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 Meaning
 Psychology is composed of two Greek words psyche means soul or mind and logos
means science or study of.

 Definition
 Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.

 Scientific study
 Means knowledge which is based on research, theories and experiments.
 Psychology used the scientific methods to provide solution of a problem and
understanding the phenomena.
 Psychology adopts the scientific methods to observe behavior and mental process,
compare them with one another and group them under different classes.
 Human Behavior
 Anything which can be measured and observed is called behavior. Anything that we
do, any kind of action e.g., walking, talking etc.
 Psychology studies the behavior of both human and animals.

Types of behavior
There are two types of behavior:

i. Overt behavior
 Physical behavior which can be observed directly
 Psychology mainly focuses on this behavior.
ii. Covert behavior
 This is the concealed or hidden behavior.

Psychology based upon individual differences (everyone has its own way of thinking).

 Mental processes
 Every aspect of our mental life, our thoughts, memories, mental images, Ideas and
perception etc.

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 Nature of Psychology
 Psychology is both natural and social science.

 Natural science
It involves the studies of laws of the nature that is the brain and its relationship.
 Social science
It involves the study that how people interact in group and social situation.

 Psychology is the process of evaluation of ideas and behavior.

 It tries to explain the nature and development of experience and behavior.
 It studies how human learn or adapt to their environment.
 It is academic and applied field involving the study of behavior and mind. It refers to the
application of such knowledge to various human activity including problems of
individual daily lives and treatment of mental illness.
 It seeks to understand that how human and other organism think, learn, perceive, feel, act
and interact with others and how the understands themselves too.
 It studies how the mind works and how the nervous system help organism to adopt its
environment.
 It represents balance between theory and research.

 Theory
A story defining key terms, providing a conceptual framework and explaining
something occurs.
 Research
A systematic well planned study and observation of the facts surrounding the
problem.
 Concepts of different psychologists
 Aristotle: Psychology is the study of soul.
 William James: psychology is the science of mind.
 Sigmund Freud: Psychology is the science of consciousness.
 Wilhelm Wundt: psychology is the science of internal experience.
 J.B.Watson: psychology is the science of behavior of an individual.
 R.S.Woodworth: psychology is the science of activities of an individual.
 William Mc Dougall: Psychology is the science of experiences and behavior.

 Types of Psychology
Psychology has two main types:

1. General Psychology
 It is introductory text in which we study introduction and general principals of
psychology.
 The pioneer of General Psychology is Sigmund Freud.

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 2. Applied Psychology
 To apply principals, laws, methods and theories of psychology in practical life.
 E.g. Education, Business, Society, Industries, Marketing, Counseling and Guidance
etc
 The founder of applied psychology is Wilhelm Wundt.
 Other Branches of Psychology/scope and application of psychology
1) Social Psychology
This branch deals with individual to individual, group to group and individual to group
behaviors. Or in other words studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and
actions of the people.
2) Abnormal Psychology
This deals with disorders or abnormalities it is also called as psycho-pathology.
Abnormal: the person who violates the social norms and adopts the deviant behavior is
called abnormal.
3) Clinical psychology
In which we study about the solutions of those abnormalities. Therapy is the way to treat
the patient, which includes behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, psycho-analysis,
chemotherapy, ECT and Physio-therapy basically these all tools used to insight the
person.
4) Psycho-analysis
It is a school of thought by Sigmund Freud in which he advocated that all the time
medicines are not necessary for treatment sometimes advice can be the effective tool of
therapy. The activation of conscious part of brain is called psycho-therapy. Catharsis is
very important way to treat. Catharsis (in which patient share his problems without any
hesitation)
5) Individual or Organization psychology
Psychologist is hired in organizations where they solve their problems individually or in
grouping to promote maximum efficiency and productivity of the organization.
6) Counseling Psychology
Everyone needs career counseling they seek the consultation from the psychologist of
their concerned fields. As professional guidance is given here, focuses primarily on
educational, social and career adjustment problems.
7) Psychological testing
This is the modern innovation mostly applied branch of psychology in which behavior,
personality, and IQ level is measured. These all tests are carried out under psycho-
metrics.
8) School Psychology
also called as educational psychology and it is used to judge individual differences, used
to measure mental capacity of students in educational institutions. This also includes the

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 study of motivation, intelligence, use of reward and punishment, size of class,
expectations and attitudes.
9) Sports Psychology
Psychologist work on the psyche of sports athletes and they prepare them for better
results as every sports team have psychologist to overcome with the psychological flaws
of athletes. Furthermore studies the role of motivation in sport, and social aspect of sport
etc.
10) Experimental Psychology
Here all the principals are applied to have experiments in laboratories and efficient results
are achieved. Then these acquired results are implemented. Mostly, the experiments done
through animals
Apart from that it studies processes of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking etc by
using scientific methods.
11) Developmental psychology
This branch dealt that how an individual develop himself from childhood to adulthood.
Growth is from childhood to 18 years old. They work in a variety of settings like
colleges, schools, healthcare centers, business centers, etc also study the disturbed
children and advising parents about helping such children’s.

 Goals of Psychology
To describe, explain, predict and change the behavior and mental
process through the use of scientific methods.

 Description: (what is happening?)

First step of understanding behavior is through proper scientific observation.
Psychologists try to describe objectively classified or name of a particular behavior.
Description tells what has occurred it should be objective free from biased. In description
we try to study relationship between stimulus and response.
 Explanation: (why is it happening?)
It tells why has a behavior occurred? It depends on discovering and understanding of its
causes.
 Prediction: (when will it happen again?)
Psychology specifies the condition under which a behavior is likely to occur.
 Control: (How it can be changed?)
Applying psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted outcomes of bring about desired
goals.
Control behavior refers to as starting it or stopping it, influencing it quality and strength.
Helping the people to improve their lives

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It is divided into three stages:

1) Pre-scientific age
2) Middle age
3) Scientific age

1) Pre-scientific Age
Philosophy is the mother of all sciences it means “love of knowledge” it gave birth to
numberless system e.g., biology, chemistry, physics, psychology etc.

 Psychology is regarded as a branch of philosophy.

 The influence of the demonology:
In past, most of the population believed on demonology. They believed that occurrence
of abnormal behavior is the work of the spirits and evils. Spirits and soul exist after death,
demon and evil spirits take over the organism had been a popular belief at that time.
 Plato (427-347B.c):
He was the pupil of Socrates and was the Teacher of Aristotle. His view that the universe
is composed of two types of formula: Things and ideas. He stressed the controlling
influence of our soul or mind. He believed that we are born with complete knowledge
within us soul and learning is a process to discover knowledge within us.
 Aristotle (384-322):
He was the pupil of Plato. He rejected the theory and suggested that mind is the function
of body. To him our mental process and behavior are the product of bodily process
through mind was superior to body. He introduced four laws of association:
1) Law of similarity 2) law of contrast 3) law of contiguity 4) law of frequency
YOGA was the philosophy for evaluation and improvement of human soul and body.
 Greek philosophers were interested in the relationship between mind and body.
 Socrates (470-399):
He believed that our soul contained all the knowledge. We unfortunately lose touch with
that knowledge at every birth, so we need to be reminded of what we already know.

2) Middle Age
 Rene-Descartes (1596-1650):

He was French philosopher, who suggested that mind and body are distinct entities and
they interact through the pineal glands. Found deep within brain, this view is known as
dualism. He was the father of modern psychology, named as mental philosophy the
science that was later called psychology. He tried to take psychology out of the
influence of ancient Greek.

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 Interactionism: other philosopher suggested that mind can influence body and body can
influence mind, a view known as Interactionism.

3) Scientific Age
 1879: psychology as a separate science established and Wundt set up laboratory for
introspection (internal observation).
 1883: William James established laboratory in Harvard University America.
 1884: First text book of psychology was published and author was John Dewy.
 1888: the Academic title professor of psychology is given to James M cattle in USA.
 1890: William James published “principles of psychology.”
 1892: APA (American Psychological Association).
 1896: Functionalism as early school of thought was established. Edward Titcher
introduced Structuralism.
 1900: Sigmund Freud introduced his theory of psycho-analysis.
 1904: Ivan Pavlov presented classical conditioning theory.
 1905: Alfred Benet and Simon developed a scale of general intelligence on the basis
of mental age.
 1913: J.B Watson published psychology as behavior launching behaviorism.
 1921: Herman Rorschach devices a personality test based interpretations of inkblot.
 1935: Kurk koffka published principles of Gestalt psychology.
 1964: Neal E Miller received the national Medal of science in USA.
 1980s and 1990s: Psychologists gave more attention in research, theory and practice.

 Definitions of Research
 Research means a systematic, well planned study and observation of facts surrounding
the problem.
 Try to find out more relevant information regarding a problem.
 The way of thinking regarding different nature of problem.
 The use of standardized procedure in search of knowledge is called research.

 Nature of research
 Research begins with question.
 It requires a plan, direction and design.
 It gives new direction to the thoughts.
 It demands clear statement of problem.
 It seeks direction through appropriate hypothesis.
 It deals with facts and figures.
 It is used for planning in all major areas of organizational life.

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 Types of Research
 Basic/ pure research
Usually conduct in universities and laboratories to explore new theories and advance
scientific understanding.
1. Description
2. Explanation
3. Prediction
 Secondary or applied research
Designed to solve practical problem and to change existing real-world problem

 Traits of Research
There are four traits in research.

i. Uniformity of procedure:
Step by step research, systematic or research by hierarchy
ii. Reliability:
Consistency in scores
iii. Validity:
Purpose that research is fulfilling the purpose of research or not.
iv. Standardization:
Those procedures which used all over the world
If these traits are not followed result would be invalid.

All sciences use observation, experiments and research methods for investigation of its data.

 Steps for Research Methods

1. problem
2. Hypothesis
3. Variables
4. Experimental design
5. Methods of data collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Result
8. Report Writing
9. Conclusion and discussion
10. References and Bibliography

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1) Problem
 A thing which need any solution.
 Research cannot be started without any problem.
 Problem is a question which needs to be answered by a scientific and systematic way.
 Basic purpose of research to search the answer of question.
2) Hypothesis
 Testable statement is known as hypothesis which must be formatted in any research.
 It assumes the situation with logics.
 It may or may not be correct.
 A specific prediction about how one variable is related to another.
 There can be more than one hypothesis for a problem which is either approved or
disapproved after conducting research.
3) Variables
 Changeable values are called variables or factors that can vary or change.
i. Independent variable: manipulated by researcher in order to determine its effects on
behavior.
ii. Dependent variables: use to assess the effect of independent variable.
iii. Controlled variables: which are being controlled during research
iv. Uncontrolled variables: which cannot be controlled during research
4) Experimental Design
 The most scientific, reliable and developed procedure of investigation.
 It provides procedure for testing a hypothesis and prediction formulated on some
observed facts.
 It refers to the procedure used in collecting data.
 In experimental design researcher manipulates one independent variable and studies its
effect on dependent variables.
 Population: set of all cases of interest.
 Sampling: something less than all the cases of interest.
5) Methods of Data Collection
 Introspection: Give us direct, immediate, certain and exact knowledge about one’s own
mental process. It was regarded as chief source of information about mind. This method
regards consciousness is the important object of study.
 Observation: we can understand the mental process by observation. The data which
collect through observation can be analyzed, classified and measured.
 Interview: it is verbal interaction between two individual for particular purpose.
 Case study method: here the past history and present situation is being analyzed. To
obtain complete record of an individual exploring and analyzing the past experience,
relationship and problem of a person.
 Survey method: to obtain solid information from large number of people. To asses
people thoughts, opinions and feelings. Questionnaire is the list of written questions that
are answered by making correct response from the choice. It may be open ended or close
ended.

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6) Data Analysis
 Is ordering, breaking down into parts in order to obtain answer. After data collection,
analyze it to decide whether to support or reject the hypothesis.
 Statistical method: used to organize summaries and interpret numerical data. It is
necessary for standard procedure.
7) Result
 At this stage we come to know hypothesis is accepted or rejected.
 Research is being compiled on the basis of data collection, analysis and treatment of data.
 Result is explained the approval or disapproval of the hypothesis with logics, graph and
tables.
8) Report Writing
 Written document which is prepare at the end of research.
 Problem should be carefully defined.
 Research procedure carefully mentioned
 Experimental design should be carefully planned.
9) Conclusion and discussion
 Research shares his work with others that what is the outcome of his research?
 The whole process of research is being discussed critically which would be a supporting
step for further studies and research.
10) References and Bibliography
 Reference person, books, articles, sites which are used for data collection mention in
detail in this step.

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 Introduction
 Personality comes from the Greek word “persona” meaning “mask”.
 The study of personality can be understood as the study of ‘masks’ that people wear.
These are persons that people project and display, but also include the inner parts of
psychological experience which we collectively call our ‘self’.

 Personality defined
 Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual
that is organized and relatively enduring and that influences his or her interactions
with, and adaption’s to, the environment (including the intra psychic, physical and
social).
 In psychology, personality is description of consistent emotional, thought, and
behavior patterns in a person.
 Various Definitions
 Personality is basically the set of objectives, patterns of behavior and general
appearance.
 Personality is a characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behaving.
 It is generally considered as a dynamic system of all the attitudes, habits and
motives of a person which helps in adjusting to the environment.
 General facts
 Personality is the face we present to the world.
 Represents our style of interacting with others.
 Display how we confront challenges and opportunities.
 Nature of Personality
 Every personality is unique in nature.
 Every individual is characterized by his or her personality.
 Genes and peers have more an effect on personality than parents.
 Love is important, but eye contact and words have more of an impact.
 Human personality is purposive in nature.
 Concepts of Personality
 Wood Worth: personality is the total quality of an individual’s behavior.
 Hill gard: personality means typical and consistent adjustment to the environment.
 J.B.Watson: personality is the sum of activities which can be studied through
observations of the behavior.
 Dr. Munn: personality is unique integration of person’s trait.

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 Traits of personality
 Personality traits tell us how the individual behaves. “A trait is defined as a cluster
of behavior acts”
 Physical traits(personal appearance)
 Mental traits (Intelligence, observation, memory, imagination, attention, judgment
etc.
 Emotional traits(Temperament)
 Character (Will power, Moral character)
 Social traits (participate in social activities).
 Types of Personality
 Introvert personality
Enjoy being alone, interested in own thoughts, feelings, independent judgment,
unsociable, unpractical, prefer thinking than action etc.
 Extrovert personality
Interested in social environment, quickly react to situation, make quick decisions,
sociable, practical, prefer action.
1) Measurement or Assessment of personality
Personality assessment attempts to provide information concerning the individual’s
personality.

Aims of personality assessment is

i. To understand
ii. To predict
iii. To modify

2) Methods of Personality Assessment

There are two methods of personality assessment:

1. Unscientific Method
2. Scientific Method
1. UNSCIENTIFIC METHODS
 Palmistry
The practice of personality assessment based on the interpretation of the lines,
wrinkles and other feature of the palm.
 Graphology
Investigation and study of handwriting e.g. small letters indicates self-centered, while
large letters shows imaginative, ambitious and proud etc.

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  Astrology
It belief that the stars have an influence on human personality
 Physiognomy
This method indicated with the help of external features, physical features, body
gesture, emotional features, facial expression, and color complexion. It has no
validity.
 Phrenology
It is considered to be associated with certain parts of the brain. E.g. one who had big
head or large head is more intelligent but it cannot prove by scientific method.
2. SCIENTIFIC METHODS
i. Subjective method
ii. The objective tests
iii. The projective tests

i. Subjective method
In this method information is obtained from the individual himself from friends and
relatives.

a) Self History
 If a person explain her/ his personality by himself or herself.
 The analysis of data gives certain conclusion regarding the personality of a
person.

b) Interview
 Verbal interaction between two individual for particular purpose. This
information helps to form some judgment about personality.
 It is direct method to assess the personality.

c) Observation
 We directly observe the behavior to assess the personality. We observe the
behavior in ordinary situation over a long period of time.

d) Rating scale
 It is a technique designed to make estimate of personality. To judge the
personality either by the person himself or others who know him well.
 It is a list of various personality traits and aspect of behavior, on which a person
is rated during or after the observation of the person behavior.

e) Questionnaire
 It is very successful method for data collection for personality assessment.

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 ii. The Objective tests
 Objective tests are widely used to assess the personality.
 They deal with consciousness.
 These tests call for short replies, like true-false and yes-no.
 They are written tests and required written response.
 They are administrative and standardized in scoring.
1. MMPI
2. CPI

3) MMPI
 Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory
 Introduced by S.R Hathaway and J.C McKinley in 1946.
 MMPI is the test which was designed for emotional disturbance.
 Number of items are 556.

4) CPI
 California Psychological Inventory
 Introduced by Harrison Gough in 1957.
 CPI was designed to assess personality in healthy people.
 The test is used to predict how people will act in important situation.
 Number of items: it consists of several hundred questions.

iii. The Projective Tests

 Projective tests are used to observe the unconscious feelings, thoughts and desires.
 These tests depend on ambiguous material.
 These tests call for brief answer.
 They deal with unconsciousness.
 These tests are used to explore hidden personality characteristics.
1. TAT
2. The Rorschach Inkblot Test.

5) TAT
 Thematic Apperception Test
 Introduced by Henry Marry and Christina Morgan in 1935.
 TAT is the pattern of story writing in which subject is shown ambiguous
pictures and asked to make up a story.
 It attempts to explore the unconsciousness.
 Number of items: it consists of 30 cards which are black and white.

6) The Rorschach Inkblot Test

 Introduced by Herman Rorschach in 1921.
 He picked up the idea to measure the person fantasy world through the help
of ink blot.
 Number of items: it consists of 10 inkblot cards with different colors.

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 Free Association Technique
 Introduced by Freud
 Which is known as best technique to explore the unconsciousness
 In this technique to allow subject to talk without interruption or guidance, while
therapist take note and analyze them to assess the personality.

 Dream Analysis:
 Given by Freud. Dreams are called royal road to unconsciousness. It represents those
motives of personality which are being repressed in unconscious as they are
unaccepted in the society.

 Word Association Test:

 It can take much form as therapist read a list of words and asking subject to speak the
very first thing that comes to mind after hearing each word.

 Draw a Person Test:

 These tests are applied on children, to judge their intellectual level. Children are
asked to draw any part of the body and draw a picture of that person whom they like
or dislike.

1) HEREDITY
Heredity is the transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring either through their
genes or through biological institution called inheritance.

ELEMENTS OF HEREDITY
 Physical appearance
 Abilities
 Disabilities
i. Physical appearance
Eye color, hair color, body structure etc are inherited personality.
Characteristics which show persons physical appearance
ii. Abilities
Abilities are the qualities of being able to do something.
iii. Disabilities
An individual with disability is defined as a person who has a “physical or
mental Impairment” that affect a life activity.

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 2) Environment
 According to Young and Mack:
“Those forces, situation or stimulus that affects the individual from outside is called
environment”.
 Word nurture is also used for it.

3) Situation
 “Set of circumstances in which, a person exist is called situation”.

1. Oral stage (birth to 18 months)

2. Anal stage (18 months – 3 ½ years)
3. Phallic stage(3 ½ years – 6 years)
4. Latency ( 6 years – 12 years)
5. Genital ( 12 years – to onwards)
1. Oral stage
 Primary source of interaction is mouth.
 Because the child is totally dependent on other like mother
 Primary conflict at this stage is weaning process.
 Thumb sucking prolongs to eighteen months then fixation comes as child starts
smoking.
2. Anal stage
 Primary focus on muscular controls of the body.
 Toilet training is given.
 If parents take too lenient approach “anal expulsive personality” develops.
 If parents are too strict than an “anal retentive personality” develops.
3. Phallic stage
 Primary focus on relation with parents.
 Boys’ relation with mother and girls’ relation with father.
 Social relations become interactive.
 If proper attention not given to children then shyness, dominant and egoistic
personality develop.
4. Latent stage
 Primary focus of the child on external world.
 Skills are developed baby becomes found of exploration.
 Child is more concerned with peer relations, hobbies and other interests.
 Sociable, dull and reserve personality develop in this stage.
5. Genital stage
 Individual develops a strong interest in opposite sex.
 The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
 In this stage careless personality develops.

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NOTE: If any fixation (problem) comes out from these stages then will be treated through
psychoanalysis.(dream analysis and free association technique). Or Fixation can be avoided
through defense mechanism.

According to psychoanalytical theory of personality, Personality is composed of three

elements.

1. ID
2. EGO
3. SUPER EGO

1. THE ID
 It is the only component of personality which is present from the birth.
 It is entirely unconscious.
 The id is driven by the pleasure principle which strives for immediate gratification of
needs and wants.
 If we ruled entirely by this behavior, so this sort of behavior is disruptive and
unacceptable.

2. THE EGO
 Ego based on reality principle.
 The reality principle strives to satisfy the ids desire in realistic and socially
appropriate ways.
 Ego functions in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind.
 Ego is capable of planning, problem solving and controlling id.

3. THE SUPER EGO

 It is the last component of personality development.
 It is based upon moral principle which is developed by parents or society.
 It is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind.
Parts of Mind
Mind has 3 parts:

i. Conscious: power to percept what is happening around us.

ii. Pre-conscious: information or remembering of some happenings and forgetting of some
happenings.
iii. Unconscious: whatever we have gone through from childhood to adulthood.

Pleasure and satisfaction be attained then personality will be balanced.

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 What is motivation?
Motivation is an internal force which motivates a person to do anything.

 Nature of motivation
 Motivation is the general term for all the process involved in starting, directing and
maintaining physical and psychological activities.
 Motives are established by experiences, maturation, exercise and learning.

 Definition of motivation
 Motivation is a process which develops activity in an organism that directs behavior
toward any goal.
 New Comb: Motivation is a process of seeking goal.
 Dr Munn: A motive is an internal activator and modifier.
 Derived from a Latin word which means move.

 Need, Drive and Incentive

 Need: is a motivated state caused by psychological deprivation such as lack of food
or water.
 Drive: is a state of psychological tension induced by a need.
 Incentive: is an external stimulus that pulls an individual toward a goal. In other
words it is satisfaction.

 Classification of motivation
1) Primary or Biogenic Motives:
These are organic or biological needs which help a person alive and healthy by satisfying
the need of the body. Without these motives man cannot survive.
2) Secondary or Sociogenic motives:
These motives are related to the environment which helps a person to play positive role
as a supporting citizen in the society. These are the psychological essentials without these
men can survive.
Primary or biological motives
1) The need of oxygen
o The most essential and indispensible for life is air.
o Our survival becomes hardly possible without the presence of oxygen.

2) The Hunger Motive

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 o The strongest motive is hunger which needs food for its satisfaction.
3) The Thirst Motive
o Thirst is aroused by deprivation of water.
o It includes dryness of mouth and throat.
4) The Rest Motive
o As we use our muscles to move us about, they gradually become fatigued.
o A tired person goes to take rest for relaxation.
5) The Pain Motive
o Pain in itself is not motive
o The motive is to avoid pain.
o Anything which tends to harm or destroy the tissues of the body can be a stimulus for
pain.
6) The Temperature Motive
o No one can face hot weather conditions for a longer time nor can fight much against
cold.
o Our clothes, houses, sports, agriculture etc are affected by the climatic conditions.

Secondary or Socioganic Motives

1) The Emergency Motive
o If a person faces any danger, he makes proper plan to fight and overcome all such
destructive factors which create problem for him.
2) The Achievement Motive
o A behavior which shows effort to do one’s best and to do better than others
3) The Motive to Work
o People work to meet their psychological needs.
o To safeguard one ’s self – esteem
o To attain honorable place in the society
4) The Motive of Aggression
o Whenever we show aggressive behavior in fact we release our frustration and anger.
o Aggression learned as result of punishment and imitation.
5) The Motive of Power
o Power means to control others, to get things done on order and to be dominant.
6) The Motive of Affiliation
o Affiliation means to establish and maintain relationship with others.
7) The Motive of Self – Actualization
o The individual becomes aware of realities about himself.
o Knowing all plus and minus points about own – self.
o One can come out to be outstanding and prominent in many ways.

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 Meaning
 “Reinforcement means source & force which make stronger”.
 Introduced by B.F Skinner.
 It’s the controlled concept of ‘Operant Conditioning’ in which subject learns to give the
correct response to a stimulus by reinforcement.
 Definition
 Any event that increases the probability of a behavior occurring again is called
reinforcement.
 Concepts
 Reinforcement is the operation of strengthening, supporting or solidifying anything.
 Reinforcement is knowledge of results, feedback about the correctness or appropriateness
of one’s behavior.
 Any event or act which serves to reduce a drive
 Any set of circumstances that an organism finds pleasurable or satisfying while its true
that pleasurable or satisfying events will reinforce behavior.
 Learning & Reinforcement
 Learning is an adaptive process because it enhance our ability to change finding food
and shelter, avoiding danger, reading and making friends etc all these activities require
learning.
 Reinforcement is a selective factor and basic component of learning. Reinforcement
means any reward or punishment which effect on learning.
 REWARD:
 A reward is a stimulus whose presentation increases the probability a behavior will occur.
 PUNISHMET:
 A punishment is a stimulus whose presentation decreases the probability a behavior will
occur.
 Types
1) Positive Reinforcement
 A procedure of training which uses positive reinforce.
 A positive reinforce is any stimulus whose presentation increases the probability that
a behavior will occur.
 Any event that occurs as a result of a response and strength the response is called
positive reinforcement.
2) Negative Reinforcement
 A procedure of training which uses negative reinforce.
 A negative reinforce is any stimulus whose removal increases the probability that a
behavior will occur.

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  Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour result is removal or avoidance of
some unpleasant stimulus.
3) Primary Reinforcement
 A primary reinforce satisfies some biological needs and works naturally.
 Food for a hungry person.
 Water for a thirsty person.
 Warmth for the cold person.
 All these are classified as primary reinforce.
4) Secondary Reinforcement
 A secondary reinforcement in contrast is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because
of its association with a primary reinforcement.
 Money
 Achievement
 Safety from danger

Maslow hierarchy of Need

Self
Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Psychological

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 Physiological Need
The basic need of survival that is food, clothe and shelter.

 Security and safety needs

Need to stay alive! Biological and cultural imperatives to live
Includes having enough healthy food, air, and water to survive

 Social need
Need to be safe from physical and psychological harm in the present and future, and trust in
a predictable future

 Esteem need
Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Contains the desire to feel
important, strong and significant

 Self Actualization
Need for self-fulfillment. Desire to realize your full potential and become the best you are
capable of becoming

Schedules of reinforcement
The arrangements of reinforcement delivery are vital in the learning process that involves
reinforcement techniques. Such arrangements of reinforcements are termed as Schedule of
Reinforcement.
Schedule of reinforcement is a tactic used in operant conditioning that is critical in manipulating
behavior. The major objective of this fundamental concept of operant conditioning is to try and
decide how and when a desired behavior occurs.

Types of Schedule of Reinforcement

There are two major types of Schedule of Reinforcement:

i. Continuous reinforcement Schedule

 The schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced is called
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF).
 Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.
ii. Partial or Intermittent reinforcement Schedule
 The schedule of reinforcement arranged such that not every correct response
reinforced is termed as intermittent reinforcement.
 Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of
desired behaviors exhibited.
 Types of intermittent schedules:
i. Fixed interval

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  A fixed amount of time must elapse for reinforcements to be presented.
Number of responses or trials is irrelevant.
 Provide reinforcement on a fixed time schedule.
ii. Fixed ratio
 Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors.
 Reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses have been
made.
iii. Variable interval
 Reinforcement is contingent on the passage of time but the interval varies in
random order.
iv. Variable ratio
 Reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses.
 Varies the number of behaviors between reinforcement mean the number of
behavior required for reinforcement is not fixed.

1) Extrovert vs Introvert
 Introvert personality
Enjoy being alone, interested in own thoughts, feelings, independent judgment,
unsociable, unpractical, prefer thinking than action etc.

 Extrovert personality
Interested in social environment, quickly react to situation, make quick decisions,
sociable, practical, prefer action.

2) Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation

 Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an
activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. In this case, you engage in a behavior not
because you enjoy it or because you find it satisfying, but in order to get something in
return or avoid something unpleasant.
 Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in a behavior because it is personally rewarding;
essentially, performing an activity for its own sake rather than the desire for some
external reward. Essentially, the behavior itself is its own reward.

3) Conscious, Sub – Conscious and Unconscious

 Conscious: power to percept what is happening around us.
 Sub – conscious: information or remembering of some happenings and forgetting of
some happenings.
 Unconscious: whatever we have gone through from childhood to adulthood.

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