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Notes for Week 1 1.5 Summation examples

Let n and j be positive integers, and let c and x be
1.1 Key practical advice real numbers.
3 3
“The key practical advice I would give to any aspiring X
k+1
X
mathematician is in two sentences. (i) x =x xk
k=0 k=0

• Write mathematics correctly. 3

X
k
3
X
(ii) k x is not the same thing as k xk
• Create your own examples.” k=0 k=0
n
X
(From the concluding chapter of “How to think like a (iii) c = nc ;
mathematician”.) k=1
n
X
(iv) xj = (n + 1)xj ;
1.2 Σ-notation k=0

The sum of the first 12 powers of 2 can be written in n

X
several ways, e.g., (v) n = (n + 1)n ;
k=0
20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 + 26 + 27 + 28 + 29 + 210 + 211 n
X n(n + 1)
0 1
= 2 + 2 + ... + 2 11 (vi) k= .
k=0
2
11
X
= 2k . 1.6 Changing the limits on a sum
k=0

The Σ-notation used in the last line instructs you to For integer n > 0 and any real numbers x0 , . . . , xn , we
substitute, in turn, k = 0, 1, . . . , 11 into the expression have
2k and to add the results. n
X n
X n−1
X
xk = x0 + xk = xk + xn
k=0 k=1 k=0
1.3 Exercise: Σ-notation
Exercise: 
2
X  2x2 ?
2 k−1 n n−1
Evaluate k 2 .

nxn ?
X X 
(j + 2)x2j = (j + 2)x2j +
k=0  (n + 2)x2 ?
j=0 j=0 
none of these ?

1.4 Fundamental rules for summation
Let n be a positive integer. The following examples 1.7 Sets
illustrate important rules.
A set is any collection of objects. These objects are
(i) The summation index can be renamed: called the members or elements of the set.
n
X n
X If x is an element of a set B, we write x ∈ B and say
j
2 = 2k ; that x is in B.
j=0 k=0
If x is not an element of B, we write x ∈
/B.
(ii) You can take out a common factor:
One way to specify a set is to put a list of its el-
n
X n
X ements inside a pair of curly braces. For example
5 (j 2 + 3j + 1) = 5 (j 2 + 3j + 1) ; A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} is a set.
j=0 j=0
The order in which the elements are listed is irrelevant:
(iii) You can change the order of the terms:
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} = {7, 5, 3, 13, 11, 2} .
n n n
Alternatively we may describe a set in words or sym-
X X X
2j + j2 = (2j + j 2 ) .
j=0 j=0 j=0 bols. For example, A is the set of prime numbers that
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are less than or equal to 13. 1.14 Definition: subsets

The set A is called a subset of the set B if every element
1.8 Exercise of A is also an element of B.
Consider the set S = {1, π, {1, 3}, {5}, 7}. If A is a subset of B, we write A ⊆ B.
Which of the following statements are correct?
1.15 Definition: empty set
(i) 1 ∈ S
The set with no elements is called the empty set and
(ii) {1} ∈
/S
is written as ∅, or sometimes also {} . The empty set
(iii) 3 ∈
/S is a subset of any set, i.e., ∅ ⊆ A for any set A.

(iv) {1, 3} ∈ S
1.16 Definition: size of a set

1.9 The natural numbers Suppose A = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } such that the ei are all
different. Then A has n elements, and we write |A| =
We write N for the set of natural numbers, so n. So |A| is the number of elements in A.
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} . Examples: |{1, 2, 4}| = 3 , |∅| = 0.

1.10 The integers 1.17 Exercise

We write Z for the set of integers (whole numbers), so Which of the following statements are true?

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} .

• {1, 2} is an element of {1, 2}, 2, 3 ,


• {1, 2} is a subset of {1, 2}, 2, 3 ,


1.11 The rational numbers
A number r/s with r ∈ Z, s ∈ Z and s 6= 0 is said to be • {4, 5} is a subset of {4, 5}, 4, 5, 6 ,

rational. We write Q for the set of rational numbers.
•  {1, 2}, 2, 3  = 4 ,
 

√ 1/2 ∈ Q, −3/7 ∈ Q, 9/2 ∈ Q, 0 ∈ Q,

For instance,
•  {4, 5}, 4, 5, 6  = 4 .
 
5 ∈ Q, but 2 ∈/ Q and π ∈
/ Q.

1.12 The real numbers 1.18 Intersection, union, disjoint sets

We write R for the set of real numbers. For instance,
√ Let A and B be sets.
1/2 ∈ R, −3/7 ∈ R, 9/2 ∈ R, 0 ∈ R, 5 ∈ R, 2 ∈ R,
The intersection A ∩ B of A and B is defined by
π ∈ R.
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} ,
1.13 Defining sets
A ∩ B is the set of all x that belong to both A and B.
We can define a set using the notation
If A ∩ B = ∅, we say that A and B are disjoint.
{x : x satisfies some conditions} .
The union A ∪ B of A and B is defined by
Here, the colon (:) is read as “such that”. Sometimes,
a vertical bar (|) is used instead. A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} ,

Example: A ∪ B is the set of all x that belong to A or B or

both.
A = {x : x is prime and x ≤ 13}

is the set of all x such that x is both prime and less

than or equal to 13, i.e., A is the set {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} .
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1.19 Complement, set difference To show a set is not closed under some operation it is
enough to give one well chosen example. But to show
Consider subsets A and B of a given set U (U is called it is closed, a general argument is required.
the universal set).
The complement of A in U , denoted by A0 , is the set 1.22 Exercise
of elements in U but not in A.
Consider the set A = {−1, 0, 1}. Which of the follow-
We have A0 = {x ∈ U : x ∈
/ A}. ing statements are correct?
The set difference A \ B of A and B is the set of (i) A is closed under addition.
elements in A but not in B.
(ii) A is closed under subtraction.
We have A \ B = {x ∈ A : x ∈
/ B}.
(iii) A is closed under multiplication.
1.20 Principle of inclusion-exclusion
(iv) A is closed under division.
Let A, B, C be sets. Then
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| 1.23 A proof

and To show that Q is closed under addition we must show

that for any x, y ∈ Q, we have x + y ∈ Q. A rigorous
|A ∪ B ∪ C| proof must start from the definition of Q.
= |A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C| Proof that Q is closed under addition: Let x ∈ Q
. and y ∈ Q. Since x ∈ Q there exist r, s ∈ Z such that
s 6= 0 and x = r/s. Since y ∈ Q there exist t, u ∈ Z
1.21 Closure such that u 6= 0 and y = t/u. Now
One important property of the natural numbers, which r t ru + st
I hope you will agree is obviously true, is that if x+y = + = .
s u su
m, n ∈ N then m + n ∈ N and mn ∈ N.
Hence x + y = m/n where m = ru + st and n =
To refer to these properties in a concise way we make su. Since the integers are closed under addition and
the following definition. multiplication, we have m ∈ Z and n ∈ Z. Also n 6= 0
Definition: Let A be a set of numbers. We say that since n = su and s 6= 0, u 6= 0. Therefore x + y is
A is rational.

• closed under addition if x+y ∈ A whenever x ∈ A 1.24 Problem (see also homework sheet 0)
and y ∈ A;
(i) Prove that Q is closed under subtraction. (ii) Prove
• closed under multiplication if xy ∈ A whenever that Q is closed under division. Pay close attention to
x ∈ A and y ∈ A; how you write the proof. Use the above proof as your
• closed under subtraction if x − y ∈ A whenever model.
x ∈ A and y ∈ A;
• closed under division if x/y ∈ A whenever x ∈ A, 1.25 Propositions
y ∈ A and y 6= 0. Mathematical statements, or propositions, are sen-
tences which are umambiguously true or false. Ex-
Thus N is closed under addition and multiplication. amples:
But N is not closed under subtraction: for instance
1 ∈ N, 2 ∈ N, but 1 − 2 6∈ N. N is also not closed under Let P be the sentence “4 is greater than 1.” Then P
division. is a proposition, and P is true.
You may assume that Z is closed under addition, sub- Let Q be the sentence “There is a real number x such
traction and multiplication. But Z is not closed under that x2 + 1 = 0 .” Then Q is a proposition, and Q is
division. false.
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More examples for propositions: P ∧Q=Q∧P

“For all x ∈ R, x + 1 > x .” (True) (P ∨ Q) ∨ R = P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
“There exists n ∈ Z such that 4n = 8 .” (True) (hence we write simply P ∨ Q ∨ R)
“4 is odd.” (False) (P ∧ Q) ∧ R = P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
“More than 1000000 people took MT1810 last year.” (hence we write simply P ∧ Q ∧ R)
(False)
(P ∧ Q) ∨ R = (P ∨ R) ∧ (Q ∨ R)
The following sentences are not propositions. They are
(P ∨ Q) ∧ R = (P ∧ R) ∨ (Q ∧ R)
neither true nor false because they are too vague.
“Dogs are not as good as cats.” ¬(¬P ) = P

“3 is a nice number.” ¬(P ∧ Q) = (¬P ) ∨ (¬Q)

¬(P ∨ Q) = (¬P ) ∧ (¬Q)
1.26 Propositional logic
1.28 Tautology and contradiction
Let P and Q be propositions.
A tautology is a proposition that is always true.
Definition:
Example:
The conjunction P ∧ Q (“P and Q”) of P and Q is
true when P and Q are both true, and false otherwise. P ∨ (¬P ) is a tautology for any proposition P .
The disjunction P ∨ Q (“P or Q”) of P and Q is false A contradiction is a proposition that is always false.
when P and Q are both false and true otherwise.
Example:
Example: Let n ∈ N.
P ∧ (¬P ) is a contradiction for any proposition P .
P : n is a prime.
Q: n is even. 1.29 Implication and logical equivalence

P ∧ Q: n is an even prime. Let P and Q be propositions.

P ∨ Q: n is a prime or even (or both). The implication P ⇒ Q (“P implies Q”) is false when
P is true and Q is false and true otherwise. In partic-
Definition: ular, whenever P is false, P ⇒ Q is true.
The negation ¬P (“not P ”) of P is true when P is Notice that P ⇒ Q is the same as (¬P ) ∨ Q.
false and false when P is true.
The logical equivalence P ⇔ Q (“P is equivalent to
Example (cont’d): Q”) is true when P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are both true
¬P : n is not a prime. and false otherwise.

¬Q: n is odd. P ⇔ Q is the same as (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q).

¬(P ∧ Q): n is not an even prime.

1.30 The direct proof
¬(P ∨ Q): n is neither even nor a prime.
Let P and Q be propositions. Then
(P ∧ (P ⇒ Q)) ⇒ Q is a tautology.
1.27 Identities in propositional logic
This tautology is called the direct proof. It says in
Let P , Q and R be propositions. In the following
words: If P is true and P implies Q, then Q is true.
identities, left hand side and right hand side have the
same truth values for all choices of P , Q and R.
P ∨Q=Q∨P
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1.31 Proof by contrapositive implication • A if and only if B.

Let P and Q be propositions. Then • A is true if and only if B is true.
(P ⇒ Q) ⇔ ((¬Q) ⇒ (¬P )) is a tautology. • A is necessary and sufficient for B.
This tautology is called the proof by contrapositive im-
plication. It says in words: Every implication P ⇒ Q
is logically equivalent to the contrapositive implication
(¬Q) ⇒ (¬P ).

1.32 Proof by contradiction

Let P and Q be propositions, and let F (“false”) be a
contradiction. Then
((P ∧ (¬Q)) ⇒ F ) ⇒ (P ⇒ Q) is a tautology.
This tautology is called the proof by contradiction. It
says in words: To prove that P ⇒ Q is true, we can
show that assuming that P is true and Q is false leads
to a contradiction.

1.33 Ways of writing A ⇒ B and A ⇔ B

(This is taken almost verbatim from chapter 13 of How
to Think like a Mathematician.)
The following are ways of writing that proposition A
implies proposition B.

• A implies B.

• A is true implies B is true.

• A =⇒ B.

• If A, then B.

• If A, B.

• B if A.

• A only if B.

• A is sufficient for B.

• B is necessary for A.

• Either A is false or B is true.

And here are ways of writing that proposition A is

equivalent to proposition B.

• A is equivalent to B.

• A ⇐⇒ B.