Module 1: Introduction to Religion

Module Introduction

This module will provide you with an introduction to religion as an academic discipline. The module
Learning Unit will help you familiarize with the difficulties of defining religion as an academic category,
explore academic theories for understanding individual religious impetus, and provide a definitional
criteria for the term ‘World Religion.’ From there, you will analyze the views of four religious scholars
to argue for which they regard as being most convincing on the Discussion Board for this module.
Finally, you will demonstrate proficiency of this Learning Unit through the module assessments.

Understanding Era Designations

Historians divide time in two eras. The era before year one is identified as BCE (Before the Common
Era) or previously BC (Before Christ). The era after year is identified as CE (Common Era) or
previously AD (Anno Domini — Latin for the ‘In the Year of Our Lord’). While the Christianized
delineations of history sufficed in previous decades, scholars now prefer the more generic BCE and
CE as they take into account that different religions have different starting points in history. Jewish
tradition, for example, has seen the beginning of Creation as their first year. Muslims, on the other
hand, identify Muhammad flight from Mecca as their first year (622 CE in the common calendar).
Thus BCE and CE allow historians to speak about events in the past through a secular rather than
religious lens.

Even so, the designations BCE/BC and CE/AD work the same. In the era of BCE/BC, time counts
down backwards. Once you reach year one, however, time begins to march forward in the AD/CE
era. Thus, Augustus comes to power in Rome in the year 27 BCE. He dies, however, in 14 CE. So, in
essence, he ruled for 41 years. In terms of Jesus, many scholars now place his birth earlier than turn
(1)
of the first millennia, sometime around 4 BCE.

Module Objectives

Upon completion of this module, the student will be able to:

❖ · Explain the factors that make defining religion a difficult task.

❖ · Distinguish the views of religious scholars within the functionalist school of thought.
❖ · Differentiate the substantive approach to religion from the functionalist approach.
❖ · Distinguish between the various ‘isms’ that characterize religious belief
(i.e. animism, monotheism, polytheism, etc.).
❖ · Recognize what differentiates a world religion from an everyday religion.

The Nature and Functions of Religion

The Nature of Religion

Religion has been traditionally defined as a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and
worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Such definitions, while
helpful for encapsulating religion quickly, do not capture the complexity and diversity of religious
(10)
experiences around the world.

In aiming to properly define religions, scholars have traditionally fallen into one of two schools: The
Functionalist school and The Substantive school. The Functionalist school aims to define religion
based on how religion functions for believers.
One can better understand this by thinking about the existential questions that religion aims to
answer:

· Why am I here?
· What is my purpose?
· Where am I going?

In contrast to this school of thought, the Substantive camp argues that religion is best defined by the
elements or “substances” that comprise it. Here, one might think about symbols, rituals, beliefs, etc.

In more recent years, scholars have come to see religion as a complex organism, which cannot be
reduced to its functionality or its substances. Therefore, the best definitions often comprise a mixture
of the two, noting that religion includes both tangible and intangible elements. With that said, we will
explore briefly the functions and substances that comprise religion to better capture the elements that
(1)
define religion.

The Functions of Religion

If one aims for a definition of how religion functions, one is likely to argue that the uniqueness of
religion has to do with its ability to answer the “Big Questions” of human existence. Those questions
include:

· Where did I come from?

· Where am I going?
· What is my purpose in life?
· Is there a cause for suffering?

Provide an Explanation for Human Endings

East and West will take different paths when dealing with the question of endings, but most religions
deal with this question in some way.

In all the major Indian religions, for example, there is a belief that life is not a one-and-done cycle, but
that human beings have the possibility of being reincarnated again. Based on the amount of karma
one accrues or loses in this life determines where one is slotted in the next life.

The religions of East Asia take a different approach to this question of afterlife.

· Daoism, for example, teaches that through mastery of one’s chi, the believer can reverse the
aging process and become an immortal infant.
 · Confucianism and Shinto hold on to the belief that ancestral spirits continue to exist with the
family, and therefore are deserved of continued veneration.
· In the West, Christianity and Islam are quite similar in their afterlife beliefs, teaching that life
is a one-and-done endeavor, with places of rewards and punishments awaiting those who
pass into the next life.

Provide an Explanation Human Purpose

Another question that religions seek to answer revolve around that of purpose. Religions across the
world will have different ways of addressing this question, but ultimately, they all do in some way.
Often times, interestingly enough, they articulate human purpose through some form of numbered
system.

· In Confucianism, for example, the purpose of human kind is to treat others compassionately
and recognize one’s role within the larger society according to the Five Great Relationships .
This, Confucius argued, would ensure that society would remain a stable, and free of chaos.
· In Buddhism, the purpose of human existence is to eliminate personal desire through the
Four Noble Truths . The objective here being that the elimination of desire will lead one to
the elimination of personal suffering.
· In the West, Judaism teaches that one purpose is to observe the laws of God as laid out in
Ten Commandments
the .
· For Muslims, one’s objective is to abide by the regulations of the Five Pillars , demonstrating
one’s faith in public acts on a daily basis.

Provide an Explanation for Human Suffering

Again, most religions demonstrate a basic concern for the problem of human suffering. This is
sometimes articulated as a matter of theodicy , or the problem of how to deal with “ evil .” Almost
across the board, evil is often articulated as the cause of self-interest or individual desire. This is why
many, if not all, religions stress the importance of self-discipline and self-control so that to extinguish
those evils.

Where religions differ is in terms of where evil derives. Western religions, for example, articulate evil
along the lines of sin.

· For Christians, historically at least, the belief has been that human beings have inherited sin
from Adam and Eve and therefore must rely on the suffering, death and resurrection of
Jesus Christ to find relief from one’s sin.
· In both Judaism and Islam, the belief is that human beings are born good but can become
sinful through their wrongdoing. Both of these religions have holy days throughout the ritual
 year, which allow for the believer to purify him or herself of the sin that has accumulated over
the year.
· In the East, Shinto holds a similar view of sin as that of Judaism and Islam, seeing impurity
as an inevitable part of the human condition that must be managed lest it corrupt our
innately good selves.

Conclusion

By addressing these questions, religion has historically legitimated its role within human culture by
providing answers to the other unexplainable questions that surround human existence. With the
development of science in the modern era, however, religion no longer is the sole proprietor of
answers to these questions. Science, for example, can point to evolution as a reasonable response to
the question of human origins. As such, this is one of the main reasons why religious definitions must
comprise more than simply functionality. This is why a good definition must also account for the
(1)
substances of religion, or the definable elements of religion.

The Substances of Religion

Whenever we speak of the substance of religion, we are speaking of the elements of religion that are
either visible, tangible, or quantifiable. Thus, a visible example of a religious substance is a religious
symbol. A tangible example of a religious substance is a sacred place. A quantifiable example of a
religious substance would be a deity or deities within a religion. Let’s explore some example of
religious substances and then consider why these alone are incapable of providing a good definition
(1)
of religion.

Sacred Arts

One significant area of study in the humanities is that of art and art history. The art of a given culture
or time period can speak volumes about the beliefs, religious or otherwise, of the people in that
culture. Therefore, the intersection of art and religion is fertile ground for study. Art can evoke or
enhance a religious experience. The reason for this is the emotional relationship between our senses,
the world around us, and our beliefs. We may learn cognitively, but we engage with the world
sensually. Our senses interact with, affect, and inform, our perceptions of the world around us. Art
and religion then, are products of the sensually perceived world.
Music

Music is perhaps the more prevalent artistic form for religious expression. The great songs of the faith
carry meaning, which spoken words or visual symbols cannot; Gregorian chants, George Frideric
Handel’s (1685–1759) “ MESSIAH ,” and Johann Sebastian Bach’s (1685–1750) various chorales and
organ pieces represent the traditional high holy church music. However, many more examples
abound beyond what is considered specifically church music. Bluesy gospel hymns, Polynesian
choirs singing songs like “ GOD YU TEKKEM LAEF BLONG MI ,” the chanting and humming of Buddhist
monks, even the Muslim call to prayer, can all be considered sacred forms of music. Each of these
styles is capable of transporting, and transfixing, the listener to the presence of the divine.

Architecture

The architecture of a place of worship reflects the theology of the people. Iconography rich cathedrals
for Orthodox Christians, solitary monasteries for Buddhist monks, and shrines to house the kami of
the Shinto, each reflect the theology and praxis of the religion they represent.

Some of the most obvious examples of architecture reflecting theology in the western world are grand
cathedrals. To identify a church as a cathedral depended on size, location, importance, and the awe
factor. The word cathedral comes from the root Greek word kathedra, which means ” a seat .” The
cathedral housed the seat of the bishop, archbishop, or pope. One of the grandest cathedrals in
Christendom is The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican City, center of the Roman Catholic
faith.

Writing

Writing is likely the most portable of the artistic expressions. Literature not only connects its reader to
their beliefs through the use of imagination but also works as a means of transmitting those beliefs for
others. We can look at an ancient text from the Middle East and understand the emotion, original
intent, and ideas of the writer. Most religions throughout the world rely on written sacred texts for the
transmission of their beliefs and praxis.

Rituals

A ritual is a set of actions performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by the
traditions of a community, including by a religious community. The term usually refers to actions which
are stylized, and usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers. The
purposes of rituals are varied. Rituals can fulfill:

· Religious obligations or ideals

 · Satisfy spiritual or emotional needs of the practitioners
· Strengthen social bonds
· Provide social and moral education
· Demonstrate respect or submission
· Allow one to state one’s affiliation
· Serve as a rite of passage
· Obtain social acceptance or approval for some event — or rituals are sometimes performed
just for the pleasure of the ritual itself.

Beliefs

Religious belief is a strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destiny. Such
a state may relate to the existence, characteristics, and worship of a deity or deities; divine
intervention in the universe and human life; or values and practices centered on the teachings of a
(11)
spiritual leader. In contrast to other belief systems, religious beliefs are usually codified.

Religious Practitioners

There are several types of religious practitioners or people who specialize in religious behaviors.

These are individuals who specialize in the use of spiritual power to influence others. A shaman is an
individual who has access to supernatural power that can then be used for the benefit of specific
clients. Found in indigenous cultures, shamans may be part-time specialists, but is usually the only
person in the group that can access the supernatural. They have specialized knowledge that is
deemed too dangerous for everyone to know because they do not have the training to handle the
knowledge. Oftentimes, shamans train their replacement in the ways of contacting and utilizing the
supernatural. Shamans are often innovative in their practices, using trance states to contact the
supernatural.

Priests are another type of religious practitioner who is trained to perform rituals for benefit of a
group. Priests differ from shamans in a couple of important ways. For priests, rituals are
key—innovation and creativity are generally not prized or encouraged. Priests are found in most
organized religions, e.g., Buddhism, Christianity and Judaism, although they have a different name
such as monks, ministers, or rabbis.

Sorcerers and witches , unlike shamans and priests who have high status in their cultures, usually
have low status because their abilities are seen in a negative manner. Both sorcerers and witches
have the ability to connect with the supernatural for ill purposes.

· Sorcerers often take on a role similar to law enforcement in the United States; they are used
by people to punish someone who has violated socially proscribed rules.
 · Witches are believed to have an innate connection to the supernatural, one that they often
cannot control. Because witches may inadvertently hurt people because they cannot control
their power, if discovered, they are often ostracized or forced to leave their group. It is
important to differentiate witches in some cultures from Wiccans. While Christianity makes
no distinction between Wiccans and witches as described above, Wicca has clear mandates
against using magic to harm others. The Wiccan rede states, “ An’ it harm none, do what ye
(12)
will .”

The Experiential

Rudolf Otto, a German thinker, attempted to theorize a single term that could explain the structure of
all religious experience independent of cultural background. In his book, THE IDEA OF THE HOLY , he
identified this and called it the “numinous ” experience. For an experience to be numinous, in Otto’s
opinion, it needed to involve two things.

· First, it had to include the mysterium tremendum , which is the tendency to invoke fear and
trembling.
· Secondly, it had to include the mysterium fascinas , which is the tendency to attract,
fascinate or compel.

According to Otto, a numinous experience also has a personal quality to it, because individuals
(13)
typically feel that they are opening some unique communication chain with the divine.

Conclusion

Many definitions of religion that one finds will rely strictly on the substances to encapsulate religion.
The problem here is that, if one simply defines religion based on its substances, one ultimately
defines it as an institution that is not unlike other institutions, such as sport or politics. Indeed, just like
religions, sport and politics include symbols, sacred places, rituals, beliefs, and even feelings of awe
— the mysterium tremendum . This is why, when thinking about religious definitions, one should
articulate it not only based on what one sees, but also based on how it functions. Doing one without
the other does not fully encapsulate what sets religion apart as an object of study.

What this all means, of course, is that not only can religion be properly defined. It can also be studied,
as well as a unique human institution. With that said, let’s transition now to thinking about why people
are religious. Here is where the scientific study of religion has proven invaluable over the past two
centuries.

Why Are People Religious?

Within the academic study of religion, one might argue that people are religious for one of four
reasons.

· The anthropological school argues that religion functions as an early form of science,
answering questions that human reason cannot yet explain.
· The psychological school argues that people gravitate towards religion because it
provides a sense of comfort and security.
· The sociological school argues that religion provides a sense of social cohesiveness and
solidarity.
· The economic school proposes that religion functions as a means of controlling the under
classes to the benefits of those in the higher social strata.

Most scholars today argue that one cannot reduce religion to one form of functionality. It is more likely
that religion attracts adherents because it fulfills many of these functions in the lives of believers.

Anthropologists such as E.B. Tylor and James Frazer looked at religion from an evolutionary
approach. In examining societies that they regarded as less complex, they argued that as civilizations
advance, it is inevitable that their system of belief advances as well. The more complex a particular
society is, the more complex the religious system. All societies demonstrate some form of religious
belief, as religions function scientifically, in that they provide mythological explanations for the
existential questions surrounding human origins, purpose, and afterlife. Tylor and Frazer both agreed,
however, that as civilizations advanced from religious reasoning to scientific reasoning, religion would
(1)
eventually die out, as science could offer more rational explanation to those existential questions.

Religion and Security

With the development of the school of psychology in the early twentieth century, psychologists
became interested in why people gravitated towards religion. Sigmund Freud explained that religion
provided a source of security for individual by answering existential questions as why we die and
suffer. He also suggested that religion provides a mechanism of personal comfort, helping people
cope with uncertainty. So, for instance, the Trobriand Islanders are excellent mariners, yet perform
elaborate rituals before setting sail. On 9/11 and in the days following, tens of thousands of US
citizens went to church, temple, or mosque to pray and find comfort and answers to the devastation of
(16)
the terrorist attack.

Religion and Social Cohesion

Regarded as the founder of sociology, Emile Durkheim, argued that the attractiveness of religion is its
promise of social solidarity to like-minded persons. Religion was more than simply an institution for
Durkheim. Rather, he regarded it as an expression of society itself, and indeed, there is no society
that does not have religion. We perceive as individuals a force greater than ourselves and give that
perception a supernatural face. We then express ourselves religiously in groups, which for Durkheim
makes the symbolic power greater. Religion is an expression of our collective consciousness, which
(18)
is the fusion of all of our individual consciousness, which then creates a reality of its own.

Religion and Social Control

Marx viewed religion as a tool of social control used by the bourgeoisie to keep the proletariat content
with an unequal status quo.

The social-conflict approach is rooted in Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism. According to Marx, in a
capitalist society, religion plays a critical role in maintaining an unequal status quo, in which certain
groups of people have radically more resources and power than other groups of people. Marx argued
that the bourgeoise used religion as a tool to keep the less powerful proletariat pacified. Marx argued
that religion was able to do this by promising rewards in the after-life, instead of in this life. It was in
this sense that Marx asserted the following:

“Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the feeling of a heartless world, and the soul
of soulless circumstances. It is the opium of the people… The abolition of religion as the
illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness” (p.72).

In this passage, Marx is calling for the proletariat to discard religion and its deceit about other-worldly
events. Only then would this class of people be able to rise up against the bourgeoisie and gain
(17)
control of the means of production, and only then would they achieve real rewards, in this life.

Conclusion

Each of these four approaches to religion (anthropological, psychological, sociological, and

economic) offer compelling explanations for determining why human beings gravitate to religion and
religious beliefs. As a criticism, one can point out that an argument can be made for each of these
being a relevant reason why people are religious. In short, religious belief is very complex. One
cannot simply reduce religious belief to anthropological, psychological, sociological, or economic
reasons. In truth, people gravitate to religion for a multiplicity of reasons. To diminish religious belief to
one or even two explanations fails to appreciate the distinct reasons that each individual has for
(1)
adopting a religious identity.

Types of Religious Experiences

In terms of religious experiences, these too are just as diverse as the reasons for why people become
religious. While most of the World Religions today will be theistic in practice, a handful — such as
Shinto and Daoism — still bear visible signs of their animist roots. And magic, one could argue,
provides the basis for all religious belief if one wanted. With that said, lets explore these three types
of religious expression, keeping an open mind that they each provide avenues for connecting with the
(1)
sacred.

Magic

In many cases, it becomes difficult or impossible to draw any meaningful line between beliefs and
practices that are magical versus those that are religious. In general, The term religion is reserved for
an organized cult with a priesthood and dedicated sites of worship or sacrifice, while magic is
prevalent in all societies, regardless of whether they have organized religion or more general systems
of animism or shamanism. Religion and magic became conceptually separated with the development
of western monotheism, where the distinction arose between supernatural events sanctioned by
mainstream religious doctrine (“miracles”) and mere magic rooted in folk belief or occult speculation.
In pre-monotheistic religious traditions, there is no fundamental distinction between religious practice
and magic; tutelary deities concerned with magic are sometimes called “hermetic deities” or “spirit
guides.”

Animism

Animism refers to the belief that non-human entities are spiritual beings, either intrinsically or because
spirits inhabit them for a period of time. Unlike supernatural forces, animist spirits may be inherently
good or evil. Often, these spirits are thought to be the souls of deceased relatives, and they are not
worshiped as deities. Daoism and Shinto are the most animistic of the World Religions.

While animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual
nature of everything in existence as being united (monism), the way pantheists do. Animism puts
more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same
spiritual essence — there are no distinct spirits and/or souls. Because humans are considered a part
of nature, rather than superior to, or separate from it, animists see themselves on roughly equal
footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces, and subsequently have a moral imperative to
treat these agents with respect.

In animist societies, ritual is considered essential to win the favor of the spirits that ward off other
malevolent spirits and provide food, shelter, and fertility. Shamans, also sometimes called medicine
men or women, serve as mediums between the physical world and the world of spirits.

Animism is thought to be the belief system that laid the groundwork for the notion of a soul and the
animation of traditionally inanimate objects, allowing every world religion to take those basic
principles in other directions.

Theism
The term theism , first introduced by Ralph Cudworth (1617–1688), derives from the Greek word
theos meaning “ god ”. It refers to any belief system that incorporates the existence of a deity. A deity
is a supernatural being thought of as holy, divine or sacred. Though they take a variety of forms,
deities are often expressed as taking human form. They are usually immortal, and are commonly
assumed to have personalities, consciousness and intellects comparable (albeit superior) to those of
humans. Typically, deities do not reveal themselves directly to humans, but make themselves known
through their effects in the world. They are thought to dwell mainly in otherworldly or holy places like
Heaven, Hell, the sky, the under-world, or in a supernatural plane or celestial sphere.

When only one deity is recognized, the faith tradition is called monotheistic . Typically, monotheistic
traditions conceive of God as omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, and active in governance and
organization of the world and the universe. The most prominent modern day monotheistic religions
include Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

In contrast to monotheism, deism is the belief that at least one deity exists and created the world, but
that the creator(s), though transcendent and supreme, does/do not alter the original plan for the
universe. Deism typically rejects supernatural events (prophecies, miracles and divine revelations)
prominent in organized religion. Instead, deism holds that religious beliefs must be founded on human
reason and observed features of the natural world, and that these sources reveal the existence of a
supreme being as creator.

Faith traditions involving more than one deity are called polytheistic. Polytheism recognizes multiple
gods as being distinct and separate beings. Examples include the Egyptian and the Greek religions.

Monism views multiple gods as being connected under the umbrella of a greater whole. Hinduism is
considered a monistic faith as each of their deities are really avatars of one universal principle, the
Brahman.

Henotheism is the belief that while only one deity is worshiped other deities may exist and other
people are justified in worshiping those other deities.

Monolatrism refers to the belief that there may be more than one deity, but that only one is worthy of
(14)
being worshiped.

It is also important to note that every society also has nonbelievers , such as atheists , who do not
believe in a divine being or entity, and agnostics , who hold that ultimate reality (such as God) is
unknowable. While typically not an organized group, atheists and agnostics represent a significant
portion of the population. It is important to recognize that being a nonbeliever in a divine entity does
not mean the individual subscribes to no morality. Indeed, many Nobel Peace Prize winners and other
(15)
great humanitarians over the centuries would have classified themselves as atheists or agnostics.

Distinguishing the World Religions from Everyday Religion

Before looking at each of the World Religions in our course, we should first understand how scholars
typically distinguish a World Religion. There are eight religions that scholars designate as World
Religions; a category can be further split into western and eastern World Religions.

Western World Religions include:

· Judaism
· Christianity
· Islam

Eastern World Religions include:

· Hinduism
· Buddhism
· Confucianism
· Taoism
· Shinto

There are three features, which distinguish a world religion from a non-world religion. The three
features include:

1. Longevity : the religion must have withstood the tests of time

2. Membership : the membership of the religion is much larger than non-world religions
3. Spanning of Continents : one can find the religion outside of its original place of origin

These features have remained relatively consistent since the term World Religion was first coined in
the Nineteenth century. At the time, the term was utilized to identify those religions whose followers
extended beyond national borders. However, the categorization is not without its faults. For example,
the following questions must be considered.

1. How long is longevity?

2. How many members make it large enough?
3. How far away from the place of origin is far enough?

Regardless of the answers to these questions, the world religion designation remains useful when
distinguishing them from everyday religion.

· Authored by: Florida State College at Jacksonville. License: CC BY: Attribution

CC LICENSED CONTENT
· Types of Religion. Authored by: Lumen. Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/types-of-religions/. Project:
Boundless Sociology. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
· World Religions. Authored by: Lumen (Introduction to Sociology). Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/world-religions/. License: CC BY:
Attribution
· The Function of Religion. Authored by: Lumen (Cultural Anthropology). Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/the-function-of-religion/.
License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
· The Functionalist Perspective on Religion. Authored by: Lumen from Boundless Sociology. Located
at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-functionalist-perspective
-on-religion/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
· The Conflict Perspective on Religion. Authored by: Lumen. Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-conflict-perspective-on-r
eligion/. Project: Boundless Sociology. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
· The Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective on Religion. Authored by: Lumen. Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-symbolic-interactionist-
perspective-on-religion/. Project: Boundless Sociology. License: CC BY-SA:
Attribution-ShareAlike
· Religious Practitioners. Authored by: Lumen (Cultural Anthropology). Located at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/635/. License: CC BY-SA:
Attribution-ShareAlike
· Religious Experience. Authored by: Wikipedia. Located at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_experience. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike