Daniel Gould, Dana K.

Voelker,
Nicole Damarjian, and Christy Greenleaf

Imagery Training
for Peak Performance 4
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C
arolyn is a highly talented professional golfer. She plays well
during practice rounds but does not seem to be able to play up
to her potential during tournaments. In an effort to enhance
her confidence, her coach recommends that she imagine her-
self executing each shot perfectly before she actually swings.
Although skeptical, Carolyn tries this in her next tournament.
She finds it difficult to control the “pictures” in her mind and
sees herself making mistakes. Frustrated, Carolyn sees little
immediate improvement in her game, decides that she is not
good at imagery, and retreats to the driving range to hit balls.
Alan is the new basketball coach at Bacon Academy and
decides that he will develop an imagery training program for
his team. Every day, after 2 hours of hard practice, Alan has
his team lie down and imagine themselves going through
various plays outlined in practice. As the season progresses,
Alan notices more and more resistance from some of his
players with regard to the imagery training. He overhears
them complain that they want to go home and eat supper after

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B. Brewer (Editors)
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All rights reserved.

55
 56 Gould et al.

a workout, not sit in the dark and daydream. Besides, they have no idea
why they are doing all this “mental stuff’ anyway. Concerned about los-
ing credibility with his team, Alan decides to drop the imagery program.
Lauren is an elite gymnast. Six weeks before the Olympic tryouts,
she sprains her ankle on a dismount. The athletic trainer assures Lauren
and her coach that the injury is minor and that with proper rest and
rehabilitation she should be completely recovered in time for the try-
outs. Two weeks later, Lauren returns to her normal practice schedule,
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but she continues to hesitate before her dismounts. Both her sport psy-
chologist and coach encourage her to replay past successful dismounts in
her mind to overcome the fear she has developed as a result of her recent
fall. Lauren halfheartedly does as they suggest but is not truly committed
to imagery training. She feels foolish and self-conscious in front of her
teammates and insists that her ankle is still not fully recovered.
But doesn’t imagery work? After all, Hank Aaron used it to become
the then all-time home run leader in major league baseball, golf great
Jack Nicklaus religiously did it before every shot, and what about all those
Olympic athletes who report how useful imagery is in enhancing their
performance? How can it be suggested that imagery does not work?
We believe in the power of imagery and its value as a psychologi-
cal skill in enhancing sport performance. As we discuss in this chapter,
research has clearly demonstrated the effectiveness of imagery as a sport
psychological change mechanism. However, circumstances like those
just described are not uncommon. Many well-meaning athletes, like
Carolyn the golfer, assume that psychological skills such as imagery can
be developed overnight to produce immediate performance improve-
ments. When the expected results are not achieved, athletes may falsely
conclude that imagery does not work. Other athletes, like Lauren the
elite gymnast, do not fully understand what imagery is or how it can
help them achieve their goals. They never truly commit to an imagery
training program, and as a result they fail to gain performance benefits.
This is why it is valuable for coaches like Alan to ensure that their teams
understand what imagery is and how it can be used to enhance sport
performance. This chapter is designed to provide a comprehensive and
practical overview of imagery theory, research, and intervention.

What Is Imagery and How Can

It Enhance Sport Performance

Imagery is defined as a process by which sensory experiences are stored in

memory and internally recalled and performed in the absence of exter-
nal stimuli (S. M. Murphy, 1994). Imagery involves the use of all senses,
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 57

including sight, touch, taste, sound, smell, and bodily awareness. This
is especially true in sports, where the feel of the movement is critical.
Assume, for example, that a swimmer is using imagery to mentally
prepare for a conference meet in the next month. She imagines herself
swimming confidently and strongly. She smells the chlorine of the pool
as she waits for the race to begin. She sees herself dive into the water.
She feels the power in her kick as she pushes herself past her competi-
tors. She hears water splashing and her teammates cheering her on. By
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incorporating all of her appropriate senses, this athlete is able to imag-

ine many aspects of her upcoming race more vividly.
With an appropriate training program, imagery skills can increase
self-awareness, facilitate skill acquisition and maintenance, build self-
confidence, control emotions, relieve pain, regulate arousal, and enhance
preparation strategies (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999; S. Murphy & Jowdy,
1992). However, before specific guidelines for setting up an imagery
training program are outlined, it is important to summarize the theories
that explain why and how imagery works, as well as to consider research
examining the relationship between imagery and performance.

Theoretical Explanations for

the Relationship Between
Imagery and Performance

To use imagery effectively, sport psychologists and coaches must have an

understanding of the mechanisms underlying the imagery–performance
relationship. Traditionally, two main theories have been put forward
within the sport psychology literature: psychoneuromuscular the-
ory and symbolic learning theory. These theories, as well as information
and motor process theories of imagery, psychological states notions, and
applied models of imagery, are discussed here.

Psychoneuromuscular Theory
Psychoneuromuscular theorists propose that imagery rehearsal dupli-
cates the actual motor pattern being rehearsed, although the neuro­
motor activation is of smaller magnitude than in actual physical practice
(Jacobson, 1932). The neuromuscular activation is thought to be suffi-
cient to enhance motor schema in the motor cortex. Vealey and Greenleaf
(1998) referred to this as muscle memory. For example, Suinn (1972) moni-
tored muscle activity in the legs of skiers as they imagined a downhill run.
He found that the electrical patterns in the muscles closely approximated
those expected if the person had actually been skiing.
 58 Gould et al.

Unfortunately, not all research has replicated Suinn’s (1972) results

or shown support for psychoneuromuscular theory. In a meta-analysis
of 60 mental practice studies, Feltz and Landers (1983) concluded that
it is doubtful that imagery effects result in low-level muscular-impulse
activity. More recent investigations have also failed to demonstrate strong
support for psychoneuromuscular theory (e.g., Slade, Landers, & Mar-
tin, 2002; D. Smith, Collins, & Holmes, 2003). Furthermore, research
in experimental psychology has suggested that the effects of imagery
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are more a function of higher level processes within the central nervous
system than lower level muscular activity (Kohl & Roenker, 1983). The
muscular responses found may merely be an effect mechanism rather
than a cause of performance changes.

Symbolic Learning Theory

In contrast to psychoneuromuscular theory, symbolic learning theory
contends that imagery effects are more often due to the opportunity to
practice symbolic elements of a specific motor task than to the muscle
activation itself (Sackett, 1935). More specifically, imagery functions
by helping athletes develop a “mental blueprint” to guide overt perfor-
mance. Support for symbolic learning theory has come from two areas
of research. First, a number of studies have shown that imagery is more
effective for tasks that have a high cognitive component as opposed to
a high motor component (Ryan & Simons, 1981). Second, the notion
that imagery has its greatest effects during the early stages of learning is
compatible with motor learning theories contending that the early stages
of learning are primarily cognitive.

Informational and Motor Process

Theories of Imagery
Although much of the imagery literature in sport psychology is based
on psychoneuromuscular and symbolic learning theories, S. Murphy
and Jowdy (1992) suggested that researchers look beyond traditional
theories and investigate the relevance of imagery theories developed in
other areas, such as cognitive and clinical psychology. Two such theories
are Lang’s (1977, 1979) bio-informational theory and Ahsen’s (1984)
triple-code model of imagery.
Lang’s (1977, 1979) bio-informational theory is based on the assump-
tion that an image is a functionally organized, finite set of propositions
regarding the relationship and description of stimulus and response char-
acteristics. Stimulus propositions describe the content of the scenario to
be imagined, for example, the weather conditions of a particular tennis
match or the pin position of a particularly difficult golf hole. Response
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 59

propositions describe the imager’s response to the imagined scenario,

for example, a kinesthetic awareness of any muscular changes while
performing. According to bio-informational theory (Lang, 1977, 1979),
both stimulus and response propositions must be activated for imagery
rehearsal to influence performance. Rather than conceptualizing an image
as merely a stimulus in the athlete’s mind to which he or she responds,
this theory suggests that images also contain “response scenarios” that
enable athletes to access the appropriate motor program and effectively
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alter athletic performance.

Similar to Lang’s (1977, 1979) bio-informational theory, Ahsen’s
(1984) triple-code model of imagery also recognizes the primary impor-
tance of psychophysiological processes in the imagery process. However,
Ahsen’s theory goes one step further and incorporates the personal
meaning that an image has for an individual. According to the triple-
code model, there are three essential parts of imagery, including the
image itself, the somatic response to the image, and the meaning of the
image. For example, a sprinter imagines herself successfully qualifying
for the 100-meter race in the 2012 Olympics. Her arousal level increases
with the image of running in this event and having achieved her lifelong
dream. In addition, she attaches a great sense of personal pride and satis-
faction to the image of this accomplishment. Both the image itself and the
somatic response to it are analogous to Lang’s (1977, 1979) stimulus and
response propositions. However, no other theory or model of imagery
has addressed the importance of the meaning that an individual attaches
to a particular image.
Although informational and motor process theories of imagery are
intriguing, only a few studies have been conducted to test their major
predictions. For example, Wilson, Smith, Burden, and Holmes (2010)
found that making images more personal and having the participant
(rather than the experimenter) generate the script resulted in greater
electromyography activity and perceived imagery ability. The authors
concluded that the results support bio-informational theory and empha-
sized the importance of making imagery more personally meaningful.
Similarly, Cumming, Olphin, and Law (2007) found that imagery con-
taining response propositions resulted in greater heart rate responses
in athletes, thus providing initial support for Lang’s (1977, 1979) bio-
informational theory (see S. Murphy & Jowdy, 1992, and Suinn, 1993,
for more detailed reviews of imagery theories).

Psychological States Notion

Although most imagery theories focus on improving performance
through information and motor control processes, imagery is also
thought to influence athletic performance through its effect on other
 60 Gould et al.

psychological states, such as self-efficacy or confidence, motivation, and

anxiety. For example, in his classic theory of self-efficacy, Bandura (1977)
proposed that an important source of efficacy information is the model-
ing of vicarious experiences and that imagery is an excellent way to
reinforce modeled acts and mentally learn from others. Several studies
have linked imagery use and levels of self-confidence (e.g., Callow,
Hardy, & Hall, 1998; Moritz, Hall, Martin, & Vadocz, 1996). Moritz et al.
(1996), for instance, found that highly confident athletes used more mas-
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tery and arousal control imagery than did athletes with lower confidence.
More recent research suggests that imagery is predictive of confidence
in both practice and competition (Hall et al., 2009), which may in turn
improve athletic performance.
Imagery may also enhance performance by increasing intrinsic
motivation. Martin and Hall (1995) found that beginner golfers in an
imagery intervention practiced more and set higher goals, thus exhibit-
ing higher levels of intrinsic motivation, than those in a control group.
Harwood, Cumming, and Hall (2003) found that athletes with both high
task (e.g., motivated by self-improvement) and high ego (e.g., motivated
by beating others) orientations used imagery more often than those with
low or moderate levels of task and ego orientations. Those who engage
in mental strategies like imagery may already be motivated to enhance
performance, thus contributing to imagery effectiveness.
Furthermore, widely used multimodal stress management
techniques—such as Meichenbaum’s (1985) stress management training,
R. E. Smith’s (1980) cognitive–affective stress management training, and
Suinn’s (1972) visuomotor behavioral rehearsal—all feature imagery as a
means of reducing anxiety. A review of these programs shows that they
have been successful in helping athletes control anxiety and enhance sport
performance (Gould & Udry, 1994). Imagery thus influences important
psychological states such as confidence, motivation, and anxiety, which
in turn influence athletic performance.

Applied Models of Imagery Use in Sport

Martin et al. (1999) developed an applied model of how imagery is used
in sport (see Figure 4.1), including aspects of both bio-informational
theory and the triple-code model, which was updated and modified
in 2005 (Gregg, Hall, & Nederhof, 2005). Although this applied model
does not attempt to explain the underlying mechanisms for why and
how imagery affects performance, it provides a useful framework for
imagery uses within sport. The model consists of four central compo-
nents: (a) the sport situation, (b) the type of imagery used, (c) imagery
ability, and (d) the outcomes of imagery use. In addition, five types of
imagery are outlined based on Paivio’s (1985) framework of imagery
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 61

Figure 4.1

SPORT SITUATION IMAGERY TYPE OUTCOME

• Training • Cognitive Specific • Acquisition and improved

• Competition • Cognitive General performance of skills and
• Rehabilitation • Motivational General strategies
–Mastery • Modification of cognitions
• Motivational General • Regulations of arousal and
–Arousal anxiety
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• Motivational Specific

IMAGERY ABILITY

• Kinesthetic
• Visual

An applied model of mental imagery use in sport. From “Imagery Use in

Sport: A Literature Review and Applied Model,” by K. A. Martin, S. E. Moritz,
and C. R. Hall, 1999, The Sport Psychologist, 13(3), p. 248. Copyright 1999 by
Human Kinetics. Reprinted with permission.

functions. Cognitive-specific (CS) imagery involves an athlete imaging

specific sport skills, such as a basketball free throw. The cognitive general
(CG) type of imagery refers to imagery of competitive strategies, such
as the use of a diamond defense in field hockey. Motivational general-
mastery (MG-M) imagery involves imaging oneself coping effectively and
mastering challenging situations, such as a tennis player imaging himself
being confident and positive going into a tough match. The motivational
general-arousal (MG-A) type of imagery refers to imagery focused on
various arousal experiences associated with sport competition, such as
anxiety and relaxation; for example, a shooter may imagine herself feel-
ing physically calm and relaxed during her setup. Motivational-specific
(MS) imagery focuses on imaging oneself working toward and achieving
specific goals, such as a personal best time.
Martin et al. (1999) suggested three outcomes associated with
imagery use based on previous research, including skill and strategy
learning and performance, modifying cognitions, and regulating arousal
and competitive anxiety. Based on a review of the imagery literature,
they concluded that CS imagery is most effective for skill and strategy
learning and performance and that MG-M and MS imagery are more
effective for modifying cognitions. Finally, imagery, combined with
other behavioral stress management strategies, is effective in regulating
arousal and competition anxiety. Martin et al. also noted that imagery
 62 Gould et al.

use is helpful in specific sport situations such as training, competition,

and rehabilitation. Gregg et al. (2005) emphasized the importance of
considering both the demands of the task and the desired outcomes in
the design of imagery interventions programs and contended that Mar-
tin et al.’s model continues to be a valuable resource.
More recently, Holmes and Collins (2001) developed the PETTLEP
model of imagery. The PETTLEP acronym symbolizes seven important
components that should be considered when constructing a motor-based
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imagery program: physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emo-

tion, and perspective. Based on cognitive psychology and neuroscience
research, this model contends that the neurophysiological responses
underlying both imagery and actual physical movement are the same,
thus explaining the imagery–performance relationship. In the PETTLEP
model, then, physical practice and imagery are viewed on a continuum.
Imagery intervention programs that lie closer to the physical end of the
continuum are predicted to be more effective than those closer to the
imagery end of the continuum. Hence, the more one’s imagery repli-
cates actual performance by using the seven PETTLEP components as
a guide, the more effective the imagery will be. For example, instead of
lying down and imagining hitting a perfect golf swing, the PETTLEP model
suggests that the golfer be outside, assume his stance, and hold his club
while performing imagery. It is encouraging that studies have supported
the contentions of the PETTLEP model. For example, in two studies
conducted by D. Smith, Wright, Allsopp, and Westhead (2007), the use
of PETTLEP model-based imagery (e.g., wearing the correct clothing
and performing imaging in the actual environment) by field hockey
players taking penalty shots and gymnasts executing a balance beam
skill was found to be more effective than imagery interventions involv-
ing less specific imagery scripts.

Imagery Research

The research studies examining the relationship between imagery and

athletic performance can be categorized into four main areas: (a) men-
tal practice studies, (b) precompetition imagery intervention research,
(c) imagery use studies, and (d) mediating variable studies.

Mental Practice Studies

The majority of the mental practice studies are concerned with the effects
of mental practice on the learning and performance of motor skills. In
these studies, mental practice is typically defined as mental rehearsal of a
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 63

given task or performance without any associated overt actions. Although

mental practice may or may not include the use of imagery, the overlap
between the two areas warrants a discussion of the findings.
The standard methodology used in the mental practice studies
involves a between-subjects pretest–posttest design with four groups:
physical practice only, mental practice only, both physical and mental
practice, and no practice. For example, Rawlings, Rawlings, Chen, and
Yilk (1972) examined the effects of mental practice on a pursuit rotor
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task. At the onset of the study, all participants were introduced to the
task and received 25 practice trials. Following these trials, participants
differed in their practice methods. Group 1 received physical practice
only, Group 2 received no practice, and Group 3 received mental prac-
tice only (imagery and visualization). After an 8-day training period, all
participants were retested on the pursuit rotor task for 25 more trials.
The results showed that the mental practice group improved consider-
ably over the course of the experiment, almost to the extent that the
physical practice group did. In contrast, the no-practice group showed
little, if any, improvement.
On the basis of a meta-analysis of 60 mental practice studies, Feltz
and Landers (1983) suggested that mental practice is better than no
practice at all. Furthermore, in a comprehensive review of the literature,
Weinberg (1981) stated that
mental practice combined and alternated with physical practice
is more effective than either physical or mental practice alone. In
addition, physical practice is superior to mental practice. Mental
practice should not replace physical practice, but rather it can be
used as a valuable addition to physical practice. (p. 203)
This literature supports the belief that the ideal training program com-
bines physical and mental practice techniques.

Precompetition Imagery Interventions

Unlike mental practice studies, precompetition imagery intervention
studies involve the use of imagery or mental rehearsal immediately prior
to performance. They examine the effectiveness of imagery in preparing
an athlete who is about to perform. Unfortunately, studies in this area
have generated more questions than answers.
For example, several studies have suggested that imagery rehearsal
prior to performance can benefit performance on some tasks compared
with a condition in which no imagery rehearsal is used (see S. Murphy
& Jowdy, 1992, for a detailed review). Shelton and Mahoney (1978)
found that 15 male weight lifters asked to use their favorite “psyching-
up” strategy before a test of hand strength showed significantly greater
improvement over baseline than did 15 male weight lifters asked to
 64 Gould et al.

improve their performance but given a distracting cognitive task during

preperformance. Unfortunately, this type of research is problematic,
for two reasons. First, such designs do not specify the type of mental
rehearsal that facilitates performance. Although each athlete may report
having used imagery, this may mean different things to different athletes.
Second, this research does little to improve understanding of how imagery
interventions influence performance. It fails to address the important
and often elusive question of what mechanisms underlie the imagery–
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performance relationship.
In addition to these problems, several studies have failed to find a
positive relationship between imagery and performance. For example,
Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, and Barnes (1980) examined three mental
preparation strategies and their effects on a tennis serve task. Par-
ticipants were divided into one of four conditions: (a) using imagery to
prepare for serving, (b) making positive self-efficacy statements, (c) using
attentional focus, and (d) a control condition in which participants
were asked to prepare as they normally would. The results showed that
none of the cognitive strategies increased performance over the control
condition.
S. Murphy and Jowdy (1992) suggested that these mixed results may
be due to a number of variables, including task, individual difference,
and physiology. With regard to the task variables, imagery rehearsal may
be a more effective strategy for some types of tasks than for others. Per-
haps imagery rehearsal is more effective with predominantly cognitive
as opposed to motor tasks, for example. It is also important to examine
individual difference variables. Some individuals may, for instance, have
a higher quality of imagery and thus experience greater improvements in
performance. Finally, imagery may differentially influence certain physi-
ological variables (e.g., electromyogram, electroencephalogram, heart
rate). Although they show that an imagery–performance relationship
often exists, the preperformance imagery intervention studies have been
methodologically weak overall.
Some research in this area has included better intervention descrip-
tions and manipulation checks. For example, Velentzas, Heinen, and
Schack (2011) investigated the influence of an imagery-based routine
on serve performance in volleyball. It was found that the imagery group
served with greater accuracy and speed as compared with both a control
group and a group that received physical training. In another study test-
ing the PETTLEP imagery model, D. Smith et al. (2007) found that gym-
nasts who used internal perspective and kinesthetic imagery while in
gymnastics attire on the balance beam improved as much as gymnasts
who only physically practiced and more than both a control stretch-
ing group and a stimulus imagery group imagining the performance
at home in street clothes. Finally, in an interesting 14-week case study
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 65

intervention with an elite rugby player involving interviews, diaries,

and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire, Evans, Jones, and Mullen (2004)
found that the player reported more structure to his imagery use post­
intervention. The respondent also indicated that he had greater imagery
clarity; improved confidence; and better control of activation, anxiety,
and motivation. Hence, the intervention was successful in helping him
better control psychological processes.
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Imagery Use Studies

Another area of imagery research has focused on the incidence of
imagery use among athletes, including when, where, and why they use
imagery. Athletes use imagery in conjunction with practice, competi-
tion, and rehabilitation (Martin et al., 1999), as well as in environments
outside of practice and competition, such as school, home, and work
(Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994). Athletes tend to use imagery more
often prior to competition than in association with practice situations
(Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990; K. J. Munroe, Giacobbi,
Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Salmon et al., 1994; Weinberg, Butt, Knight,
Burke, & Jackson, 2003). K. Munroe, Hall, Simms, and Weinberg (1998)
found that the imagery use of athletes from 10 sports differed across the
duration of their respective competitive seasons. CG imagery and MS
imagery were increasingly used as the competitive season progressed.
Other changes in imagery use across the competitive season depended
on the sport.
Similarly, K. J. Munroe et al. (2000) interviewed 14 athletes from
seven sports to examine where, when, why, and what athletes image.
Athletes reported using imagery both during and outside of practice as
well as before, during, and after competition. Athletes in this study indi-
cated that they found imagery to be most effective during practice and
prior to competitive situations. Athletes reported a number of reasons
for using imagery, many corresponding to the types of imagery described
by Paivio (1985) and Martin et al. (1999). Specifically, they reported using
imagery for skill development (CS), skill execution, and strategy devel-
opment and execution (CG). They also reported using imagery to gen-
erate motivation related to performance and outcome (MS); to regulate
excitement, control, and relaxation (MG-A); to enhance mental tough-
ness, focus, and confidence (MG-G); and to get into flow states.

Mediating Variables Studies

The final area of research to be discussed focuses on a variety of possible
mediating variables and their influence on the imagery–performance
relationship. Team cohesion is one situational variable that has been
 66 Gould et al.

associated with greater imagery use (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart,

2005).When considering individual characteristics, some researchers
have examined the influence of imagery ability on performance. Imag-
ery ability has been defined primarily by the level of vividness and con-
trollability that athletes have over their imagery. Vividness refers to the
clarity and reality in an athlete’s image, whereas controllability refers
to the athlete’s ability to influence the content of the image. Several
correlational studies have found that more successful performers have a
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higher quality of imagery (Highlen & Bennett, 1983; Meyers, Cooke,

Cullen, & Liles, 1979). Athletes with greater imagery ability tend to use
this psychological tool more often (Gregg, Hall, McGowan, & Hall, 2011).
Another possible mediating variable relates to the correctness of an
athlete’s imagery. For example, Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985)
used a golf putting task to determine the effects of imagery correctness
on performance. The results showed that participants in the negative
imagery condition performed significantly worse than participants in
the positive imagery and control conditions.
A final mediating variable relates to imagery perspective. Some ath-
letes imagine themselves from an internal perspective (i.e., they are inside
their body actually experiencing the imagined sensations), whereas
others imagine themselves from an external perspective (i.e., they are a
spectator watching the performance). Although some researchers have
found an internal perspective to be associated with higher levels of per-
formance (Mahoney & Avener, 1977), others have found no difference
in performance for those with internal versus external imagery perspec-
tives (Mumford & Hall, 1985). Research by Hardy and colleagues (Hardy,
1997; Hardy & Callow, 1999; White & Hardy, 1998) suggests that an
external imagery perspective is good for imaging tasks in which form is
important; however, an internal imagery perspective is good for imag-
ing open-skilled tasks where perception is important for performance.
In addition, kinesthetic imagery is thought to be beneficial regardless of
the imagery perspective used. Thus, considering individual differences
and situational factors is critical in both the study and the application of
imagery techniques.
Our brief review of the sport and motor performance imagery
research shows that this area of investigation is not without problems.
More carefully controlled and methodologically sound research is cer-
tainly needed (detailed recommendations for imagery researchers are
provided by Short, Ross-Stewart, & Monsma, 2006). On a more posi-
tive note, when it is combined with physical practice, imagery has been
shown to facilitate sport performance. However, this research also dem-
onstrates that imagery does not work for all tasks, with all people, in
all situations. Although improved research will clarify on what tasks,
with whom, and in what situations imagery works best, it is clear that
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 67

simply asking athletes to imagine themselves performing better will not

guarantee beneficial effects. Sport psychology professionals and coaches
must make informed imagery prescriptions that are guided by an under-
standing of imagery research and theory, feedback from athletes, and
sport psychology guidelines identified for effective use.

Guidelines for Using Imagery

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From the research conducted thus far, many practical applications have
been suggested to help increase use of imagery as a performance enhance-
ment tool. Similarly, some sport psychology professionals (Harris & Harris,
1984; Martens, 1987; Orlick, 1986, 1990; Vealey & Greenleaf, 1998) who
have had extensive experience in using imagery rehearsal with athletes
have developed a number of useful guidelines for those practitioners or
athletes interested in implementing such techniques.

Practice Imagery on a Regular Basis

Unfortunately, many coaches and athletes believe that psychological
skills such as imagery do not require the same practice that physical skills
require. For example, Carolyn, described at the beginning of this chap-
ter, halfheartedly attempted to use imagery to enhance her golf game.
She never truly committed to practicing imagery and became frustrated
when she failed to realize immediate performance gains. Mental skills
are like physical skills. Becoming proficient in the use of imagery requires
a commitment throughout the training season. It is unrealistic to think
that either a physical or mental skill will be effective in a competitive
situation when it is never practiced at any other time. Ideally, imagery
training should become an integral part of daily practice.

Use All Senses to Enhance Image Vividness

The more senses incorporated into imagery, the more vivid and effective
it will be (Harris & Harris, 1984; Orlick, 1986). Many athletes assume
that imagery is synonymous with visualization. Although visualization
can be an important component of imagery rehearsal, it is important to
draw from senses other than sight to increase that quality of imagery,
especially in physical activities like sports. For example, a skier may
wish to familiarize herself with an upcoming race course. In addition to
“seeing” the course, she also needs to experience the kinesthetic feel-
ing of passing through a particularly tough gate, feeling the wind, and
hearing the ski edges slash through the snow. This helps the athlete
 68 Gould et al.

develop positive feelings as well as a sense of confidence when entering

the upcoming event.

Develop Imagery Control

In addition to improving image clarity, it is important that athletes be
able to control the content of their images. Is an athlete’s image positive
and self-enhancing or negative and self-defeating? Negative imagery
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can have a detrimental effect on performance. It is important to know

the extent to which the individual athletes you are working with are able
to influence the content of their imagery. For example, if a tennis player
consistently imagines his serves going into the net, it may be important to
provide specific exercises to strengthen his imagery control. Fortunately,
with practice, most athletes can learn to control the content of their
imagery.

Use Both Internal and

External Perspectives
Some athletes imagine themselves from an inside-the-body perspective,
actually experiencing the imagined sensations. Others imagine themselves
from the perspective of watching their performances on a movie screen. It
has been proposed that an internal imagery perspective is superior to an
external imagery perspective because of the importance of kinesthetic
awareness in sport performance (Mahoney & Avener, 1977). However,
researchers have suggested that the use of external imagery for tasks in
which form is important and internal imagery for tasks in which percep-
tion and decision making are important are effective (Hardy, 1997; Hardy
& Callow, 1999; White & Hardy, 1998). For example, external imagery
may enhance sport performance by building athletes’ self-confidence.
The best approach to imagery depends on the needs of the individual
athlete and the demands of the specific sport.

Facilitate Imagery Through Relaxation

Research suggests that imagery combined with relaxation is more
effective than imagery alone (Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981).
However, imagery can certainly be used without relaxation—for exam-
ple, during competition (K. J. Munroe et al., 2000). It is thought that
using relaxation strategies (e.g., passive progressive relaxation, deep
breathing) prior to imagery rehearsal clears athletes’ minds of possible
distractions and, therefore, allows them to better concentrate on their
imagery. The combination of relaxation and imagery training is espe-
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 69

cially helpful with athletes who are just developing their imagery skills.
Unlike athletes who are highly proficient with imagery, less skilled
imagers tend to be more easily distracted because their imagery skills
are not yet automatic. The purpose of this chapter is not to review vari-
ous relaxation techniques; however, readers can refer to Wilson and
Taylor’s chapter on intensity regulation and sport performance in this
book (Chapter 6) for more specific relaxation strategies that may be
used with imagery.
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Develop Coping Strategies

Through Imagery
Although positive imagery is generally preferred over negative
imagery, there are occasions when negative imagery can be helpful.
If athletes always imagine themselves performing perfectly, then they
are almost assured to set themselves up for failure. Therefore, it is
important that they learn to cope with adversity as well as success.
For example, a baseball player may wish to imagine himself strik-
ing out the first few times at bat, only to come back with a critical
hit in the late innings. Coping imagery can help athletes turn a poor
performance around. However, such imagery is not recommended
for use just before a competitive event. Coping imagery may be best
used in the off-season and should not be done too frequently. When
athletes are preparing for an important competitive event, it seems
best to have them imagine themselves performing successfully rather
than unsuccessfully.

Use Imagery in Practice and Competition

Imagery rehearsal should be used in practice sessions as well as before
competition. Imagery can help an athlete to get in the right zone both
mentally and physically to optimize training. As an example, imagery
can help direct an athlete’s attention to specific practice goals. It can
also help an athlete who may not be motivated to practice on a given
day. Many athletes find it difficult to get up for practice in the off-
season. Imagery of arousal-producing situations (e.g., losing to a rival)
can be used to help motivate athletes to train hard for competitions
that may be months away. Finally, the quality of imagery will improve
if it is used daily in practice, and thus it will be of more help to athletes
during the pressures of competition.
Imagery is not only helpful in preparing for practice but also should
be used frequently during practice. For example, following a mistake,
coaches can instruct athletes to mentally correct the problems through
 70 Gould et al.

imagery before making the next attempts. Likewise, after performing cor-
rectly, athletes can take a moment to imagine the look and feel of the
correct response. Similarly, when demonstrating, coaches should ask
athletes to imagine the skill that was demonstrated before executing a
response. Finally, when teaching new offensive or defensive plays to
team-sport athletes, coaches should instruct athletes to visualize the
correct flow of movement of the team’s play. However, the effective use
of imagery during practice does not typically mean that one stops play
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or instruction for a special 5- or 10-minute imagery session. Rather,

coaches should repeatedly ask athletes to “imagine” for very short
periods (3–10 seconds) as a part of normal coaching and instructional
procedures.

Use dvds or Audiotapes

to Enhance Imagery Skills
Some athletes find DVDs or audio recordings helpful to develop and
reinforce constructive imagery. Although several audio recordings are
on the market, athletes can make their own to help guide them through
an imagery session. If athletes or sport psychology professionals create
their own recordings, they can incorporate cues that are used during
physical practice. For example, if a swimmer uses the cue word “punch”
to instruct herself to explode off the turn, this cue could be used during
imagery rehearsal.
DVDs can also be used to help athletes develop their imagery skills.
“Highlight DVDs” can be made with clips of athletes’ practices or com-
petitions in which they have performed well. An athlete’s favorite
music can be added to serve as a cue to trigger excellent performance
in the future. The U.S. women’s ice hockey team combined season
highlights interspersed with Muhammad Ali video clips to enhance
imagery and create positive feelings of confidence prior to their gold
medal winning game.

Use Triggers or Cues to

Facilitate Imagery Quality
As mentioned above, triggers or cues are important components of
imagery rehearsal. For some athletes, triggers are words or phrases that
help them to focus on appropriate cues during imagery. Triggers may
also include specific sensory experiences, such as how a given tech-
nique or movement feels kinesthetically. Triggers can involve any of
the five senses. The key point is that whatever trigger or cue an athlete
uses, it must be able to conjure up the appropriate image.
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 71

Emphasize Dynamic Kinesthetic Imagery

Another way to enhance the quality of imagery is to have athletes
focus particular attention on the kinesthetic feel of the movement.
Some athletes also find it useful to move during imagery rehearsal.
For example, a sprinter may assume a starting position and then
imagine blasting from the blocks en route to a record time. A golfer
may stand at address and actually swing a golf club while imagining
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the ball traveling through the air and landing close to the hole. With
dynamic imagery the actual movement of the activity often helps
athletes to recall more clearly the sensations associated with their
performance.

Image in Real Time

Research has shown that at times athletes find it helpful to slow
down their play during imagery, particularly to analyze techniques
or patterns of play, learn skills, or develop strategies (O & Hall, 2009).
Sometimes they may find it useful to speed images up when imaging
skills that have been mastered. However, because an athlete does not
execute techniques in slow motion or at a faster-than-normal speed, the
bulk of imagery should be in real time (i.e., the speed at which athletes
actually perform). As a result, imagery practice will replicate the actual
conditions of play.

Use Imagery Logs

Imagery logs or notebooks can serve a variety of purposes. For instance,
they can assist athletes in monitoring imagery practice and progress.
Different imagery exercises can be recorded along with the extent to
which athletes feel that exercises are helpful. Imagery logs can also be
used to describe previous best performances in an effort to identify bet-
ter triggers or cues for imagery rehearsal. Overall, imagery logs increase
athletes’ awareness with regard to the practice they devote to imagery
as well as the effectiveness of this practice.

Consider the Developmental Level

of Imagery Participants
One important development in imagery research is the importance
of understanding how athletes of different ages and skill levels use
imagery. For example, Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fisburne, and Stachan
(2007) employed focus groups to study imagery use in athletes rang-
ing from 7 to 14 years of age. They found that all groups studied used
 72 Gould et al.

motivational and cognitive imagery in both training and competition.

The youngest athletes (7–8 years of age), however, did not report using
imagery immediately following competitions or out of practice. The
younger athletes also reported less use of MG-A and MG-M imagery.
Findings from another study suggest that youth sport participants may
have little understanding of the psychological tools being employed.
In a qualitative examination of youth athletes 10 to 15 years old,
McCarthy, Jones, Harwood, and Olivier (2010) found that although
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mental imagery and goal setting were the better understood psycho-
logical skills (as compared with relaxation and self-talk), it is critical for
practitioners to adapt their interventions to meet the age and develop-
mental level of the participants. Other studies have shown that imagery
use may be related to age and skill level. Gregg and Hall (2006) found
that age predicted imagery use in golfers (8–87 years of age) and that
the lower handicapped or more skilled golfers used all types of imag-
ery more often than their less skilled counterparts. Hence, it may be
especially important to encourage imagery use by less experienced, less
skilled, and older athletes.

Developing an Imagery
Training Program

Having established specific guidelines for using imagery, we now address

how to best implement an imagery training program with athletes.
Although no two imagery programs are alike, it is important to incor-
porate the four phases discussed here.

Phase 1: Awareness, Realistic

Expectations, and Basic Education
Many coaches are eager to try all that imagery training has to offer. Unfor-
tunately, their efforts are often undermined because many athletes do not
understand what imagery is and how it can enhance performance. Con-
sider the story of Alan at the beginning of this chapter. After attending
a coaching education seminar, he decided to implement an imagery
training program with his high school boys’ basketball team. Although
his intentions were good, he failed to educate his team on basic imagery
principles and convince them of the importance of imagery training to
their basketball success. As a result, his players questioned the purpose
of all this “mental stuff” and never truly made a commitment to it dur-
ing practice.
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 73

Before implementing any imagery training program, it is critical that

sport psychology professionals and coaches explain what imagery is and
address any possible misconceptions that athletes may have. For example,
some athletes may look to imagery training as a quick-and-easy solution
to complex performance problems. This thinking is consistent with the
desire for instant gratification so prevalent in many parts of the world.
In reality, however, developing and refining imagery skills require the
same systematic practice as physical skills.
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Another common misconception that many athletes have is that

imagery training is not useful. The claims of athletes in the popular
press and from a growing body of research indicate that imagery train-
ing helps athletes achieve their potential. Although imagery training
certainly cannot solve all problems, it has helped many athletes reach
higher levels of performance.
Finally, because the media attention surrounding sport psychol-
ogy is often associated with elite performers, many falsely assume that
mental skills such as imagery are only for top-ranked amateur or pro-
fessional athletes. In reality, imagery training can help athletes of all
ability levels to achieve their potential. Imagery rehearsal can be used
in conjunction with physical training to enhance skill acquisition in
any athlete.
Overall, athletes must be aware of the importance of imagery for
performance success if they are to develop a commitment to a training
program (Martens, 1987). However, sport psychology professionals and
coaches must avoid unrealistic expectations about the effectiveness of
imagery. Promises of dramatic performance improvements will set up
even the best-designed program for failure and undermine the cred-
ibility of imagery training.
Therefore, before implementing a program, sport psychology profes-
sionals and coaches should hold a brief introductory meeting to explain
what imagery is and how it has helped other athletes in the past, especially
those in the same sport as the athletes they are speaking to. For example,
Alan could have conveyed to his basketball team how Bill Russell, one of
the all-time best basketball players and winner of 11 National Basketball
Association championships, used imagery to execute new plays and build
self-confidence (Russell & Branch, 1979). Such stories can help to estab-
lish credibility and respect with athletes, demonstrate an understanding of
the language of the sport, and show athletes how to relate imagery skills
to their specific individual needs (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Partington
& Orlick, 1987; Ravizza, 1988).
It is also important to stress in the introductory meeting the need
to practice imagery on a regular basis. During preseason, many coaches
and athletes are enthusiastic about the prospects of an imagery training
program. Unfortunately, as the season progresses and time demands
 74 Gould et al.

and pressures increase, imagery training is often reduced to a handful

of brief meetings added on to an already demanding practice schedule.
Coaches and athletes must view imagery training as an integral part of
practice. Practicing sport psychology professionals should emphasize
that imagery training will not take away from physical practice but will
instead enhance it.

Phase 2: Imagery Skill Evaluation

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and Development
Once athletes are aware of the value of imagery training, have realistic
expectations, and have received basic education, their specific imagery
skills should be evaluated and developed. There are several methods for
evaluating imagery ability. One is to administer a psychological skills
inventory, such as the Sport Imagery Questionnaire discussed by Vealey
and Greenleaf (1998). This questionnaire was originally created by
Martens (1982) to measure athletes’ ability to experience each of the
five senses as well as various emotional or mood states. Another way
to evaluate imagery ability is to guide an athlete through an imagery
exercise and, afterward, discuss the quality of the images. One should
consider several aspects of the athlete’s images in such an evaluation:
(a) Were the images vivid and controllable? (b) Were they experienced
from an internal or an external perspective? (c) Was the athlete able to
feel the physical movements while imaging? (d) Were images under the
athlete’s control? It is important to remember that, just as individual
athletes differ in physical ability, they will also differ in their ability
to image.
Once sport psychology professionals recognize athletes’ strengths and
weaknesses with regard to imagery, they can determine what specific
practice strategies are most appropriate. In general, imagery training is
designed to enhance the vividness and controllability of an athlete’s imag-
ery. Martens (1987) recommended that a sport imagery training program
consist of three steps: (a) sensory awareness training, (b) vividness train-
ing, and (c) controllability training.

Sensory Awareness Training

The first step in Martens’s (1987) sport imagery training program is to
have athletes become more aware of their sport experiences. The more
athletes are consciously aware of what they see, hear, and feel, the
more likely that they will be able to mentally recreate these experiences
through imagery. For example, following a successful practice or com-
petition, an athlete may wish to make note of the various sensations
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 75

associated with that performance in an effort to identify specific cues

that will enhance the quality of imagery in the future.

Vividness Training
After athletes have gained a greater sense of awareness with regard to their
sport experiences, Martens (1987) suggested they should work to develop
and refine the vividness of their images. This can be accomplished with a
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variety of exercises. For example, if athletes have very poor imagery skills,
the sport psychology professional or coach might recommend that they
start with a simple exercise, such as imagining the details of their bedroom
or a piece of equipment associated with their sport (e.g., a football, run-
ning shoes). As their imagery skills develop, they can begin to imagine
more complex skills associated with their sport performance using the
PETTLEP model components to make their imagery script as realistic as
possible. Also, athletes may find it helpful to practice in a relaxed environ-
ment, free of any possible distractions at first and then later in accordance
with PETTLEP model guidelines move into more realistic environments.
As discussed earlier, many athletes use relaxation techniques prior to
imagery rehearsal to better focus their attention. There is no limit to the
exercises that athletes can do to enhance the vividness of their images. It
requires only a little imagination and creativity.

Controllability Training
The final step of Martens’s (1987) sport imagery training program
involves learning to control and manipulate images. Similar to vividness
training, if athletes have poor imagery skills, it is important to begin with
a simple exercise in a quiet setting before moving to a more complex,
sport-specific exercise. Assume, for example, that a basketball player has
difficulty controlling the content of his images. When he tries to imagine
himself hitting a 3-point shot, he is unable to visualize the ball going into
the basket. In this situation, a practicing sport psychology professional or
coach may want to suggest that the athlete try a more simple exercise,
such as simply imagining that he is dribbling the ball from a stationary
position. As he becomes more proficient with this exercise, he can grad-
ually work toward controlling images of more complex basketball skills
(e.g., layups, 8-foot jumpshots, 16-foot jumpshots, then 3-point shots).
It is also important to remind athletes to be patient with themselves at
first and not expect too much too soon. This is apparent from comments
by Sylvie Bernier, former Olympic champion in springboard diving:
It took me a long time to control my images and perfect my
imagery, maybe a year, doing it every day. At first I couldn’t
see myself, I always saw everyone else, or I would see my dives
 76 Gould et al.

wrong all the time. I would get an image of hurting myself, or

tripping on the board, or I would “see” something done really
bad. As I continued to work at it, I got to the point where I could
feel myself doing a perfect dive and hear the crowd yelling at the
Olympics. But it took me a long time. (Orlick, 1990, p. 68)
Regardless of whether an athlete is working on sensory awareness, image
vividness, or image control, imagery is a skill like any other, requiring
consistent effort to attain a high level of proficiency.
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Individuals differ in their ability to image. Therefore, it is critical that

athletes be evaluated with regard to their imagery ability. Once athletes’
strengths and weaknesses are recognized, an imagery program can be
tailored to fit the individual needs of a team or athlete.

Phase 3: Using Imagery

Once athletes have evaluated and developed their imagery skills, it is
important that they be reminded to continue to use them on a regular
basis. Coaches are in the best position to remind athletes to use imag-
ery and can do so with any number of strategies. For example, Mike
White, former University of Illinois football coach, made a large meet-
ing room available to his team in the hotel on the nights before games.
This “imagery room” was used on a voluntary basis, and players went
to this dark, quiet place to mentally prepare themselves. Coaches can
also incorporate the use of imagery in instructional settings by hav-
ing athletes visualize demonstrations, correct mistakes, and learn new
offensive and defensive strategies. Knowledge of Martin et al.’s (1999)
applied model of imagery, with its five types of imagery and focus on
the outcomes desired and the types of situations athletes are perform-
ing in, can serve as an excellent guide for coaches to go beyond saying
simply imagine doing a skill. Coach support and involvement, then, are
valuable for imagery training programs. Finally, players should spend
time visualizing themselves performing successfully and achieving their
goals. They should also be encouraged to focus on the seven compo-
nents of the PETTLEP model to help themselves design the most effec-
tive motor imagery programs.

Phase 4: Imagery Evaluation,

Adjustment, and Refinement
The final steps in any successful imagery training program involve
determining whether the program is meeting its objectives (Weinberg
& Williams, 1998) and identifying adjustments and refinements needed
to enhance the program. It is valuable to start by evaluating current
imagery ability levels and assigning appropriate exercises for each
player. Midway through the season, athletes’ imagery ability could be
 Imagery Training for Peak Performance 77

reevaluated (e.g., with Martens’s, 1982, Sport Imagery Questionnaire)

to determine what, if any, progress has been made. For athletes who
have shown little improvement, individual meetings could be set up
to identify possible problems. Depending on the individual situation, a
new strategy might be developed. Athletes who are improving would
simply be encouraged to continue with their current strategies, to log
imagery effectiveness, and to explore new ways of using imagery.
If an imagery training program is meeting its objectives, athletes can
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continue with confidence. However, if the program is not meeting its

objectives, it is critical to determine why. What are the obstacles, and how
can they be overcome? Without critically examining an imagery training
program, some athletes may falsely conclude that they are poor imagers
when, in fact, they were using inappropriate strategies to develop their
imagery skills. Program evaluations provide important feedback as to
what strategies are effective and for whom they are effective. In addition,
they provide an opportunity to alter ineffective strategies.
In summary, no two imagery training programs are identical. Each
is designed to meet the unique characteristics and needs of an athlete
or team. However, an individual training program should include each
of the four phases outlined above. For any training program to be effec-
tive, the athletes must understand that imagery is a skill that requires
consistent effort over time to develop. Further, during the training pro-
cess, progress must be evaluated and adjustments made to ensure that
the program is meeting its desired objectives.

Summary

Imagery, a process by which sensory experiences are stored in memory

and internally recalled and performed in the absence of external stimuli,
is a powerful performance enhancement technique studied and used
by practicing sport psychology professionals. Several imagery theories
and models focus on explaining how imagery influences performance,
as well as how athletes can use imagery. Based on research and practical
experience, several guidelines were suggested to help practitioners or
athletes interested in implementing imagery rehearsal to enhance sport
performance. In implementing an imagery training program, it is impor-
tant to incorporate the four specific phases we have outlined in this
chapter. Finally, we have addressed several common problems involving
the implementation of an imagery training program and made specific
suggests about how to best handle these potential obstacles. Imagery
is like any physical skill in that it requires systematic practice. Individ-
ual athletes will differ in their ability to image and, therefore, must be
 78 Gould et al.

encouraged to remain patient. Imagery is not a magical cure for perfor-

mance woes. It is, however, an effective tool that—when combined with
practice and commitment—can help athletes reach their personal and
athletic potentials.

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