanging.

Figure:

Thickness of tin coating:

This test determines the thickness and weight of tin coating on either side of plate. This test is
also useful to determine thickness of tin coating in differential tinplate.

The tin is selectively extracted from base steel plate by a detinning solution and weighed
(Clarke’s method)

Lacquer coating weight:

It is found by the difference in weight after delacquering the sample. The lacquer is extracted
with a suitable solvent and weighed, expressed as g/m 2.

Iron solution test:

It is the test of porosity in tinplate and assess the degree of localized corrosion.

Test procedure:

Sample with exposed area of 19.35 sq cm is dipped in a mixture of sulphuric acid, hydrogen
peroxide and ammonium thiocyanate for two hours at 80 ºF. The red colour complex (formed
from reactionof iron and solution)is treated with hydrogen peroxide for final oxidation and the
intensity of red colour complex is measured spectrophotometrically at 485 nm.

The test finds out the amount of iron (µg) dissolved when 3 sq in (19.35 sq cm) of tin plate
surface is exposed to 50 ml of test solution for two hours at 80 ºF.

Estimation of tin in canned food:

It is the estimation of tin dissolved in can due to reaction.

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This test determines the suitability of a tin container for a particular food .

Tin in caned food can be estimated by any standard method.

Test for grain structure and size:

This is a qualitative test which determines the method and quality of tin coating.

The sample is rubbed with cotton swab soaked in ferric chloride solution and the revealed grain
structure and size are studied.

Inferences:

1. Hot dip plate shows platelets whereas electroplate shows crystalline (crystal like grains)
structure.

2. Smaller the grain size, lower the quality of tinplate when compared with standard
photographs.

3. If black spots of corrosion are seen they are indicative of inadequate tin coating (underweight
tin coating) and lower quality.

4. Testing of glass containers

Tests: clarity, rigidity, chemical inertness, alkalinity, heat resistance, thermal shock resistance,
impact strength, vertical load strength, internal pressure resistance

5. Tests for product-package compatibility

List of tests: tests for tainting, tinting, migration of packaging material constituents in food,
estimation of tin in canned food, grease resistance, test for retention of volatiles in the package
etc.

Testing techniques: instrumental quantitative measurement, panel testing.

6.Tests for package performance

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These tests assess the performance of package against journey/distribution hazards…

Drop test (vertical impact by dropping), horizontal impact test, vibration test, compression test,
stacking test, climatic testing (temperature, relative humidity, pressure)

Vibration test: The test package is subjected to vibration in vibration testing equipment in
variable frequency, amplitude and time, and the fatigue and resonance effects on package,
fittings etc are evaluated.

Compression test: The test procedure comprises placing variable loads (weights) on package
placed on platform of test equipment for different time, and noting down the deflection (in
deflection recorder).

Stacking test: The test measures the capacity of package to bear vertical stack load as affected
by the height of stack.

Drop test: This test evaluates the hazard (breakage, burst, distortion, etc) caused by dropping,
as affected by height of dropping. Drop recorder is used to find the hazard caused by drop at
certain heights.

Climatic testing

Chapter 11: Shelf life of packaged food and its determination

Quality of packaged foods deteriorates with storage time (with exception of certain alcoholic
beverages) and they become unacceptable (unsatisfactory quality and unacceptability) at one
point of time (e.g. separation of oil from emulsion over storage and development of
unattractive appearance, brown discolouration of tomato products, staling of bread, wilting of
leafy vegetables, loss of crispness in biscuit and cracker, development of musty odour in dried
herbs, development of unsatisfactory colour and quality deterioration due to non-enzymatic
browning, freezer burn in meat, lipid oxidation esp. of fatty foods, etc., above all
microbiological spoilage)
 88

Definition of shelf life of packaged food:

Time elapsed between the production of the packaged product and the point of time at which it
becomes unacceptable under defined environmental conditions.

Mention of shelf life on label: “maximum shelf life”, “expiry date”, ” best before” etc.

Factors affecting shelf life of packaged food:

1. Product nature (perishable, semi-perisheble, non-perisheble) and composition (intrinsic
factors: concentration of reactive compounds, pH, a w, enzymatic activity, microbial load
etc)
2. Properties of packaging materials
3. Environment to which the product is exposed during distribution and storage (extrinsic
factors: environmental factors e.g. temperature, relative humidity, oxygen, pressure,
light, handling and distribution conditions
4. Processing and preservation methods
5. Product-package interaction

Situations for shelf life determination:

1. Determine the shelf life of existing products (regular production)

2. Study the effect of factors affecting the shelf life of packaged food product

3. Determine the shelf life of newly developed product as affected by new processing or
packaging

Indices of shelf life

 Consideration of main deteriorative reactions

 Examples
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Extent of non-enzymatic browning in intermediate a w products; degradation of chlorophyll in

leafy vegetables; concentration of hydrogen gas in canned food; extent of lipid oxidation in fats
and oils

Methodological approaches of estimating (predicting) shelf-life

1. Literature study of analogous product

2. Monitoring of turnover time: that is, average time the product spends on retail shelf

3. End point study: random samples are collected from retail outlets and tested in the
laboratory

4. Laboratory test for shelf life

4.1 Testing shelf life in lab (plant) under actual (ambient) conditions of packaging and
environmental conditions of temperature and relative humidity. Samples are drawn
from time to time and tested by panel by differentiation tests or objective tests are
performed e.g. degradation of ascorbic acid or lycopene.
4.2 Accelerated Shelf Life Testing (ASLT) is conducted under accelerated condition of
extrinsic factors such as temperature, relative humidity and oxygen partial pressure
present in package headspace such that product deteriorates early. It specially implies
to storage temperature since high temperature accelerates the reaction rate many folds
(Q10 effect). This test saves time and gives quick results (say, 1 month in stead of 1 year
by increasing storage temperature by 20°C) and thus much shorter time is needed to
meet product launch schedules.
It is essential that chemical and instrumental analysis results closely correlate with
sensory test results (human judgement)

Limitation of ASLT: Temperature change (high and low) can cause phase change in
foods which can ultimately give erroneous results. Therefore, ASLT results must be
 90

confirmed by conducting shelf life testing under actual environmental conditions and
the relationship between two tests established.

Shelf life estimation of pre-packed vegetables in vented PE bag

Selection of sound vegetables, washing, draining and air drying

↓
Packaging in vented test package (PE) and weighing (net wt recoded)
↓
Store under specified test conditions (Temp, Rh)
↓
Record weight and observe for wilting, microbial infection every two days
↓
Interpret the observations and results and draw inference

Shelf life estimation of packaged biscuit by half value period: product equivalent method

Determine the weight and moisture content of biscuit sample

↓
Pack biscuit in test packaging material
↓
Note total weight
↓
Store in humidity chamber at 38° C and 92 % Rh
↓
Weigh every alternative days
↓
Calculate average moisture pick up
↓
Calculate and find average initial effective weight of package, moisture content at given time
↓
Calculate half value period
↓
 91

Calculate shelf life at any specified actual storage condition of temperature and relative
humidity
 92

Chapter 12: Quality control and legislative aspects of

packaging

Aspects of consideration:
1. Quality control of packaging material and package
Meet standards and specifications for quality (or material) and performance, measurements
(e.g. size) and properties, minimize faults in fabrication, check lowering of quality, meet
performance requirements, win and retain customer goodwill.
Defects, critical, major and minor defects, tolerances and critical limits, elimination of
substandard products, manufacturer-user dialogue
2. Safety

Chapter 13: Waste management of packaging materials

 Pkgg materials constitute 20-35% of municipal solid waste in effluent industrial societies
 Waste, garbage materials
 Air pollution- litter in streets, foul air
 Disease
 Vision pollution

Options and methods for waste management

1. Waste minimization
2. Resource reduction or resource conservation
3. Reuse
4. Recycling (including composting)
5. Incineration with and without energy recovery
6. Landfill

Waste minimization
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That is, less production of wasted packaging materials

Resource reduction and resource conservation by

1. Reuse
2. Recycling
3. Reduction in weight by for example production of light weight pkgg materials, e.g light
weight bottles, light weight laminates, etc.

Reuse
Examples:
1. Filling in postconsumer returned bottles
2. Use of postconsumer metal container with reclosable lids (in stead of seamed lid)

Recycling

Definition: Recycling is diversion of materials from waste material stream for use as raw
material in the manufacture of new products of similar or different types.
Examples of recycling:
i. use of cullet (broken or used returned glass) in bottle manufacturing (similar type
product)
ii. used PET in manufacturing carpet for automobiles (different type product)

Incentives to recycled paper

Techniques of recycling

1. Closed-loop recycling:
“Recycling of a particular material back into product”
Example: collection of cullet and manufacturing glass bottles
 94

2. Collection and sorting:

Collection (mixed waste) at MRF (Materials Recovery Facility) → sorting in individual type pkgg
materials e.g. paper, plastic, glass, metal etc → processing
Method: waste materials → separation of lighter materials (e.g. paper, plastic) by air sifting →
separation of steel (Fe) by magnetic separator → separation of glass by hand picking or
machine

Paper → hydro-pulping→ removal of ink and other additives → pulp

Metal cans (tin, chromium) → detinning by dissolution in suitable solvent → steel → steel mills
↓
Washing
↓
Tin ingot
Aluminium → crushing & shredding → removal of steel → removal of ink & enamel → melting

Glass → crushing → magnetic separation of steel → air shifting to remove light materials like
paper & plastic

Plastics → sorting → washing → grinding in flakes → washing → new products

Benefits of recycling:
1. Conservation of resources
2. Prevention of greenhouse gases and water pollution
3. Saving of energy
4. Job creation
5. Reduction of need of new landfill sites and incinerators

Composting
 95

Composing can be considered as a technique of recycling

Pkgg materials containing organic materials (excepting plastic, leather and rubber) → aerobic
microbial decomposition → humus (compost, agriculture manure)

Incineration (mass burning in furnace):

Production of refuse derived fuel (RDF) as burning fuel for boiler, electricity generation
Note: open inceneration of plastic like PVC, PVDC produce toxic dioxine (gas)

Landfill:
1. Land filling by waste pkgg materials
2. Production of landfill gas (from microbial decomposition) as fuel (biogas)

Benefits of waste management

1. Minimization of waste itself
2. Conservation of resource for future generations
3. Economic gain
4. Pollution control etc.

Introduction to degradable plastics

Suggested literature:

1. F.A. Paine and H.Y. Paine. A handbook of Food Packaging. 2 nd edition, Blackie Academic,
1992.
2. Gordon L Robertson. Food Packaging Principles and Practice. 2 nd edition, CRC Press, 2006.
3. A.S. Athalye. Plastics in Packaging. Tata McGraw, 1992.
4. Frank A. Paine Packaging User's Handbook. Springer
 96

Books for selected chapters:

1. M. Shafiur Rahman. Handbook of Food Packaging. 1999.
Chapter: Food Package Interaction
2. Dilip Subba. Textbook of Meat and Poultry Technology. 2010.
Chapter: Packaging of meat and poultry