Conventional Completions

1
INTRODUCTION

The development of a hydrocarbon reservoir requires a large number of wells to be

drilled and completed to allow the structure to be depleted. The drilling and completion
operations are crucial to the long term viability of the well in meeting its specified
objectives. The design and completion of both production and injection wells must:

• Provide optimum production/injection performance.

• Ensure safety (both pressure and fluid containments).

• Maximise the integrity and reliability of the completion over the envisaged life
of the completed well

• Minimise the total costs per unit volume of fluid produced or injected, i.e.
minimise the total costs of initial completion, maintaining production and
remedial measures

• Other criteria e.g. control sand production depending upon the particular reservoir
characteristics or development constraints.

The completion design involves four principal decision areas, that together provide
a conceptual design (Figure 1):

• Specification of the bottom hole completion technique

• Selection of the production conduit

• Assessment of completion string facilities

• Evaluation of well performance / productivity-injectivity

This conceptual design process is initiated on the basis of data from exploration wells.
Considerable uncertainty may exist as to the validity and accuracy of that data. Thus
a number of alternative designs for well completions will normally be selected and
contingency designs may be developed. The detailed design evaluation and costing
of the selected completion concept will then be undertaken to:

• Specify all equipment and materials

• Optimise completion performance

• Optimise well performance

It is essential that an interactive approach is adopted at both the conceptual and detailed
design stages. This is necessary due to the diversity of design data, e.g. reservoir
rock and fluid properties, production constraints, etc. and the range of disciplines
which have inputs into the decision making process, e.g. drilling engineers, reservoir
engineers and production technologists.

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 Initiate Design

Bottom Hole Selection of Completion Well

Completion Production String Productivity
Technique Conduit Facilities

Conceptual Design Objective of

this chapter

Casing Detailed Well

String Completion Performance
Design String Design Optimisation

Final Design(s)

Figure 1 Completion design strategy.

Well Integrity is the process that sets the Standards and Policies which the completed
well should adhere to. The well should not only be constructed, but also operated and
maintained to these (company) standards and policies. These standards and policies
may be generally applicable, but may also be tailored according to the nature of the
field and the operating environment.

Well integrity encompasses:

• Well Construction Integrity:

Wellhead & X-mass tree
Casing & Cement Integrity
Shoe bond & window cement bond tests
CBLs
Casing Corrosion Logs
Zonal Isolation
Well bore integrity
Etc.
• Completion Integrity Assurance:
Wellhead & X-mass tree integrity management
Down Hole jewellery integrity assurance (Down Hole Safety Valve, Nipples,
Sliding Side Door, Wire Line Entry Guide, Dual or Single Packer either
Permanent or Retrievable, etc.)
Accessibility assurance (i.e. no obstruction)
Annulus Management
Gas Lift & Gas Injection
Pump Integrity Assurance
Etc.
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 Conventional Completions
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• Flow Assurance:
Scale Management
Asphaltene Management
Corrosion Management
Etc.
• Well Life Cycle Management

Examples of well integration failure are presented in Table 1.

FAILURE EVENT OPERATIONAL CONCERN

CONSEQUENCES IF NOT REPAIRED

Tubing failure in wall leak Tubing - Well safety

or coupling Annulus communication

Packer failure Annulus reservoir Well safety

communication

Seal failure Annulus reservoir Well safety

communication

Tubing hanger leak Tubing - annulus Well safety

communication

Xmas tree seal leakage External leak Well safety

Wellhead leakage External or annulus Well safety

leak

Circulation sleeve seal failure Annulus communication Well safety

Sub Surface Safety Valve • Inability to isolate well Well safety and loss
failure • Inability to land flow of flow
control devices

Gas lift valve leak Tubing annulus Well control limitation

communication

Gas lift valve closure Inability to lift well at No or limited

valve depth production

Downhole pump failure Failure to lift well No production

Table 1 The nature and consequence of completion failure.

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1. BOTTOM HOLE COMPLETION TECHNIQUES

The three alternative approaches for the completion of the reservoir zones are:

• Open hole completion

• Pre-drilled / pre-slotted liner or screen completion (uncemented)

• Casing or liner with annular cementation and subsequent perforation

1.1 Open Hole Completion

The simplest approach to bottom hole completion is to leave the entire drilled reservoir
section open after drilling (Figure 2). Such completions are sometimes referred to
as “barefoot” completions and the technique is widely applied. Since no equipment
requires to be installed there are savings in both costs and time. However this type
of completion does mean that the entire interval is open to production and hence
does not provide selective control over fluid production or injection. It is therefore
not recommended for production or injection wells where distinctive variations in
layer permeability will detrimentally effort the sweep efficiency on zones under water
flood or gas injection. It is difficult to isolate water/gas breakthrough or migration
into the wellbore unless the entry pour is at the base of the well where isolation with
a cement plug may be successful. The possibility of interzonal cross flow or zonal
back pressure dictating multizone depletion cannot be corrected with this type
of completion. This lack of zonal control for production or injection is the major
limitation on the application of this technique.

OPEN HOLE

Figure 2 Open hole completion.

Open hole completions can only be applied in consolidated formations as the borehole
may become unstable once a drawdown in applied to induce the well to flow. In
such cases either total collapse of the formation or the production of sand may occur.

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 Conventional Completions
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The above characteristics of open hole completions explains why they are used in:

• Low cost developments

• Deep, consolidated reservoirs being produced by depletion drive ensures good
contact between fracture and well
• Naturally fractured reservoirs
• Some horizontal and multi lateral wells with high depletion costs

1.2 Screen or Pre-slotted Liner Completions

A wire-wrapped screen, slotted steel pipe or alternative sand control screen is installed
(Figure 3) once the drilling through completed reservoir section has been completed.
The screen or liner is installed to prevent sand production into the wellbore and
tubing. The success of the completion in controlling sand production is dependent
upon the screen or slot sizes and the sand particle sizes. The screen will only become
100% effective if it totally restrains sand production which requires that the slot size
be equal to the size of the smallest particles. However, in such cases the slots may
quickly become plugged and impede flow, resulting in a loss in well productivity.

This system is also used in high angle angle wells to prevent major borehole collapse
or facilitate the passage of logging tools.

PRE SLOTTED LINER

( or Alternative)

Figure 3 Well completed with wire wrapped screen or slotted liner.

This technique shares the inability for zonal control of production or injection with
open hole completion. It may also only effectively control sand production over a
limited range of conditions. However, it is a (relatively) low cost technique. Use
of conventional sand screens restricts the technique's application to reservoir rock

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that consists of relatively large and homogenous sand grains. The introduction of
woven mesh screens and in particular expanding sand screens has greatly extended
its range of applicability.

1.3 Cemented and Perforated Casing/Liner

The final option is to install either a cemented casing string which extends back to
surface or a cemented liner which extends back into the shoe of the previous casing
string (Figure 4). Perforating subsequently provides paths for fluid to flow to/from
the wellbore and formation.

CEMENTED AND
PERFORATED
LINER OR CASING

Figure 4 Cemented and perforated production casing or liner.

The integrity and selectivity of the completion depends on an effective hydraulic

seal being provided in the casing-formation annulus by the cement placed during
the primary cement job. The absence or failure of the cement can lead to either fluid
migration behind the casing to surface, into another zone or into perforations from
which it was assumed to be isolated. It may be possible to regain annular isolation
or close off unwanted perforations by a remedial cement squeeze operation.

This type of completion involves considerably greater costs and time than the previous
options. The cost of a full length of casing from the surface to the base of the well
can be considerable, to which must be added the cost of perforating, cementing and
the additional rig time. The use of a liner helps to reduce the required length (and
cost) of casing. However the ability to control the depletion of individual zones,
isolate the inflow of undesirable produced fluids and control the injection of fluids
into zones are essential to a large number of developments. This has resulted in the
cemented and perforated liner or casing being the most widely applied bottom hole
completion technique.

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2. SELECTION OF THE FLOW CONDUIT BETWEEN THE RESERVOIR
AND SURFACE

There are a number of options for fluid flow to surface in a production well, or to the
formation in an injection well. Considerations which may influence the choice include
cost, flow stability, ability to control flow and ensuring well safety and integrity of
the well by minimising corrosion or erosion.

The following alternatives exist for a single zone completion:

• Tubingless casing flow

• Casing and tubing flow
• Tubing flow without annular isolation
• Tubing flow with annular isolation

These options are depicted in Figure 5

(a) (b) (c)

TUBING COMPLETION
TUBINGLESS WITHOUT PACKER TUBING COMPLETION
COMPLETION (with optional WITH ANNULUS PACKER
annulus production)

Figure 5 Alternative production condiuts for a single zone.

2.1 Tubingless Casing Flow (Figure 5a)

Once the well has been drilled and the bottom hole completion technique implemented
(open hole or perforated casing) the well is induced to flow under drawdown and fluid
is produced up the inside of the casing. This technique is very simple and minimises
costs. However it does have its disadvantages. Firstly, the production casing may
be so large a diameter that the fluid superficial velocities are low enough for phase
separation and slip to occur, resulting in unstable flow and increased flowing pressure
loss in the casing. The produced fluid is also in direct contact with the casing,
potentially resulting in casing corrosion, if H2S or CO2 are present in produced fluids
or casing erosion, if sand is being produced reductions in the casing integrity due to
either of the above can result in potential burst of the casing at the wellhead if the
well changes from oil to gas production.
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The first requirement in a workover is that the well is hydraulically killed. The
reinstatement of a hydraulic head of fluid which provides a bottom hole pressure
greater than reservoir pressure in this type of completion can only be accomplished by
either squeezing the wellbore contents back into the formation, or circulating across
the wellhead using the Volumetric Technique. Squeezing large volumes of fluids
back into the formation is undesirable in many cases since any rust, scale or other
particulates will be carried in the perforation or the formation matrix. Thus killing
such wells will result in a compromise between safety and subsequent productivity. In
addition, in most squeeze operations, the required injection pressures would increase as
fluids are reinjected and this may cause concern over casing burst limitations. For the
large diameter casing, the denser kill fluid may fall through the lighter hydrocarbon,
inhibiting the squeeze process.

This completion is rarely used due to these drawbacks. The tubingless completion, a
variant of this approach, is sometimes applied to multiple zones. Here the borehole
is drilled passed all the zones and individual tubing strings located opposite each
zone. The entire borehole is then cemented and each tubing string perforated with
orientated guns (see Figure 25). This is a simple a multi-zone completions but its
design precludes workovers if problems subsequently arise.

2.2 Casing and Tubing Flow (Figure 5b)

An alternative to tubingless casing flow for highly productive wells where a large
cross sectional area for flow is desirable, is to install a production tubing and allow
flow to occur up the tubing and the tubing- casing annulus. This type of completion
has the very important advantage of providing a circulation capability deep in the
well where reservoir fluids can be displaced to surface by an injected kill fluid of the
required density to provide hydraulic overbalance on the reservoir. This capability
to circulate (or U-tube) kill fluid between the annulus and the tubing removes the
necessity for reinjection into the reservoir. It also does not require the high pressures
associated with squeeze operations. This completion is very useful for high flow rate
wells provided no erosive or corrosive compounds are present in the flow stream.

2.3 Tubing Flow Without Annulus Isolation (Figure 5b)

In situations where annular flow in a casing-string completion results in excessive
phase slippage with consequent increased flowing pressure loss and flow instability,
consideration should be given to closing the annulus at surface and preventing annular
flow. If the flowing bottom hole pressure is at or below the bubble point, gas, will
migrate upwards under buoyancy forces as it flows from the formation to the tubing
tailpipe. Some gas will accumulate in the annulus resulting in an increased casing head
pressure at surface. Gas build up in the annulus will continue until gas completely fills
the annulus when it off-loads as a gas slug into the base of the tubing and is produced.
This production instability will be cyclical and is referred to as annulus heading.

In this type of completion the casing is exposed continuously to the potentially

corrosive produced fluid. This, coupled with the potential for annular heading, can
be avoided when the annulus is not left open to production.

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 Conventional Completions
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2.4 Tubing Flow with Annular Isolation
An open annulus can cause complications, as discussed in 2.3 above. Therefore, the
annulus is normally isolated by the installation of a packer and the produced fluid
flows to the surface via the tubing. The packer has a rubber element which, when
compressed or inflated, will expand to fill the annulus between the tubing and the
casing. The packer is normally located as close to the top of the reservoir as possible
to minimise the trapped annular volume beneath the packer. Hence the volume of gas
which can accumulate there is minimised; simplifying downhole pressure management
when the packer is released by the drilling rig during recovery operations. However,
packer installation removes the ability to U-tube or circulate kill fluid between the
tubing and annulus. The circulation capability can be restored via tubing accessory,
such as a sliding side door which allows annulus communication. Alternatively one can
perforate the tubing, which would need replacement prior to the recommencementing
production. In both cases, the circulation point is normally as deep in the well as
possible, but above the packer.

This completion system is by far the most widely used and offers maximum well
security and control.

3 COMPLETION STRING FACILITIES

There are many capabilities which can be included in the string design. Some of these
capabilities are essential, such as those providing operational security or safety, whilst
others provide improved performance or flexibility. However, an increased degree
of flexibility provided by the completion normally results in a complex completion
design with a large number of components. Such inbuilt complexity compromises the
reliability of the completion string. The design process should thus initially identify
the minimum functional requirements. Any additional options are then assessed on
the basis of incremental complexity versus incremental benefit.

3.1 Basic Completion String Functions and Facilities

The basic facilities provided by a completion string must allow it to continue the
production or injection of fluids over as long a period as possible without the necessity
of a major intervention to conduct well repairs. Further, the design must ensure the
safe operation of the well at all times and also reliably allow for its shutdown in a
variety of situations. The completion string, production casing and wellhead must
act as a composite high pressure system which prevents the unintended escape of
formation fluids and pressure i.e. all flow is up the production tubing and the Xmas
Tree into the surface processing facilities.

The following (see also Figure 6) are considered to be the essential for the majority
of completion string installations to allow the well to be produced in a safe and
controlled manner:

(a) The ability to contain the expected flowing pressureas as well as the highest
hydraulic pressure which may be employed in well operations. Fluid should flow
to surface (production) or the reservoir (injection wells) with minimal flowing
pressure loss and optimal flow stability.

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 (b) Minimum reservoir fluid contact with the production casing by isolating the
annulus between the production casing and the tubing.

(c) The ability to affect downhole shut-in either by remote control or by automatically
activated by the changing well flowing conditions.

(d) A means to establish circulation between the annulus and the tubing.

(e) The ability to block the tubing by the installation of a plug. This allows pressure
testing of the tubing etc.

Surface Isolation
(wellhead / Xmas tree)

Tubing Isolation (SSV)

Circulation between
Annulus & Tubing (SSD)

Annulular Isolation (packer)

Tubing Isolation (nipple)

Figure 6 Basic well completion schematic.

The above allows the completion string to produce in a safe, controllable manner.
Consider each of the functions in turn:

Pressure and Flow Containment

The reservoir pressure is contained within the production casing, the production
tubing, the wellhead and the surface valve closure system known as the Xmas tree.
Further, the casing and tubing annulus is protected from the reservoir or injection
pressure if a packer is installed at the bottom of the production tubing. The tubing
size is selected such that well production rates are optimised and the flow is stable.

Thus, both the casing and tubing should be designed to withstand the maximum
pressure expected in the wellbore. The production casing, packer and wellhead act
as a backup to contain fluids and pressures in the event of a tubing peak. Similarly,
the wellhead, from which each casing string is suspended will be rated for maximum
anticipated surface pressures. Overall control of fluid production from, or injection
into, the well is provided by the valve system located on top of the wellhead. This
Xmas tree usually comprises an in-line valve with a backup valve to shut in the well
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 Conventional Completions
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and side outlets with valves for both choke and kill line attachment during well
killing procedures.

Annulus Isolation
Annulus isolation is required in the majority of production wells for reasons of tubing
flow stability and protection of the production casing from corrosion. It is frequently
necessary to isolate the annulus to prevent surface injection pressures being exerted
on the wellhead and possibly giving rise to burst of the production casing. This occurs
in injection wells and during well stimulation operations.

This annular isolation is normally achieved by installing a packer at the bottom of the
completion string which is lowered into the wellbore with an elastomeric element
in the retracted position. At the prescribed depth, the element is set by extrusion or
inflation to fill the annular space between the tubing and the annulus. To minimise
the volume below the packer and the length of casing exposed to well fluids, the
packer is normally set quite deep in the well.

Downhole Closure of the Flow String

It is advisable, and in most cases mandatory, to have a secondary means of closure
for all wells capable of natural flow to surface. access to the Xmas tree to close the
Xmas tree valve is not possible. The installation of a sub-surface safety valve (SSSV)
will provide this emergency closure capability. The valve can be either remotely
operated from the surface {a surface controlled sub-surface safety valve (SCSSSV)}
or will close automatically when a predetermined flow condition (excessive flow rate
or too low bottom hole pressure) occurs in the well.

Circulation Capability
One of the major limitations of using a production casing as the flow conduit (i.e.
without a production tubing) is the inability to kill the well by circulation. A coiled
tubing unit or snubbing unit could be used but is unlikely to be available at short notice
to carry out the well killing operation. Hence the majority of completions include
one of the following devices to provide circulation between the annulus and tubing:

• Sliding side door (SSD) or sliding sleeve (SS)

• Side pocket mandrel (SPM)
• Ported nipple

They can all be opened when required and subsequently closed. An alternative is to
use a tubing punch or a perforation gun with a low power tubing perforator charge.
However, this is only used prior to a work over since the resulting hole is permanent.

Tubing Isolation
A further means of physical isolation of the reservoir is installed at one or more places
in the tubing. Thus the provision of isolation is deep within the wellbore, either just
above and/or just below the packer. The isolation is normally provided by lowering
a plug on wireline down the inside of the tubing string until it lands and locks into
a wireline nipple which was incorporated into the design of the tubing string at an
appropriate depth.

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3.2 Additional Completion String Functions
A range of other tubing functions may be necessary as a future contingency. Some
of the more prevalent are discussed below.

Downhole Tubing Detachment

Failure of a tubing string component often results in the necessity to pull the completion
from the well to effect its replacement. However, it is useful to minimise the amount
of equipment to be pulled from the completion while making this replacement. Thus
a point of easy detachment and reconnection would be useful. This is obtained by
installing a removable locator device that seals in the remainder of the tubing string
left in the well during the repair operation. A means of hydraulic isolation of the
tubing below the point of detachment is also required. Examples of such systems are
a packer seal system, which allows the tubing above the packer to be disconnected
and retrieved; or a downhole hanger system which suspends the tubing in the well
beneath the wellhead. Completion components that are more prone to failure and
require frequent replacement, e.g. SSSV, will be located above such devices.
Tubing stresses
Temperature and pressure changes during normal well operations results in the tubing
string can expand or contract in length. The resulting changes in the tubing stress can
be sufficiently severe as to give rise to damage to the packer, wellhead or the tubing
itself if the tubing is fixed or constrained at the surface by landing in the wellhead
and downhole in the packer.

These stresses can be avoided by installing a moving seal system which allows expansion
and/or contraction of the tubing without mechanical failure or disengagement from
the packer or seal bore. Various systems are available. They all feature a concentric
sleeve approach where seals are located in a concentric annulus, one surface of which
moves while the other is stationary.

Ability to Suspend Pressure and Temperature Monitoring Equipment

It is frequently required to monitor the bottomhole pressure during production tests by
installing a pressure or temperature gauge at a specific location in the tubing. A wireline
nipple, installed as deep in the well as possible in the completion string provides this
facility. A perforated pipe is installed above this nipple to provide an alternative flow
entry point when the packer tail pipe is blocked by installation of the gauge.

Controlled Fluid Injection from the Annulus into Tubing

Produced fluids can contain corrosive components, such as CO2, or have high pour
points with attendant flowing pressure loss problems chemicals (corrosion inhibitors
pour point depressants, etc.) can be injected. It may be necessary to introduce chemicals
into the flow string at a location deep within the well to provide maximum benefit and
counteract the impact of these characteristics. Examples of this may be the injection
of a corrosion inhibitor or pour point depressant. One option is to inject these fluids
into the casing-tubing annulus and include in the tubing string a side pocket mandrel
with a valve which will open under prescribed pressure conditions. The treatment fluid
will then flow from the annulus into the tubing either continuously or intermittently.

Another example is gas lift installations where gas a injected into the produced fluids
to lighten the hydrostatic head and maintain production at economic levels.

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 Conventional Completions
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Artificial Lift
The selection of an electrical or hydraulically powered downhole pumping system or
of gas lift will require the inclusion of the pump or of multiple side pocket mandrels
in the completion string design. Important design issues will be:

• The method of installation and retrieval of the pump upon failure.

• Constraints on access to the tubing or wellbore beneath the pump.

• Installation depth of the side pocket mandrels for unloading and producing the well.

Wireline Entry Guide

It will be necessary, in most wells, to conduct wireline or coiled tubing operations
below the bottom of the tubing string, eg across the perforated interval. Wireline
Entry Guide (WEG) aids retreval of the wireline tool string from the casing into the
lower end of the tail pipe of the tubing string.

3.3. Composite Completion String

The completion string design is influenced by a range of reservoir and other parameters.
Many different designs exist and for each specific situation, a number of designs can
be considered. Figure 7 summaries the general completion components and their
functions.
COMPONENT FUNCTIONALITY

Flow Control and

XMAS TREE
Surface Isolation

WELLHEAD Tubing & Casing

Suspension

Safety Isolation
(SC) S.S.S.V.
Downhole

SIDE POCKET Circulation or

MANDREL(S) Fluid Injection

SLIDING SIDE
Tubing / Annulus
DOOR
Circulation

Accomodate
SEAL ASSEMBLY
Tubing Stress

Annular
PACKER
Isolation

Tubing
NIPPLE
Isolation

PERFORATED Alternative
JOINT Entry for Flow

Landing T and P
NIPPLE
Guages

W.E.G. Wireline
Re-Entry

Figure 7 General well completion string schematic.

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4. COMPLETION STRING COMPONENTS

The detailed design of the completion string involves the selection and specification
of all its component parts. There are many potential components available, each one
has numerous variants and each equipment supplier has their own particular designs.
In practice most companies use one supplier or have considerable experience with
specific types of components. Also, the equipment is specified as a certain size and
with a certain type of threaded coupling. Hence tubing completion equipment is of
necessity fairly standard and comparable between the different suppliers.

Equipment selection should be done on the basis that the component will provide a
specific facility necessary for the successful performance and operation of the well
under a range of operating scenarios. Each component adds undesirable complexity
to the completion. This must be compensated for by the fact that it is necessary or
provides desirable flexibility. One approach to discussing whether a particular
well completion is "fit-for-purpose" is to evaluate the facilities that each component
provides. The design is thus justified on a “needs” basis and the benefits of flexibility
can be assessed against the drawback of incremental complexity.

Each component in Figure 6 will now be discussed below in relation to its purpose
in production operations. It should be remembered at all times that the purpose of
well design is to minimise the wells "total life time cost" (i.e. the sum of the well
construction capital costs and the subsequent operating costs. Thus a range of reservoir
depletion scenarios should be considered during the above evaluation.

4.1 Wellhead/Xmas Tree

The wellhead provides the basis for the mechanical construction of the well at surface
or the sea-bed. It provides:

• Suspension of all individual casings and tubulars, concentrically in the well

• Ability to instal a surface closure/flow control device on top of the well.

This is ether a blow out preventer stack whilst drilling or the Xmas tree for
production or injection

• Hydraulic access to the annuli between casing to allow cement placement and
between the production casing and tubing for well circulation

The Xmas tree valve provide flow control of the fluids produced from or injected
into the well. The Xmas tree is normally installed on the wellhead after installation
of the production tubing has been completed. The wellhead provides the facility for
all the casing strings and the production tubing are suspended from the well head
which is itself supported by the conductor, the foundation of the well. There are a
number of basic Xmas tree designs e.g. Figure 8. It has two wing valve outlets, one
for production and the other for injection, e.g. well killing. Additionally, the third
outlet (swab value) provides vertical access into the tubing for insertion of wireline
or coiled tubing tools into the well. The lower valve is the master valve. It controls
all hydraulic and mechanical access to the well. Well safety may require it to be
duplicated. All outlets have valves which may be manually operated or are remotely
controlled valves operated from a control room.

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 Conventional Completions
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GAUGE VALVE
TOP CONNECTION

XMAS TREE
SWAB VALVE
FLOW FITTING

CHOKE
WING VALVE
MASTER VALVE

TUBING HEAD ADAPTOR

TUBING HANGER
TUBING HEAD

TUBING

CASING HANGER
WELLHEAD

CASING HAED
INNER CASING
INTERMEDIATE CASING

SEALING MEDIUM

CASING HANGER

CASING HEAD
OUTER CASING

Figure 8 Simple wellhead assembly including casing spools and Christmas tree.

4.2. Production Tubing

The bulk of the completion string comprises threaded joints of tubing which are coupled
together. The integrity of the tubing is vital to the safe operation of a production or
injection well. The specification of a production tubing must be carried out based
upon the mechanical and hydraulic operating conditions envisaged, the proposed
operating environment and "life of well" considerations. The tubing must be specified
to provide the following capabilities:

(1) The inside diameter of the tubing must provide a produced fluid velocity to
minimise the total pressure loss (the tubing performance relationship).

(2) The tensile strength of the string (both tubing and coupling) must be high enough
to allow suspension of the complete string without tensile failure.

(3) The completion string must be able to withstand the maximum conceivable
internal (or burst) pressure.

(4) The completion string must be able to withstand the maximum concievable
external differential pressures between the annulus and the tubing (the collapse
pressure).

(5) The tubing must be resistant to chemical corrosion which may arise because of
fluid contact in the wellbore, and might ultimately accelerate string failure by
one of the loads and stresses mentioned above (2)-(4).

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Each of the above facets of tubing selection are discussed below.

4.2.1 Tubing Diameter

Conventionally the outside diameter of the tubing is specified. The inside diameter
is defined by the wall thickness of steel via the tubing's "weight per feet" (lbs/ft) e.g.
7" O.D. tubing 26 lbs/ft. The wall thickness will influence the tensile strength of the
steel as well as its resistance to failure with high internal (burst) or (collapse) external
pressure differentials. The tubing is thus specified as being of a certain outside diameter
and of a specific “weight/foot” which thus specifies the wall thickness.

4.2.2 Tensile Strength

The maximum allowable tensile load that a joint of tubing is determined by the tensile
strength of the steel, the wall thickness of the tubing (and hence the “plain end area”)
and the tensile strength of the threaded coupling.

There are several standard grades of steel; H-40, J-55, C-75, L-80, N-80 and P-105.
The numbers after the letter grading signify the minimum yield strength in units of
a thousand psi. The letter grades indicate the manufacturing process or subsequent
treatment of the steel to modify its properties, e.g. the C and L grades are heat treated
to remove martensitic steels. In general, the higher the yield strength created by
working the steel, the more susceptible it is to embrittlement and failure by H2S.

The minimum yield strength defines the minimum tensile strength in psi. The tensile
load is carried by the plain end area or wall section area of the pipe, hence the weight/
foot of the pipe also affects the tensile load. The joints nearest surface are under the
greatest tensile load due to weight of the suspended pipe since each joint suspends
the joint immediately beneath it.

The threaded coupling has to provide two basic functions; firstly to transmit tensile
load up the tubing string and secondly to produce a connection which provides a seal
to retain internal pressure within the tubing.

The design of a completion string to withstand a given tensile load will obviously be
dependent upon the depth to which the completion string will be run but the following
aspects will also be considered.

(a) The minimum tensile strength of the pipe utilised for the design will be based
upon the manufacturers data or other specification. It will be reduced by the
application of a safety factor with a typical value of 1.6 to 2.0.

(b) The tensile load of a suspended string will cause it to become longer leading to
a reduction in the tubing's wall thickness. This will have to be taken into failure
conditions due to high external pressures by derating the nominal collapse resistance.

4.2.3 Internal Pressure

It is not the magnitude of the tubing's internal pressure that is important, but rather the
differential pressure between the internal and the external pressures. The "highest"
burst condition is usually encountered at the surface where the external pressure is at
its minimum. The maximum design burst pressure is normally the pressure when the

18
 Conventional Completions
1
string is gas filled i.e. the tubing head pressure equals the reservoir pressure minus
the hydrostatic head of gas in the well.

A safety factor which varies from 1.0 to 1.33 is normally used to reduce the tubing
manufactures test data.

4.2.4 External Pressure

The collapse condition occurs when the external pressure exceeds the internal pressure.
This condition is normally greatest at the bottom of the well when the annulus is full
of fluid and tubing is evacuated.

The published minimum tubing collapse data are derated by a safety factor of 1.0
to 1.125.

4.2.5 Corrosion
There are two principal types of corrosion encountered in oil and gas production
wells namely:

(1) Acidic Corrosion - due to the presence of carbonic acid (from CO2) dissolved
in the produced water or the organic acid content of the hydrocarbon fluid.

(2) Sulphide Stress Cracking / Hydrogen Embrittlement - due to the presence of

H2S in the flowing well fluids from the reservoir. H2S can also be generated by
the growth reducing bacteria in stagnant fluids, e.g. in the casing-tubing annulus
or in the reservoir.

Most corrosion is selective (pitting) rather than an even reduction in wall thickness.
Corrosion inhibitor treatments will assist in minimising corrosion damage but must
be continiously applied. The alternative approach is to select a steel that is naturally
inert to the produced fluids for example, low grade steel is recommended for small H2S
partical pressures since these are less susceptible to embrittlement, e.g. 555 or N-80.
Figure 9 is an example of a completion metallurgy selection chart illustrating how
more complex and expensive alloys are required as the partial pressure of hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide increases. Increasing reservoir temperature will further
complicate the selection process.

(3) Corrosion / erosion is also encountered due to the presence of produced solids
if the well is produced at a too high a flow velocity.

4.2.6 Coupling Types

There are two general classes of threaded coupling:

(1) Connections which require internal pressure to produce a pressure tight seal.

This type of coupling includes the API round thread and buttress connection whereby
a thread compound applied to the threads must be compressed by external pressure
acting on the coupling causing it to fill any void spaces within the coupling.

(2) Metal to metal or elastomeric seal connection - Premium threads.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 19

This class of coupling includes the Extreme Line as well as a range of specialised
couplings of specific commercial design, e.g. Hydril or VAM designs. The couplings
do not always utilise the threads to give the pressure seal but allow torque to be applied
to bring together seal shoulders or a tapered surface within the coupling.

Other specialised couplings, such as resilient seal rings, are also used to provide an
additional seal system.

Coupling are also be classified as being Integral or External couplings:

• An external coupling such as the VAM coupling (Figure 9a) requires that a male
thread be cut on each end of the tubing joints and while the coupling has two
female connection.

• An external coupling has a larger effective wall thickness in the coupling section
(Dc > D) giving it higher load capacity compared to an integral coupling. The
integral coupling (Figure 9b) has a male and female thread cut on opposite ends
of the pipe.

• An external upset coupling uses an increased wall thickness of pipe at one end
of the pipe allowing a female thread to be cut without sacrificing too much of
the tensile load carrying capacity.

• A flush joint is one in which there is a uniform Internal Diameter (d = dc) through
the make up connection (Figure 9a).

• An internal upset coupling is one in which there is a small section of decreased

Internal Diameter (d > dc) in the area of the coupling (Figure 9b).

1.0E+06

1.0E+05 DUPLEX STAINLESS 15 Cr - 60 NI - 16 Mo

22 Cr- 5 NI - 3Mo 21 Cr - 61 NI - 16 Mo
COLD WORKED 2205
25 Cr - 50 NI - 16 Mo
1.0E+04 QUENCH
ANNEALED

1.0E+03
27 Cr - 31 NI - 3.5 Mo
22 Cr - 42 NI - 3 Mo
1.0E+02
13 Cr

20 Cr - 25 NI - 4 Mo
1.0E+01

1.0E+00

API J-55 API-80 85 SS

N-80 C-75-2 90 SS
1.0E-01 NACE

1.0E-02

1.0E-03
1.00E-03 1.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02 1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06

Partial Pressure of H2S, psia

Figure 9 An example of a Completion Metallurgy Selection Chart

20
 Conventional Completions
1
a) b)

D
D d

dc

dc
Dc Dc

Figure 9 a) VAM: An internally flush coupling. b) An integral, internally upset coupling.

4.2.7 Specification of Tubing

The string is defined initially by the well productivity analysis which identifies
the optimum tubing internal diameter based upon the available sizes. Frequently
the completion string will contain tubings of different diameter with the diameter
decreasing towards the bottom of the well. The use of larger diameter tubing higher
up the well can counter the increasing flow velocities as the fluid expands and gas is
liberated from solution as pressure declines up the tubing. The reduction in tubing
size in the lower sections of the well may be necessary because of limited equipment
availability and mechanical limitation, e.g. production liner inside diameter.

The detailed design based upon the three mechanical conditions (tension, burst and
collapse) can be completed once the size is specified. The resulting specification for
the tubing is summarised as:

Length - tubing - tubing - grade - coupling - joint

of tubing OD wt/ft of steel type length

e.g. 7000' - 51/2 - 23 lb/ft - C-75 - Hydril Super EU - Range 3

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 21

4.3 Annular Pressure Seal
An annular seal or pack-off in production wells is necessary for:

• Improved flow stability and production control

• Protection of the outer pressure containment system (the production casing and
the wellhead).

• Isolation of various zones during stimulation or production operations, e.g. to

isolate two producing zones having different fluid properties, GOR, pressure
or permeability or for stimulation or pressure maintenance.

The most common method to provide an annular seal is the packer (Figure 10a). The
packer is anchored in position by the pushing the steel teeth of the slips into the casing
wall while the pack-off is accomplished by expanding or extending the elastomer
element outwards from the packer body until it seals against the casing wall (Figure 10b).
a) b)

Compression force moves

cone downwards moving
slips against casing well
Drag Springs
and compressing sealing
element.
The greater the compression, the
greater the sealing force and the
resulting resistance to packer movement.

Slips
Upper
Cone

Lower Cone Sealing Elements

Cone
Lower Slips
Lower
Slips

Figure 10 a) Permanent packer. b) Schematic of setting a compression set packer.

The characteristics that determine which type of packer is most appropriate for a
particular application are:

4.3.1 Ease of Retrieval

This refers to how easy it is to release the packer for retrieval to the surface. This
determines the degree of difficulty in working over a well and may also introduce
limitations in of the differential pressure that the packer can withstand:

22
 Conventional Completions
1
• A Retrievable Packer The packer can be run as an integral part of the tubing
string. It is run to the setting depth where the setting mechanism is actuated.
It can be easily retrieved after installation by pulling tension on the tubing and
shearing a set of (weak) screws. This reverses the setting process.

• A Permanent Packer (Figure 10a) cannot be so easily retrieved. It is usually

run and set separately, either with or without the tailpipe. The tubing string is
subsequently run and the packer engage to achieve a pressure seal within the
central bore of the packer. Packer retrieval involves milling away the packer's
internal sleeves to allow the rubber element to collapse.

Packer Retrieval
• A retrievable packer is recovered by pulling tension on the tubing. This tension
shears a series of (weak) brass screws at a predetermined value that depends
on the number and strength of the screws. The packer setting action can now
be reversed. The slips disengage from the casing wall and the sealing element
collapses and the packer is released from the casing wall and can be pulled to
the surface.

• Retrieval of a permanent packer requires milling away the internal sleeve, which
holds the top slips in place. This releases the packer, which is now free and can
be pulled from the well. The milling operation normally takes between 3-6
hours. The mill head is guided onto the packer and maintained in place by a
guide rod, which passes through, the packer bore (Figure 11). The milling tool
is also fitted with a retrieval tool and catch sleeve which collects the remains
of the packer when the milling operation is complete, and the mill retrieved.

Packer
Mill
Catch sleeve prevents
Packer Milling packer falling into well,
Shoe allowing immediate
retrieval

Catch
Sleeve

Figure 11 Packer milling tool illustrating one trip milling and retrieval.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 23

4.3.2 Setting Mechanism
The compression and extrusion of the rubber element during. The setting of packers
can be accomplished by a number of mechanisms.

• Mechanically set e.g. by rotation of the tubing string.

• Compression or Tension using the suspended weight of the tubing. A cone
mechanism transfers the string weight to be transferred to the packer to compresses
the rubber element (Figure 10b). This setting mechanism is simple but is
unidirectional in terms of the setting force and ability to withstand a differential
pressure. This drawback can be avoided by installing an upper cone (see Figure
10a) which acts in the opposite direction and will withstand tensile forces.

• Hydraulic set utilises hydraulic pressure inside the completion string. The
tubing string must be isolated or plugged below the packer to prevent pressure
being exerted on the formation or the annulus during setting.

• Electrical The packer (plus tailpipe) assembly is lowered into the casing on an
electrical conductor cable. A small explosive charge is detonated at the required
setting depth, actuating the setting mechanism.

4.3.3 Ability to Withstand Differential Pressure

• Compression Packers (e.g. weight set) In the case of normal producing

wells, higher pressure below the packer compared to above counteracts the
setting mechanism. This type of packer is suitable for injection wells where the
differential pressure supports the setting mechanism.

• Tension Packer This is the opposite to the compression packer.

• Compression and Tension Set Packers Packers that can withstand pressure
from either direction.

4.3.4 Number of Packer Bores

It is necessary to have a bore through the packer for each tubing string. Single, dual
or triple bore packers are available for multiple tubing string completions.

4.4 Seal between Tubing and Packer

Some completion designs anchor the tubing string mechanically to the production
casing at both the packer and the tubing hanger that was landed in the wellhead.
Thus, changes in the flowing temperature and tubing pressure can cause elongation
or contraction of the tubing string. This may result in buckling or tensile failure of
the tubing somewhere between the packer and wellhead respectively. Thus, seal
assemblies can be classified according to whether they allow tubular movement
to compensate for thermal expansion and contraction of the tubing i.e. dynamic or
static seal assemblies respectively (Figure 12).

24
 Conventional Completions
1
(a) (b) (c)
Locator

Anchor seal Locator with seal

assembly assembly inside Locator seal assembly
polished bore with seal bore extension
of packer

(d) (e) (f)

Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR)

Packer seals liner annulus
Cemented production liner
Extra Long Travel joint
Tubing Seal
Receptacle
(ELTSR)

Figure 12 Schematic views of various tubing seal assemblies.

• Static or Anchor Seal Assembly (no tubing movement). An external elastomer

elements seal at the bottom of the tubing. Tubing movements is prevented by
installing a mechanical latch assembly inside the seal bore (Figure 12a).

• Dynamic Seal Assemblies accommodate tubing movement.

• Locator Seal Assembly (Figure 12b) This consists of a series of standard

elastomer seal elements which are run inside the smooth (polished) bore of the
packer. The length of the seals is sufficient that they remain within the packer
when the tubing experiences the maximum expected amount of expansion or
contraction. A greater seal contact area is provided by a seal bore extension run
below the packer (Figure 12c). A locator (or shoulder) is included at the top of
the seal assembly. It has an outside diameter that is greater than that of the packer
base. The point at which the top seal element enters the packer is identified by
observing a reduction in the string weight when the locator "hangs-up" on the
packer.

• Extra Long Tubing Seal Receptacle (ELTSR Figure 12d) This device consists
of two concentric cylinders with elastomer seals between them. The outer
cylinder is attached to the tubing string by a threaded coupling. The inner
cylinder is latched into the packer with an anchor seal assembly as described
above. The typical ELTSR is 10 - 30 ft long.

• Travel Joint (Figure 12e) This device is very similar to an inverted ELTSR.

• Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR) This completion component simultaneously

provides both an annular pressure seal and a locator seal which permits tubing
movement. The PBR consists of a receptacle with a polished internal bore (Figure
12f) shows is run on top of a production liner with packer. A seal assembly can
then be run on tubing and located inside the PBR.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 25

4.5 Sub-Surface Safety Valves (SSSV)
The Christmas Tree's production wing valve and master valves are used for well
isolation or closure under normal operating conditions. The advantage of these
valves is that they can be repaired or replaced with little difficulty. These valves are
the primary closure system for the well. Well security is endangered in the absence
of an effective surface closure system. This can occur during:

(1) Xmas tree removal during workover preparations to pull tubing

(2) Removal of valves or valve components for servicing

(3) Accidental damage to Xmas tree

(4) Leakage at the wellhead - Xmas tree flange seals

A valve to shut off flow is located beneath the wellhead as part of the tubing system.
This Sub-Surface Safety Valve or SSSV is required when the Christmas trees valves
are not operational. These valves are based upon two different control philosophies:

(1) Direct Controlled SSSV which are designed to close when downhole well
conditions of pressure/flowrate vary from preset design values. These valves
are often refered to as "storm chokes".

(2) Remotely or Surface Controlled SSSV (SCSSSV) whereby closure and

opening of the valve is actuated using a surface control system which feeds
hydraulic pressure directly to the downhole valve assembly.

Both valve systems provide a failsafe shutdown system for remote sub-surface isolation
e.g. in the event of a catastrophic failure of the Xmas tree.

• Remotely Controlled SSSV

This is the more widely employed and more reliable method. The valves
normally rely on hydraulic pressure, supplied to the downhole valve by a small
1
/4" monel control line run in the annulus and strapped to the tubing, to keep the
valve open. The valve itself is normally either a ball or a flapper type (Figures
13 and 14) device. Two options are available for deploying and retrieving the
valve:

• Tubing retrievable The valve is run as an integral part of the tubing string. It
can only be retrieved by pulling the tubing but the flow path can have the same
diameter as the tubing. A smaller flow diameter wireline retrievable valve can
be installed at the top of the valve. This allows well production to continue,
though possibly at a lower rate, if the tubing retrievable value fails.

• Wireline retrievable The valve nipple is run as an integral part of the tubing
the internal valve assembly being subsequently run and retrieved on wireline
cable. The flow path of the valve will have a smaller area that the production
tubing. It should always be evaluated if this will restrict production at some time
in the wells life. (This is especially important for gas wells).

26
 Conventional Completions
1
Pressurised
control line

Landing
nipple
Depressurised
Sheer pin control line
Snap ring

Shifting sleeve Shifting sleeve up

down
Spring Spring
compressed extended

Ball

Spring
Spring extended
compressed

OPEN CLOSED

Figure 13 Ball type Surface Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valve.

Pressurised Depressurised
control line control line

Shifting Shifting sleeve up

sleeve down
Spring Spring
compressed extended

Flapper Flapper
open closed

Open Closed

Figure 14 Flapper type Surface Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valve.

Annular safety values are installed at shallow depth for cases where it is required to
minimise the volume of annular gas released if wellhead assembly is damaged. This
is typically installed in offshore wells where gas lift is installed or where a downhole
packer has not been installed. An example completion is illustrated in Figure 28.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 27

4.6 Side Pocket Mandrel
The side pocket mandrel (Figure 15a and 15b) contains an off-centre pocket with ports
into the annulus. A valve, which controls the fluid flow between tubing and annulus,
can be installed in the pocket that allows fluid flow between tubing and annulus.

• Gas lift valves are set to open, shut or throttle the gas flow between the annulus
and the tubing at a preset pressure at valve depth. They can either respond to
the pressure of gas injected into the annulus or to the tubing pressure {see also
Chapter 5, (Gas Lift) of the Production Technology module}.

• Chemical Injection Valves allow the injection of production chemicals, such as

corrosion inhibitors, pour point depressants, etc, into the tubing. The valve is
opened when the annular pressure exceeds a preset value.

• Circulation of fluids or from the annulus into the tubing is achieved by installing
a valve with a bursting disc which can be sheared. Communication between the
annulus and the tubing can only be stopped by replacing the shear valve by wireline.

The installation and recovery of the valves from the side pocket mandrel is also described
in Chapter 5 (Gas Lift) of the Production Technology module.
(a)

(b) Cross section of Side Pocket Mandrel

Orienting Sleeve with gas lift valve installed in pocket

Seal Element No restriction

to tubing
Polished bore
access

Tool Discriminator Valve Body

Polish Bore

Valve body

Pocket Assembly

Figure 15a and 15b Side Pocket Mandrel with valve installed.

28
 Conventional Completions
1
4.7 Sliding Side Door (SSD)
The sliding side door (Figure 16) permits communication between tubing and annulus.
It consists of two concentric sleeves, containing slots or holes, with elastomeric seals
between them. The inner sleeve can move up or down by wireline or coiled tubing.
This movement aligns the inner and outer openings. Its main application is to provide
access to the upper zones in multizone completions and for placement of fluids in
the tubing or annulus by circulation (often for well killing).

The SSD's design features external ports through the tubing wall within which is
located an inner mandrel with slots and seal rings above or below the slots (Figure
16). When closed, the inner mandrel or sleeve is located such that the ports in the
outer tubing wall are isolated by seals above and below on the inner mandrel (Figure
16b). Movement of the inner sleeve upwards (Figure 16a) allows circulation between
the tubing and annulus by aligning the slots in the inner mandrel with the ports in the
outer tubing. Moving the inner sleeve in the reverse direction returns the circulation
device to its closed position after completion of the circulation operation.

Movement of the inner sleeve requires the running of a shifting tool to open and
close the sleeve. The shifting tool lands in the top or bottom of the inner sleeve and
by jarring, the sleeve can be moved up or down. Normally movement of the sleeve
cannot be accomplished if a extremely high differential pressure exists across the
sleeve. Any number of sleeves of the same size can be run in the same completion.

Solids in the seal area or the effect of well deviation and the resultant inefficient
jarring can cause failure to close the sleeve. A separation sleeve can be run which
will land inside the sliding sleeve and seal in the seal bores above and below the
slotted section of the inner sleeve when it proves impossible to close the sliding side
door as described above.

Sliding (inner)
Sleeve

Seals

Circulation Ports on SSD body Circulation

permitted prevented
Seals

Inner ports

a) Open b) Closed

Figure 16 Wireline Operated Sliding Side Door.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 29

4.8 Landing Nipples
A landing nipple (Figure 17) is a short, tubing accesory with an internal profile which
can accommode and secure a mandrel run into its bore on wireline or coiled tubing. It
provides a:

• Recess to mechanically lock the mandrel in place using a set of expandible keys

• Pressure seal between the internal bore of the nipple and the outer surface of
the mandrel.

The nipple therefore offers a landing / locking profile and a seal bore into which the
mandrel (a plug or other equipment) may be selectively installed.

Selective Landing Nipple

Mandrel with correct profile

locked in place

Pressure Equalising
Sub allows retrieval
of mandrel

Subsurface
Flow Control
valve

Figure 17 Subsurface flow contol mandrel in selective landing nipple.

Nipples are installed at various points in the string allow:

(1) Isolation or plugging of the tubing string for well shut in, workover or for
hydraulically setting packers.

(2) A ported device which allows communication between the tubing and the
annulus.

(3) Emergency closure of the tubing or annular flow conduit by remote or direct
control.

(4) Downhole regulation or throttling of the flow.

30
 Conventional Completions
1
(5) The installation of downhole pressure and temperature recording gauges.

The landing nipple maybe selective or non-selective. A selective nipple will only allow
the corresponding mandrel to lock into place e.g. seven or more different mandrels
of the same size can be selectively landed in the correct nipple installed in tubing.

There are three methods of obtaining selectivity in a landing nipple system:

(a) Selectivity based upon a variable internal profile.

(b) Selectivity associated with the setting tool.

(c) Selectivity based upon pre-spaced magnets.

4.9 Perforated Flow Tube

The perforated joint (Figure 18a) allows for flow to enter the string even if the base
of the packer tail pipe is plugged by, say, pressure gauges.

4.10 Flow Coupling

Many of the tubing accessories, e.g. a landing nipples, installed within a tubing string,
will cause a restriction to flow. The convergence and divergence effects associated
with entry to and exit from the nipple system will cause increased turbulence. This
turbulence can lead to substantial abrasive erosion of the tubing wall and nipple
system. Flow couplings (Figure 18b) are installed above and below the nipple to
act as flow straightening devices. They have an increased wall thickness as an extra
allowance for erosion.
(a) (b)

Flow Coupling
with increased
wall thickness
Turbulence
generated
by landing
nipple’s profile.

Landing Nipple

Flow Coupling
with increased
wall thickness

Figure 18 a) Perforated flow tube b) Flow coupling.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 31

5. MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETIONS

5.1 Definition
Multiple zone completions are employed for reservoirs where more than one distinct
reservoir layer is intersected by a single well and there is the intention, or legal
requirement, to produce from or inject into these layers separately. Each reservoir
has, by definition, its own pressure regime and, if present, their own Gas-Oil-Contact
and Water-Oil-Contact.

The concept of a homogeneous reservoir rarely exists in reality. However, producing

formations can often be considered stratified, and their producability depends upon
the extent to which vertical flow occurs. Stratified reservoirs are created by changes
in depositional conditions resulting in layers having a variable degree of vertical
permeability. Each of the producing layers has to be treated as a separate reservoir if
a very low vertical permeability exists between the separate the layers.

5.2 Multiple-Zone Depletion Concepts

• Comingling the Flow from various zones in which fluid from more than one
reservoir simultaneously flows into a single tubing string e.g. two zones
producing up a single tubing string.

• Segregated, Multi Zone Depletion multiple production conduits are installed

within the same wellbore. Each tubing controls the production of one reservoir.

• Alternate Zone Well Completion Strategy each well is completed on more than
one reservoir. However, only one reservoir is produced up one tubing string at
any particular time. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the above
techniques is discussed below.

5.2.1 Co-mingled Flow

Advantages

• The total number of wells and the capital investment, is minimised since each
well provides a drainage point in every reservoir

• The production plateaux for each the reservoir should be reached quickly since
the amount of drilling is minimised the number of wells and the time required to
execute the drilling programme. i.e. production should be accelerated compared
to the other optional strategies

Disadvantages

• The mixing of produced fluids in the wellbore can be disadvantageous if fluids

from one or more of the reservoirs have any of the following characteristics:

1. Corrosive or potentially corrosive materials e.g. acids, H2S, CO2.

2. Produced sand has an erosive effect. The implementation of sand control

procedures may be more complicated.

32
 Conventional Completions
1
3. Hydrocarbon fluids with different compositions and hence differing economic
value.

4. Different water - oil - ratio (WOR and GOR). This will influence the vertical
lift performance of the total well system.

• Variation in individual zone pressures and permeability can lead to a back

pressure effect on the less productive or lower pressure reservoirs.

• Surface (choke) control of the production from a individual zone is not possible.
Only the total well production rate can be effected by choke control.

• Ineffective placement of injection fluids e.g stimulation fluids cannot easily

be diverted into individual layers without temporary isolation using sealants
(diverters) or bridge plugs.

• A change in the production characteristics of one zone e.g. water coning and
the consequent increase in WOR will influence the total production from the
well. It may be difficult to remedy without closing in the well.

5.2.2 Segregated - Multiple Zone Depletion

Advantages

• The production rate and duration of flow on each zone can be independently
controlled.

• Changes in the production characteristics of one zone will not influence the others.

• Some types of remedial work on individual zones can be accomplished

without always affecting the production from other zones, e.g. cement squeeze,
reperforating, etc.

• Selective Stimulation of each zone is possible.

• Continuous depletion monitoring of each zone is possible. This assists in

material balance or reservoir simulation studies for reservoir management.

Disadvantages

• Each zone requires its own tubing string; increasing the length of production
tubing and other completion equipment required. This requires an increase in
the capital expenditure, the individual well installation time and an increase in
the total time required to complete the drilling programme.

• The mechanical complexity of the completion is increased. More frequent

equipment malfunction can be expected during installation and in the future.

16/11/10 Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 33

 • The reduced tubing sizes charecteristic of multi-zone completions may reduce
the total flow capacity of the well.

5.2.3 Alternate Zone Well Completion Strategy

Advantages

• Effective control of all aspects of reservoir depletion and well control is provided.

• Well configuration is easily changed if the depletion strategy is altered, e.g.

changing a well from production to injection.

• Problems encountered on one well do not necessarily influence the continuity

of the production of fluid from other zones and wells.

• Each well is mechanically relatively simple minimising the risk of failure due
to complexity.

Disadvantages

• A greater number of wells have to be drilled and completed to achieve the

same degree of depletion control and reservoir management. The same reservoir
drainage effiency will only be achieved by a substantially increased field
development cost.

• The field's lifetime and thus the unit production costs, will be increased unless
the number of wells is increased.

5.2.4 Selection of Development Strategy

• Offshore or Onshore Development

Offshore developments have a higher well cost and a reduced number of wells
compared to comparable onshore developments

• Areal Size and Number of Reservoir Zones

The installation of complex multiple completions is problematic in high angle
wells and can lead to significant difficulties and increases in the drilling cost to
excessive lost time while these problems are corrected.

• Variation in the Reservoir Rock and Fluid Characteristics

The potential for corrosion or erosion by the produced fluids will influence
the type of completion. In addition, the degree to which the drawdown on one
zone might suppress production from other zones may influence the choice of
completion:

In addition, the flow potential of each zone might be impaired if too small a tubing
size has been installed, because of lack of space within the wellbore for a multiple
tubing completion.

34
 Conventional Completions
1
5.3 Multiple Zone Completion Configurations
Wells can in priciple, be completed on any number of zones within the same well
bore by simply increasing the amount of completion equipment installed to provide
isolation and flow control capability. The benefits of using the same wellbore for
multizone production are significant.

The inherent advantage of the single wellbore completion are lost as the number
of zones their complexity, and hence the potential for malfunction, increases. The
optimum number of zones to be produced into any wellbore will depend on the
reservoir (e.g. the production rate), the well design (e.g. the deviation angle) and
the expected problems (e.g. completion component failure and expected operational
problems throughout the well's life).

5.3.1 Dual Zone Completion

There are a number of ways in which completions can be designed to produce two
zones (Figure 19). Besides co-mingled flow and individual well/zone completion
there are:

Casing/Tubing Flow
In this case a single tubing string is run with a single packer installed to provide
isolation between zones. The lower zone will produce up the tubing whilst the upper
zone will produce up the casing-tubing annulus. The difficulty with this type of
completion is that under natural flow conditions it will have a live annulus perhaps
necessitating an annular safety valve. Also the produced fluid is in contact with the
casing and it may thus cause damage by corrosion or abrasion. In addition, pressure
limitations on the annulus with respect to casing burst may preclude stimulation of
the zone which produces via the annulus. These issues can be addressed by:

• Upper zone annular flow - applied where the upper zone fluid is non-corrosive,
non-abrasive and where casing pressure limitations do not preclude stimulation.

• Lower zone annular flow - this design can be considered in situations where
the upper zone would not be suitable for annular flow. The lower zone annular
flow system requires one long and one very short tubing and two packers and
a crossover tool. This design however, limits access to both zones for logging,
perforating etc.

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 (a) Upper Zone Annular Flow (b) Lower Zone Annular Flow

Nipple
Sliding side door for Sliding side door for
upper zone production upper zone production

Nipple

(c) Single String Selective (d) Dual Tubing

Figure 19 Options for single and dual string, two zone completion without comingling.

• Dual Tubing
This completion has a separate tubing string for each zone. It requires two
packers, one to isolate between zones and the other to isolate the upper zone
from the upper casing annulus. The depletion of each zone can be accurately
monitored and controlled. In addition, the injection of fluids into each zone is
limited only by the tubing design criteria. The completion is also more suited
to the efficient production of problem well fluids. The tubing may be concentric
rather than the parallel configuration shown in Figure 21d. A concentric tubing
allows a greater area for flow of the produced fluids (for a given casing size);
but requires a more complex running procedure.

• Single String Selective

The well is completed on two zones, with one tubing string that has been
designed to selectively allow the production of either zone or to commingle or
both zones. The completion requires two packers, one to isolate between zones
and the other to isolate the annulus. In addition, an entry point is required for
fluid from the upper zone to enter the string. This can be opened and closed as
desired, e.g. a sliding side door (SSD). Finally producing the upper zone into
the tubing closure of the lower zone may be accomplished by setting a plug in
a nipple at the base of the tailpipe.

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 Conventional Completions
1
5.3.2 Completions for Three or More Zones
The options discussed for dual completions can be extended for wells to be completed
with or without some degree of zonal co-mingling on three or more zones.

Thus for Triple Zone Completions this can be accomplished with either:

• Three tubing string completion utilising separate zonal flow and having three
packers for isolation.

• Two string completion, whereby flow from two zones is co-mingled into one
of the tubing strings.

• Single zone annular flow and two tubing strings producing separately from two
zones.

• Two string completion where either or both of the strings are completed to
allow selectively production from two of the zones. This requires two tubing
strings and three packers.

• Single string, triple zone selective completion.

5.4 Multiple Completion Equipment

In general terms, equipment requirements for multiple completions are largely based
upon the equipment available for single string completions with the following exceptions:

• Tubing hanger systems

• Tubing packer systems
• Specialised installation equipment.

Obviously the number of tubing strings will affect the completion procedure. The
size of the tubing and ancillary equipment will be dictated by the limitations imposed
by the casing inside diameter, tensile load and torque capabilities will not normally
be a significant problem for a completion rig.

5.4.1 Tubing Hanger Systems

The simplest way of landing multiple tubings in the tubing head spool is to use a
segmented hanger (Figure 20). Each tubing string requires a hanger segment. Upon
landing off all the tubing strings, the hangers should form a composite circular hanger
which also seals the annular space in the landing seat within the tubing head spool.
Normally each hanger segment is made up with a short (or pup) tubing joint above
and below which is attached to the rest of the string. The tubing strings can either
be run independently or simultaneously.

Provision must also be made for the control lines for each tubing string and valve
system when using a surface controlled sub-surface safety valve.

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 Figures 20 Split dual tubing hanger

5.4.2 Multiple Tubing Packer Systems

Multiple tubing systems will normally require that, the number of packers equals
the number of zones to be produced. Two packers will be required for a dual zone,
dual tubing completion. The lower one is a single packer whilst the upper will be a
dual packer. Similarly, three packers will be required, comprising a single, dual and
a triple packer for a three zone, triple tubing completion.

Similar types of multiple string packers are available as these described for single
string packers, i.e. they can be either permanent or retrievable. In addition, they
can be set using a hydraulic or a mechanical setting procedure. The wireline setting
procedure, is frequently used to set the lower, single string packer.

Although in most cases it is preferable to run retrievable multi-string packers since it

leads to easier retrieval in an already more complex work over operation, permanent
packers are available and may be required in high pressure wells or wells where
significant tubing movement and stress is anticipated. The setting procedure for
the packers must be such to allow pressure testing of all tubing to be carried out
independently before initiating the packer setting procedure.

All multiple string packers must offer a means of connecting tubing both above and
below the packer for each string. In some cases mechanical attachment exists e.g.
tubing screwed onto the base of the packer whilst, in other cases, the packer offers
a seal bore.

The tubing strings will have different lengths in multiple string completions in
any completion involving multiple strings. They are denoted as the long string, the
intermediate string and the short string. This terminology is crucial to the running
procedures for the completion e.g. a packer may be run into the well on the long
string which is landed off, and may be set using hydraulic pressure either by the
long string or by the short string after it has been run, located into the packer seal
bore and landed off in the tubing hanger.

5.4.3 Blast Joints

The long string in a multiple completion is located in the casing opposite the
perforated sections of upper producing zones. The direction of fluid flow through
the perforations into the wellbore is normally perpendicular to the well axis and the

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 Conventional Completions
1
fluid flowstream must quickly change through 90° to flow up the tubing. The fluid
entering the wellbore (e.g. high velocity gas flow) may have a significant impact force
on the tubing wall of the long string, leading to hydraulic erosion. The erosion rate
will drastically increase if sand or other solid fines are being produced.

A thick walled tubing section known as a blast point, is normally included in the long
string opposite the perforated intervals of the upper production zones to compensate
for the increased rate of erosion.

6. WIRELINE SERVICING OF COMPLETION ACCESSORIES

The majority of well completions with "dry" wellheads and deviation angles < 65º
use wireline techniques either to operate equipment in the well or eliminate the need
to pull the completion string and replace components which have failed. Typical
wireline applications are the:-

• Installation of completion equipment prior to running the production tubing

e.g. a packer and a tailpipe assembly.

• Installation or retrieval of equipment within the tubing string e.g. valves,

pressure gauges, etc.

• Operation of downhole equipment to either divert or shut off fluid flow. e.g. open a
sliding side door or install a bridge plug

• Removal of materials, which have built up in the tubing string, such as wax or sand.

• Adjustment of the completion interval e.g. perforating.

Wireline involves lowering a tool into the tubing to perform a specific function. The
tool forms part of a tool string suspended on either a single strand wire or, a braided
cable. Manipulation of the tool string, either by raising or lowering, will impart a
jarring effect on the tool and activate the setting or retrieval mechanism that will
carry out the required action. Alternatively, a cable with an electrical conductor to
generate an electric signal can be used to initiate the required action.

Use of wireline will, in many cases, be a quicker, more economical alternative

to mobilising a drilling or workover rig to pull the tubing string to replace faulty
equipment. However, the wireline operator at the surface is physically very remote
from the downhole location where the tool must operate. This remoteness coupled
with the uncertainty of cable stretch (especially important in deviated wells) and the
small scale of the tools makes wireline a technique which requires highly skilled
personnel to be effective. However, incorporation of wireline operated equipment
into the completion string design provides an increased degree of flexibility in terms
of well operations and servicing capability. Electric line allows real time information
and measurements to be conveyed to the surface operator. This means that the
equipment is much more expensive and the operators must be highly trained. However,
the resulting "scientific" approach removes the "art" required by the operator of a
convential, slick, wireline unit.

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Wireline's greatest asset is the ability to conduct operations on a "live" well i.e. one
where communication exists between the reservoir, the wellbore and the top of the
tubing. Hence pressure is present at the xmas tree during a wireline intervention and
the surface wireline equipment must allow:-

• Lowering and retrieval of the tool string to the (downhole) work location and
its subsequent retrieval.

• Monitoring of the tool position and the cable tension.

• Handling and alignment pulleys so that the lubricator and the tool string
can be positioned vertically above the well prior for lowering through the Xmas
tree and into the tubing string.

• The ability to insert the tool string into the live well and to prevent pressurised well
fluid from escaping into the environment.

• A blowout preventor which will seal off the annulus around the cable
and, if required, cut the wireline.

The components of a conventional wireline system are shown in Figure 21.

Pulley

Stuffing Box
(Pressure Seal Around Wireline)

Lubricator (or Pressure Containment System)

consists of one or more tubing joints
Lubricator
determines Lifting Clamp
maximum length
of toolstring
that can be inserted
into well
Portable Hoist

Wire

Lubricator Pressure Release

Odometer
measures length
Blow-Out Preventor of wire inserted
Connection to Xmas Tree into well

to Wireline Drum
Load Cell Measures Wireline Tension
Xmas Tree

Figure 21 Wireline Surface Equipment mounted on Xmas Tree

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 Conventional Completions
1
6.1 The Wire
Conventional wireline, or “slick wireline”, utilises a single strand of wire. The wire
is normally made from high tensile steel so that the ratio of breaking strength (lbs)
to wire diameter (inches) is maximised. The minimum cable diameter is normally
used to reduce the weight of wire while still achieving the required breaking strength.

The wireline is normally wound onto a reel on a self contained skid which has its own
power supply for drum rotation and measurement of cable length and tension (Figure 22).

Work Platform

Wireline Unit

Portable Hoist
BOP Control

SC-SSV Control

Hydraulic Power Unit

Figure 22 Wireline Surface Equipment

6.2 Surface Monitoring Equipment

The important parameters that the wireline operator must be aware of at all times
during well operations are the tool string location (depth in the well) and the tension
on the cable. The length of cable in the well gives an approximate depth for the tool
string. It is measured by holding the cable without slippage against an odometer (a
wheel with a device that counts the number of rotations) as the tool string is lowered
into the well (Figure 21).

The cable tension is continuously monitored to ensure that the breaking strength of
the cable is not exceeded. The cable tension will:

• Reduce as the tool string is lowered through restriction in the tubing string due
to fluid pressure. Hence cable tension can occationally give an approximate
indication of tool position.

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 • Increase as the tool string is lowered into the well due to the increasing weight of
the wire. Hence it will also decrease during recovery of the wire and tool string.

• Increase (rapidly) if the tool string "hangs-up" or is "caught" by a downhole

restriction during recovery of the wireline.

• Conversely, during insertion of the tool string into the well, the tension will
reduce when it does not fall easily down the well due to increasing friction or
a downhole restriction.

The maximum well deviation angle for conventional wireline operates is 65º due to
the increasing friction of the wire and tool string against the tubing and production
casing or liner. Wireline servicing of such wells requires use of an electrically driven
tractor that pulls the tool string into the well. Tractors allow servicing of wells with
deviation angles greater than 90º; but they require substitution of the slick (solid)
wire by a (more expensive) electrical cable as well as hire of the tractor itself.

7. TUTORIALS

7.1 Well Completion Designs

There are numerous well completion designs, as to be expected from the wide range
of operating areas and well environments. The variety of designs reflect:

• Well characteristics such as:

• Pressure.
• Productivity or injectivity index.
• Fluid properties.
• Rock properties and geological data.

• Geographical factors:

• Location.
• Water depth (if offshore).
• Weather conditions.
• Accessibility.

• Operational design constraints:

• Environmental regulations.
• Safety aspects.

• The number of producing zones.

A number of typical completion types are presented below. These designs have
been chosen to illustrate functional similarities and differences in a range of well
environments. They are all based on the concepts discussed in this chapter.

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