NINETY-FIVE CENTS

racllO .thack
introduction to
 Introduction to
TRANSISTORS &. TRANSISTOR
PROJECTS

by

Forrest M. Mims, 111

racllO 1hack
M A TANDY CORPORATION COMPANY
 FIRST EDITION
FIRST PRINTING-1972

Copyright © 1972 by Radio Shack, A Tandy Corporation

Company, Fort Worth, Texas, 76107. Printed in the ·united
States of America.

All r ights reserved. Reproduction or use, without express

permission, of editorial or pictorial content, in any manner,
is prohibited. No patent liability is assumed with respect to
the use of the information contained herein. While every pre-
caution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the
publisher assumes no responsibility for errors or omiss ions.
Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting
from the use of t he information contained herein.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-80849

 PREFACE

The development of the transistor is one of the great accom-

plishments of the twentieth century. The miniaturization re-
sulting from applying transistors in electronic circuitry has
made possible everything from practical space flight to hearing
aids s mall enough to fit completely in the ear. Furthermore,
transistor technology has resulted in the development of a host
of new and useful electronic dev ices and the industries to man-
ufacture them. Integrated circuits, light-emitting diodes, sili-
con contr olled rectifiers, and scores of other semiconductors all
owe their pr esent state of development to semiconductor
processing techniques used to make transistors.
This book is intended to show the electronics experimenter
how the transistor was developed, how it is manufactured, and
how it works. The h eart of the book is the description of
transistor operation, for the experimenter who masters these
fundamentals is well on the way to being able to design his
own electronic circu its.
The more ambitious reader will want to solidify t he transis-
tor pr inciples of the main text by assembling some of the
construction pr ojects at the end of this book. The proj ects are
easy to assemble and inexpensive. Besides providing an excel-
lent introduction to t r ansistor circuits, each of the projects has
practical applications as well.
You can continue learning about semiconductor electronics
by reading other books on transistors. Besides providing both
an entertaining and educational hobby, a working knowledge of
semiconductor electronics can play an important role in influ-
encing vital career decisions.

FORREST M. MIMS, III

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

THE AMAZING SEMICONDUCTORS 7

The First Semiconductors-The E lectron-Tube Era-The Tran-
s is tor-Other Semiconductor Devices- Integrated Circu its- A
Look Ahead

CHAPTER 2

T RANSISTORS AJ\H) How THEY WORK 17

The Atom- Current Flow-Semiconductors-Semiconductor
Tailoring- Semiconductor Current Flow- Physics of the Diode
- Demonstrating Diode Action-Physics of the Tra nsistor-
Dernonstrating Trans istor Ac tion

CHAPTER 3

How TRANSISTORS ARE MADE 29

Crystal Growing-Junction Formation-Transistor Structures
- Packaging

CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF TRANSISTORS 43
Germanium Versus Silicon-Bipolar Junction Trans istors-
Unijunction Transistors-Power Transistors-Special Purpose
Transistors
 CHAPTER 5

How TO U SE TRANSISTORS 57
Basic Electl'Onics Review-Transistor Ratings-Transistor Cir-
cuits-Biasing-Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers-Amplifier
Classes-Field-Effect Transistors-Transistor Oscillators-Ava-
lanche Transistors-Switching Circuits

CHAPTER 6

C ONSTRUCTION PROJECT FUNDAMENTALS 73

Component Selection-Power-Supply Selection-Reading Circuit
Diagrams-Circuit Boards- Soldering-Packaging-Tools and
Test Equipment

CHAPTER 7

TRANSISTOR PROJECTS 81
One-Transistor Rad io-Transistorized Light Meter-Dark-Acti-
vated Lamp-Light-Activated Relay-Unijunction Timer-Uni-
junction Tone Generator- Audio Amplifter

INDEX . 109
 CHAPTER 1

THE AMAZING
SEMICONDUCTORS

The development of semiconductor electronics has affected

the lives of everyone reading this book. Indeed, much of the
world's population is depeRdent on semiconductors for every-
t hing from music and news to weather forecasting.
This modern technological revolution is the result of the
t ransistor and other semiconductor electronic devices. The
large scale manufacturing of inexpensive, efficient transistors
has helped place miniature radios in the hands of a substantial
part of the world's population. Transistors and other semicon-
ductor devices have made possible the important weight reduc-
tions necessary for practical space travel. In fact, as we will
see later, practically every aspect of modern life is influenced
in some manner by semiconductor technology.
This book has been planned to provide the reader with a
good background in both transistor theory and operation. So
that the significance of these little semiconductor devices will
not go unrecognized, their fascinating history and many of
t heir applications will also be discussed.

THE FIRST SEMICONDUCTORS

The role played by solid-state electronic devices before the
vacuum-tube era is generally not recognized. However, the im-
portance of early devices such as the coherer and galena crystal
detector should not be underestimated.
In 1901, five years before Dr. Lee de Forest was granted a
patent for developing his first electron tube, Guglielmo Marconi
was tr ansmitting signals across t he Atlantic ocean with a

7
25,000-watt spark t ransmitter and a coherer detector. Merely
a glass tube filled with metal filin gs, the coherer was normally
a poor conductor of elect ricity. But the presence of a small elec-
trical signal r eoriented the filings so that they readily con-
ducted electricity. The change in resistance could be easily
detected by a meter.
The coherer was inefficient (it had to be "decohered" be-
tween signal pulses with a tap from a clockwork mechanism)
and not nearly as sensitive as modern electronic detectors, but
it played a vital role in the early development of radio.
The success of the rather crude coherer stimulated the de-
velopment of dozens of new types of detectors. Some of them
operated on principles as diverse as magnetism, electrolysis,
and even fl ame. But the most practical ones turned out to be
the mineral crystal detectors-the first semiconductors.
Crystal detectors became the most important receiving de-
vice from about 1906 to after World War I. Though de Forest's
electron tubes had evolved into amplifying devices with the
addition of a third electrode, the grid, they were unreliable and
their operation was not well understood.
The crystal detector s employed a "cat-whisker" arrange-
ment, similar to the one shown in Fig. 1-1, in order to find a
good, sensitive spot on t he crystal. Developed and patented by
Greenleaf Pickard, cat-whisker crystal detectors used any of
more than 200 different mineral crystals. The most popular,
however, were galena, silicon, and Carborundum.
Operation of the cat-whisker crystal detector was so simple
and reliable that thousands of amateur and professional radio
enthusiasts latched onto the device. Communications during

AOJUSrlNG SCREW
CM WHISKER

CRYSTAL

= /

Ii ~ / """' ""'"'
BIND lllG POSl

~~·~/ :S:/
l§v · ~~ "'"'"""'
0 I
0
::

Fig. 1-1. Cat-whisker crystal detector (1906).

8
World War I and amateur link-ups were made possible by the
reliability of the simple device. Crystal radios became popular
receiving devices in many homes of the era and homemade
versions were built by many school boys.
The success of crystal detectors stimulated early work with
crystal amplifying devices. In 1923, a book by P. J. Risdon
called Wireless was published in England. Risdon described
the work of 0. V. Lossev in developing a crystal device capable
of amplification. The book reported: "Several (crystal) com-
binations have been found to possess this property, one being
zincite used in conjunction with a steel point. It must not, of
course, be supposed that the crystal itself magnifies- it merely
serves, as a valve functions, to impress fluctuations in received
oscillations on an electric current." The text went on to note
that "the fu1-ther development of this discovery may revolu-
tionize broadcast reception" because of the low cost of the
crystal and the fact low voltage batteries should be used.
Written a fu ll quarter century before the "invention" of the
trans istor, these words are remarkably prophetic.
Several other workers of the period also developed semicon-
ductor amplifying devices, the most notable being Julius E.
Lilienfeld. First invented in 1925, Lilienfeld's device bears an
uncanny resemblance to the modern field-effect transistor.
Shown in Fig. 1-2, the device consisted of a small, glass
plate which was coated with two strips of a conductor such
as gold or s ilver. The glass plate was then cut in half and a
very thin aluminum-foil electrode was inserted between the
two halves. The plate was then reassembled, connection wires
were fastened to the three elect rodes, and a semiconductor
coating was applied over the assembly. As we will see in Chap-
ter 4, this is in principle virtually identical to the construction
of a modern field-effect transistor.
+
SEMICONDUCTOR
COATING

GLASS PLAT£

I NPUT
Fig. 1-2. Solid-s tate amplifier (1925 ).

9
 THE ELECTRON-TUBE ERA
The semiconductor diodes and transistorlike devices which
followed the cat-·whisker detectors were generally regarded as
curiosities. The theory of the period was inadequate to ex-plain
how they operated, and important advances in electron-tube
technology lifted interest away from semiconductors.
It is unfortunate that the early semiconductor work was
dropped, for suitable support might have resulted in the mod-
ern transistor being invented twenty years earlier. H owever,
the importance of the electron-tube developments should not
be underrated since it was the circuitry developed for electron
tubes which was first adapted to accommodate the transist or
applications.
Going back to 1912, we find that de Forest's invention of the
triode electron t ube, the audion as he called it, was having
problems. Few people of th e time, technical or other wise, real-
ized the significance of de Forest's invention. The company
formed to develop and market the device was charged by the
F ederal government with using the mail to defraud. Dr. de
Forest himself was not found guilty of the alleged offense, but
three of his co-workers were sentenced to serve jail terms. In a
tragically naive move, the court upheld the government prose-
cutor's charge that, ·" This is a company incorporated for
$2,000,000 whose only assets were de Forest's patents in a
strange device which he called the a udion and which device
had proven worthless, even as a lamp."
Though beset with legal problems and sometimes ridiculed
by his peers, de Forest worked all the harder and soon suc-
ceeded in improving the audion to the point where it could be
used in practical applications. In 1912, he demonstrated to
American Teleph one and Telegraph (AT&T) a three stage,
audion amplifier which had a voltage gain of about 125. The
company was impressed and bought some of the rights to the
invention for $50,000. The AT&T people planned to use the
amplifiers as repeaters-circuits to beef up weak, telephone
signals being transmitted over lengthy wire hookups. But the
auctions worked so well, that the company bought the radio
r ights of the tube a few years later for $90,000.
Dr. de Forest's work was the beginning of the vacuum-tube
era. Edison and Fleming had made p ioneering discoveries
about the actions of electrons in a vacuum, but de Forest had
developed practical devices. By World War II, the vacuum t ube
was well established as the backbone of the American electron-
ics industry.

10
 THE TRANSISTOR
During World War II semiconductor research expanded,
somewhat due to the advantages of using solid-state diodes as
mi crowave detectors. Then, in 1948, Drs. John Bardeen and
Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed what
was to become tht first successful semiconductor triode. Since
they called their germani um diodes varistors, and since this
new device used a varistor with a third connection in order to
transfer signals, the word transistor (TRANSfer var ISTOR)
was coined to name their development.
The first commercial transistors used the same cat-whisker
technique first applied to crystal diodes by Pickard more than
forty years earlier. Called point-contact transistors, the devices
consisted of a small chip of germanium about 0.06-inch square
and 0.02-inch thick, connected to a metallic support. As shown
in Fig. 1-3, the support formed one of the three electrodes, the
base, which was connected to the chip. The remaining two elec-
trodes consisted of tiny phosphor-bronze wires spot-welded on
two upright leads. The free ends of the t iny wires were placed
a few thousandths of an inch apart on t he top surface of the
germanium chip. The entire assembly, which was quite fragile,
was encased in a small metal or plastic container from which
emerged the three connection leads. In this manner the delicate
point contacts were protected from being displaced.
Because its frequency response was relatively good, the
point-contact transistor was at first rather successful. How-
ever, the inherent disadvantages of the device soon turned
attention to newer kinds of transistors. The most notable prob-
lems included undesirable interactions and heating at the con-
tact points due to high contact resistance. Another disadvan-
tage was the extreme difficulty in making point-contact tran-
sistors with engineered characteristics.
PHOSPHOR · BRONZE
POINT CONTACTS
1------ CASE
(EL£CTRODESI SPOT WELD

METALLIC SUPPORT
fBASE ELICTRODEI

EMJffiRUAD
COUECTOR UAD- - ---l J---++--~-~ BMfl!AD

Fig. l -3. Poi nt-contact t ransisto r (1948 ).

11
 p

Fi g. 1- 4. Jun ct ion transistor (1952).

I ,. .·.

Dr. William Shockley solved many problems of the point-

contact t ransistor with his invention of a transistor which
used internal connections instead of the temperamental cat
whiskers. Shockley's function transistor is the basis of most
modern semiconductor technology.
Fig. 1-4 shows an outline representation of a typical junction
transistor. The s implicity of the device results from replacing
the point contacts with direct interfaces of the semiconductor
material making up the transistor. The result is a sturdy de-
vice which operates in a manner far more predictable than the
point-con tact transistor.
For a few years, point-contact trans istors :found limited use
in high-frequency circuits, since their frequency response was
superior to that of junction devices. Improvements in tech-
nology, however, eventually brought the junction device fre-
quency response up to higher levels, and t he old point -contact
trans istors are now extinct.
The advent of the practical transistor caused a veritable ex-
plosion in the young semiconductor field. A whole new industry

Fi g. 1-5. Tube/t ra nsis tor s ize co mparis on.

12
was established to manufacture transistors. Predictions about
the quick downfall of t he electron tube were rampant. The size
comparison of a transistor and a typical miniature electron
t ube in Fig. 1-5 vividly illustrates the space reduction made
possible by the transistor. While the electron tube was not re-
placed as quickly as the new semiconductor industr y hoped,
transistors made a firm foothold in electronics, and now t ubes
are reserved more and more for special applications which de-
mand characteristics obtainable only with special purpose elec-
tron tubes.

OTHER SEM ICOND UCTOR DEV ICES

The transistor industry began making dozens of new dis-
coveries about the uni que properties of semiconductors in the
first few years after the point-contact transistor was developed.
The discoveries paved the way for a host of new kinds of tran-
sistors and other semiconductor components, with hundreds of
applications. The space available in this text limits a complete
discussion of all these new devices, but some of them are so
important to modern electronics that they will be described.
Since there are so many important classes, an entire chapter is
reserved for describing the major transistor types.
Improvements in diode technology make up one of the big-
gest advances in nontransistor, semiconductor devices. Zener
diodes, which have the important ability to r egulate voltage,
are frequently used in power supplies. With commonly avail-
able zener diodes, the circuit designer can quickly insure that
proper voltages are impressed across any part of a cir cuit.
Another important semiconductor is the E saki diode, named
after its inventor. This diode employs an electron tunneling
effect to achieve an exceptionally high frequency response.
Often called the tunnel diode, Esaki diodes can be used in very
simple radio-frequency oscillators. high-frequency amplifiers
and logic circuits. Because of thier critical operating voltage
requirement, their use is generally restricted to specialized
circuits.
P erhaps the most unique diodes are those which have useful
optical characteristics. By using specially prepared semicon-
ductors such as gallium arsenide and gallium arsenide phos-
phide, diodes can be made which emit visible and infrared
light. These light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are finding use in
light-beam communication systems for both voice and data
transmission. Because of their exceptionally long lifetime,
LEDs are being used as indicator lamps. And because of their

13
very small size and low current requirements, arrays of LEDs
are being used as digital readouts in test equipment, electronic
calculators, and even watches.
Years before practical LEDs were commercially available,
a variety of light-sensitive transistors and diodes were made
available. It was r ecognized t hat transistor junct ions responded
to light and by 1952, J. N. Shive had developed a reliable photo-
transistor. A point-contact device, Shive's light-sensitive "M-
1740 photocell" was the predecessor of the literally dozens of
types of photodiodes and phototransistors available today.
Another kind of silicon light detector developed in the 1950s
is t he silicon solar cell. Invented by t he productive scientists
at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the solar cell consists of a
wafer of n-type silicon, coated with a thin, p-type layer. Elec-
trical contacts are attached to both sides of t he device. When
the cell is e>..rposed to light, a flow of electrons takes place and
the cell acts very much like a de (direct-current) battery. Sili-
con solar cells are widely used to power electronic systems
aboard satellites and other spacecraft. They have even been
used to operate transistor radios, hearing aids, and clocks.
Another semiconductor device developed as a result of tran-
sistor technology is the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). Con-
sisting of four layers of semiconductor material, SCRs are t he
solid-state equivalents of thyratrons. Most SCRs have three
terminals. Normally, current does not pass between two of the
t hree terminals, but a small voltage pulse applied to t he third
termin al turns on the SCR and allows it to conduct.
The SCR is an exceptionally versatile device. It has replaced
the electromechanical relay in many applications and is widely
used in power-control circuits.
There are other important semiconductors which owe their
development to the advent of the transistor. There are silicon
temperature sensors as small as a pencil point, highly-sensitive
infrared detectors, and a bewilder ing variety of exotic micro-
wave and even laser diodes. All of these devices may have ulti-
mately been invented, but there is no doubt the arrival of the
transistor speeded their development .

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
While Bell Telephone Laboratories can claim credit for the
first transistor, Texas Instrumen ts and Fairchild were the first
firms to make an integrated circuit. For the first time in the
histor y of electronics, individual components such as transis-
tors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors could be form ed within a

14
single, tiny chip of semiconductor. The implications for mini-
aturization were immediate and development was soon being
given a hard look by practically every company in t he transis-
tor business.
At first, integr ated circuits (ICs) contained only a few in-
dividual components, but advances in processing techniques
used to make t he chips eventually reached the point wher e
dozens and even hundreds and thousands of individual com-
ponents were formed in a single, tiny block of silicon.
While integrated circuits are replacing trans istors and other
discrete components in many applications, this does not neces-
sarily mean that the t ransistor will one day become as extinct
as the coherer. On the contr ary, transistors form the nerve
centers of ICs.

A LOOK AHEAD
As our discussion may have indicated, the exploding tech-
nology of modern electronics will no doubt bring about many
other interesting and useful developments. The emerging field
of optoelectron ics is just one such achievement. Already an en-
t irely new vocabulary is being evolved just to describe this
rapidly expanding field of electronics, and LEDs, laser diodes,
semiconductors displays, and optoelectronic isolators are find-
ing uses in many practical applications.
The biggest electronics revolution of all may well be in the
field of microminiaturization. New kinds of integrated circuits
employing metal-oxide semiconductors (MOS) cram literally
thousands of diodes, t r ansistors, and resistors onto single tiny
chips of silicon in a technique called large-scale integration
(LSI). The development of these new LSI MOS I Cs has been
exceptionally rapid for the potential markets ar e great . One of
the biggest is the electr onic calculator field. By the early 1970s,
several companies, many of them new, were in the business of
selling calculators ranging in price from well under $100 to
more than several thousand dollars. While the lower priced
models are great for the student and homemaker, the more
expensive versions provide all the capabilities of a true desk-
top computer. Before t he end of the 1970s, we can expect to
see even more of these math machines at prices practically
anyone can afford.
The LSI circuits are not limited to electronic calculators.
Several watch companies have developed watches which use
tiny LSI chips to convert the ultrafast precision vibrations of
an electronically pulsed quartz crystal to the much slower

15
pulses required to drive the hands (or operate the LED or
liquid crystal display) of a super accurate watch.
These are just a few of the applications already arising from
recent developments in the field of solid-state electronics. If
these and other recent breakthroughs in this fast growing field
continue to occur at their present pace, we can expect to see
even more spectacular applications of semiconductor elec-
tronics in the future.

16
 CH APTER 2

TRANSISTORS AND HOW

THEY WORK

An understanding of some basic concepts in atomic struc-

ture will greatly simplify an explanation of how transistors
work. An atom is made up of two primary parts, a positively
charged nucleus and a sur rounding cloud of negatively char ged
electrons. The nucleus of a typical atom is ordinarily a complex
arrangement of subatomic particles, and it is fortunate for the
semiconductor physicist that transistor action involves mainly
the electrons.
The cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus can be
thought of as containing several energy levels, each with a
fixed number of electrons. These levels are often referred to as
shells or bands, s ince the electrons within them surround the
centrally located nucleus. Each shell has the capability of hold-
ing a fixed number of electrons.
T he inner shells of an atom a re generally very stable since
they are occupied by a full complement of electrons. However,
t he outer shell may not have its full complement. This valence
shell has the tendency to permit its electrons to cooperate with
the valence electrons of other atoms so that one or both atoms
can fill its outer shell with the required number of electrons.
This and other types of events form bonds between two or more
atoms to create a molecule.
A good example of such a combination of atoms is ordinary
table salt , sodium chloride. Chlorine has seven electrons in its
valence shell but needs eight for a full complement. Sodium, on
the other hand, has but one electron in its valence shell-and it
is easily dislodged. When a chlorine atom collides with a sodium
atom, the latter gives up its sole valence electron to the former.

17
Since the chlorine atom is now negatively charged and the
sodi um atom is positively char ged, the atoms attract one an-
other in an ionic bond to form the sodium-chloride molecule.
Another kind of atomic bonding is the covalent bond. This
type of bond occurs when a group of atoms literally share their
valence electrons so that they all will have a full valence shell.
Semi conductors often consist of atoms held together by cova-
lent bonds.
Now that we know something about the role of electrons in
for ming molecules it's easy to see how they play such an im-
portant role in electricity. As we have just noted, electrons in
the outer shell of an atom are far more mobile than the rela-
tively stable electrons of the inner shells. This is particularly
true if there are less than four electrons in the outer shell. If
an electron source, for example a battery, is connected to a
material whose outer shell has only a few electrons, the elec-
t rons readily move from the outer shell of one atom to the next
and so forth. The result is a flow of electrons, or an electrical
current.

CURRENT
The orderly movement of electrical charges through any
material is termed a cur1·ent. Since good conductors such as
silver and copper have but one electron in their valence band,
it is believed that current in metals is by a movement of elec-
trons. In a semiconductor, however, current can also be thought
of as a movement of pos itive charges.
Normally an atom has no electrical charge s ince the number
of its electrons and protons are equal. But when an electron
moves from one atom to another, it leaves behind an atom
which now has a positive charge. It is convenient to refer to
the term hole as the place the electron once occupied. Since an
atom with a hole is positively charged, we can think of the
hole as being a positive particle. Since electrons moving through
a semiconductor from one point to another leave behind a
string of holes, we can think of the holes as moving in a direc-
tion opposite that of the electrons.
T his concept is not as confusing as it may seem if we com-
pare it to a glass t ube filled with water and hav ing a small
bubble at one end. When t he tube is inverted, we say the bubble
has moved from one end to the other-when actually it is the
water which has moved since the bubble is an empty spot or
hole in the tube. Just as the bubble corresponds to the hole, its
movement symbolizes the flow of positive particles or holes in
18
a direct ion opposite that of electrons. This concept of both
hole and electron flow, can greatly assist one in understanding
transistor action.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Chapter 1 noted that transistors are made from materials
called semiconductors. As the name implies, a semiconductor
is a material which is neither a good nor bad conductor of
electricity. While good conductors have from one to t hree elec-
trons in the valence shell, semiconductors have four. Ins ulators,
materials which do not normally conduct electricity, have more
than four valence electrons. The relation of conductors, insula-
tors, and semiconductors to one another is shown in Fig. 2-1.
The semiconductors most commonly used in transistors are
germanium and silicon. Though both have four electrons in
their valence shells, each material is characterized by its own
unique properties.
Since both germanium and silicon have but four valence
electrons, their atoms tend to form stable crystals whose struc-
tures permit neighboring atoms to share electrons with one
another. This type of atomic cooperation is the covalent bond
we discussed earlier.
A simplified diagram of covalent bonding in germanium ma-
terial is shown in Fig. 2-2. The actual structure of the crystal
is three-dimensional and not flat as shown here. The uniform
distribution of atoms forms a crystal which is similar in na-
ture to the crystalline structure of a diamond. This very uni-
form structure of germanium (and silicon) is very important
to t he formation of practical semiconductor electronic com-
ponents.
FOR CLARITY, ONl Y HIE VALENCE El£CTRONS ARESHOWN.

/ , - -....'\
I C) )
\ I
INSULATOR
I . MORE THAN FOUR VALENCE
SEMICOODUCTOR
I. FOUR VAL ENCEELECTRONS .
"-
--
CONDUCTOR
./

I. LESS THAN FOUR VALENCE

ELECTRONS. 2. MED IUM RESISTANCE ELECTRONS .
2. ELECTRONS NOTEAS ILY (SILICON, GERMANIUM. ANO 2. ELECTRON($) EAS ILY
OISlOOGEO. GALLI UM ARSENI DEi. OISl OOGED.
3. HIGH RES I STANCE(GLASS, 3. LOW RES I STANCE rsILVER.
MICA , AND PLASllCSI. COPPER, I RON, M D ALUMINUM).
Fig. 2 - 1. Comparison of an insulator, semiconductor, and conductor atom.

19
 fOR CLARI !Y. ONl Y THE VAlfNCE ElECTRONS ARE SHC1.VN.

Fig. 2-2. Covalent bonding in germanium material.

SEMICONDUCTOR TAILORING
While extremely pure semiconductor material is required
for the formation of semiconductor components, the devices
will not operate as planned unless the semiconductor is made
a better electrical conductor. T he big advantage of a semi-
conductor material is that the careful addition of impurity
a toms can reduce the electrical resistance of the material and
permit it to conduct electricity better.
At this point the reader might ask why it is necessary t o go
to all the effort to make a very pure, intrinsic batch of silicon
or germanium and then intentionally contaminate it so that it
conducts electricity better. A copper wire is a lot easier to
make and it already conducts well.
The answer is that proper selection of impurity atoms results
in a semiconductor which can conduct electricity by eit her
positive or negative charges. When a positive semiconductor

20
material is form ed directly adjacent to a negative semiconduc-
tor material the res ulting junction has the unique property of
permitting an electron flow in only one direction. The result is
a sort of one way electrical . valve known as a diode.
We'll discuss the diode in more detail later, but first it is im-
portant to see how the addition of impurity atoms make a semi-
conductor either positive or negat ive.
We know that pure germanium is electrically neutral since
there is an equal number of electrons and protons scattered
through the crystal. We also know that germanium atoms lack
a full complement of valence electrons and, therefore, we can
mix in some foreign atoms that will form covalent bonds with
the germanium atoms. In Fig. 2-2, the covalent bonds were
provided by the germanium itself. Therefore, to obtain a
sample of negative germanium, all that is required is to add
impurity atoms which have five valence electrons, one more
than required for the formation of covalent bonds. Typical
impurity atoms with the required five valence electrons are

UNSHADED ATOV\S ARE GERMANI UM ATOMS FOR CLAR ITY, ONLY THE VALENCEELECTRONS ARE SHOWN

8 ~ ~G ~ 8 ~ 8 * 8
1
/\ I\ /\ / \
.....
. ~~ '\ / ,.-
/ '-..
--- /
.......
'
.........
~--
/
"-
'-
. /
_... ,,. ......... ......... ,..,.
.....-.......
, 'l /
\I
/
\I
/

GjG~GA
/'\. ; ., /'...
G / A\ G
~ ~..,.,..
...,._ e.::::...
""JI / "'
\.
/ .........
\ I
/
':::- ·..:'
" \ /'/ ::-.-.-
8 /"~\ 8 / "-. . 8 ; \ 8 1,~ 8 ¥
~
.......-- "
\j
/
...._ ...-
-..: . . . ,. / / ---
\/
/
">-. /

\/'
/~
...........

8~8'8 1 8~8
--.. --
"
. . . _._...... /I " ":::.- ..- / ' \ . . . ---<" / \ '';....- •<
h/~f'>!.- ... \ I/ -...._\/ / "

Gp G v? GJ~G
ELECTRON PATHS EXCESS ELECTRONS SHADED ATQl,\S ARE DONER ATQ\\S
t 8
Fig. 2-3. Germanium crystal (n-type).

21
 phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. Since these elements do-
nate electrons, they are referred to as donors .
Referring to Fig. 2-3, we see a diagram representing the
result of adding impurity atoms containing :five valence elec-
trons to germanium. A covalent bond is formed and the im-
purity atoms are held in a stable crystal lattice. Thereby, with
the additional electrons, the semiconductor is then said to be a
negative or n-type crystal.

Fig. 2-4. Germanium crystal (p-type).

Positive or p-type semiconductor is formed by addition of an

impurity which is deficient in valence electrons. If, for ex-
ample, we add atoms which have only three valence electrons
.. to germanium or silicon, partially complete covalent bonds
would be formed. Referring to Fig. 2-4, we see that the result-
ing atomic structure has an electron deficit and is hence posi-
tive or p-type.
Typical elements whose valence shell contains three electrons
are gallium, indium, and aluminum. Since these elements ac-

22
cept electrons from the host semiconductor crystal, they are
called accepto?'S.

SEMICONDUCTOR CURRENT
Current t hrough a semiconductor is usually defined accord-
ing to the polarity of the material. For example, since n-type
material has an excess of electrons, current fiow is by means of
electrons. P -type material achieves a flow of current by means
of its surplus holes. In a semiconductor the charge which car-
ries the current flow is called the niajority carrier. The name
comes from the fact that either electrons or holes outnumber
one another and are therefore in the majority. Majority car-
riers in an n-type semiconductor are electrons, and holes are
the majority carriers in a p-type material.
As the name implies, m'irw1·ity carrie1·s designate which
charge, positive or negative, is outnumbered by the other.
Minority carrier s are holes in n-type material and electrons in
p-type material.
Though semiconductors are made more conductive by the
addition of impurities, it's interesting to note that pure germa-
nium has a much lower resistance than pure silicon. This means
transistors made from the two semiconductors can have differ-
ent properties.
The reason germanium's resistance is so much lower than
that of silicon is that ger man ium has far more conduction
electrons. In actual numbers, germanium has 2 x 10 1:< conduc-
tion electrons per cubic centimeter while silicon has only about
2 x 10 1 0 • This difference in the n umber of conduction electrons
results in silicon and germanium transistors having somewhat
different properties; several of these differences will be de-
scribed later.

PHYSICS OF THE DIODE

A diode is an electronic component which acts ver y much
like a one-way valve since it permits current to flow through
it in one direction but not the other. Since in some respects a
transistor can be thought of as two diodes back to back, it's
appropriate to use the diode to introduce the transistor.
As you will recall from Chapter 1, diodes have been with us
for some t ime. In fact, a good many modern diodes utilize the
same cat-whisker method employed by Pickard's 1906 silicon
detector. All transistors and most diodes, however, have elimi-
nated the cat whisker in favor of a sturdier, more reliable type

23
of construction where the diode action takes place in a solid
block of semiconductor composed of both p- and n-typematerial.
A typical semiconductor diode is shown in Fig. 2-5. The
border between the n- and the p-region is called 'the junction
and is an integral part of the material. While it is convenient
to think of each half as a separate block of semiconductor, it is
important to remember that the diode is a single block of ma-
terial whose ends have been given opposing polarities by the
addition of carefully controlled amounts of impurities. The
diode would not operate properly if a block of n-type material
was simply pressed against a similar block of p-type material,
because of the high resistance at the interface of the blocks
and other reasons.
\'llRE L(AD CLASS CASE SILICOU PN CHIP l'llRE IIAD

Fig. 2 -5. Constructio n of a typical pn juncti on diode.

The way a diode opposes current flow in one direction and

permits it in the other, is quite interesting. The phenomenon
depends on the fact that oppositely charged particles attract
one another while like charges repel. If we connect a negative
source of current to the p-side of the diode, electrons injected
into the material will be repelled by the electron rich n-region
on the other side of the junction. Since those electrons which
are injected into the diode cannot cross the potential barrier
formed by the junction, there is no current flow.
If we reverse the connections to the diode so that the nega-
tive side of the battery is connected to t he diode's n-region, the
electrons being injected into the material are not repelled at the
junction. In fact, the injected electrons repel the excess elec-
trons already in the n-region toward the junction where they
readily cross over to fill the abundant concentration of holes
which exist on the p-side. Since the electrons cross the junction,
there is a current flow from the negative terminal of the battery
to its positive terminal.
While we have been speaking of current in terms of elec-
trons, it's important to remember that there is a flow of holes
as well. As electrons cross over the junction to combine with
holes, a new supply of holes flow toward the junction to re-
plenish those which are filled by electrons. The net result is a

24
flow of electrons and holes from opposite sides of the diode to
the central junction region. The holes, of course, move in a
direction opposite that of the electrons.
So that the rectifying action of a diode can be readily identi-
fied, the symbol shown in Fig. 2-6 is used to identify the p- and
n-regions in an electronic circuit diagram. The p-region is
called the anode and the n-region the cathode.

CATHOOC -
Fig. 2-6. Diode schematic symbol.

DEMONSTRATING DIODE ACTION

It is one thing to read about diode action in a book, but it is
quite another to actually check the theory with a simple experi-
ment. All that is needed to perform the experiment is an in-
expensive diode, a small light bulb, and a 9-volt battery. If a
germanium diode is used, a resistor with a value of about fifty
ohms should be used to compensate for the lower resistance of
the diode. Otherwise, the lamp or the diode might be damaged
by excessive current flow. Using clip leads so the diode's con-

X - INSERl 50-QiM RESI STOR WHEN

USING GERMANIUM DIODE.

9VOU
8An£RY

Fig. 2 -7. Expe rime n t to show th e biasing ac tio n of a diod e.

25
nections can be easily reversed, set up the experiment as shown
in Fig. 2-7.
When the diode's anode is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the diode's cathode is connected to the nega-
tive terminal of the battery, current will flow across the diode's
junction, the lamp will light, and the diode is said to be forward
biased.
Next, reverse the diode's connections. Since there is no cur-
rent flow, the lamp will not light and the diode is said to be
reverse biased.
A very interesting variation of this simple experiment em-
ploys a light-emitting diode (LED). This kind of diode, which
is available from Radio Shack for somewhat more than the
price of a standard diode, is made of gallium arsenide or
gallium arsenide phosphide, and has the property of emitting
either visible or infrared light when forward biased. Actually,
ordinary silicon and germanium diodes (and even transistors)
emit some infrared when forward biased, but the amount is so
tiny as to be almost undetectable without special instruments.
Photons of light are emitted as electrons crossing the junction
give off the energy required to propel them over the junction's
potential barrier.
The properties of a diode are very valuable in many elec-
tronic circuits. Most electronic equipment (radios, televis ions,
test equipment, etc.) require direct current (de); diodes per-
form the important role of converting the ac to de. In Fig. 2-8A
an alternating current is shown on an oscilloscope as a sine

OSCILLOSCOPE OSCIUOSCOPE

(A ) A lternating curnmt applied (B) Alternating current app/iccl to

to sco1Je. diocle and scope.
Fig. 2-8. Rectifying action of a diode.

26
 EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

~
N p N

SMALL
ELECTR()jll FLOW
J
,_
I 11:

TOTAL ELECTRON FLOW UIRGE ELECTRON FLOW

Fig. 2 -9 . Curre nt flo w in on np n transist or.

wave. In Fig. 2-8B a diode inserted in the ac circuit has blocked

the negative part of the current but is passing the positive
part. The pulses of positive current can be smoothed out by a
capacitor and used to operate equipment which requires de.
INPl/TMETER RS -2009 OR OUTPUT MITTR
OTHER NPN TRANS I STOR

25
! 4 6
I

9VOLT

BATTERY

lmeg

Fig. 2 - 10. Amp li fier dem ons tration ci rcu it .

27
 PHYSICS OF THE TRANSISTOR
By now you should have a r easonably good understanding
of what can be done with a single pn junction. While diodes
made with a pn j unction are inexpensive and very easy to use,
there is no way to contr ol the amount of current passing
through them. There is either a flow of current or there is not.
By adding a third r egion of n- or p-materi al to the proper
part of a diode, we can set up a situat ion where the current
flow can be easily controlled. The device which results from
this modification of a junction diode is the transistor.
To see how this is done, refer to Fig. 2-9. Two voltage sources
are connected across the sandwich of three semiconductor lay-
ers forming the t ransistor. Because of the relative positions of
the t hree layers, the transistor is a npn.
The fact that a large amount of current through a transistor
can be controlled by a very small current is what makes the
transistor so important for t his is the principle of amplifica-
tion. An electronic amplifier is a device which controls a large
force with a small force. Contrary to popular thought, ampli-
fiers do not magnify a signal but use a s ignal to control a much
larger voltage or current.

28
 CHAPTER 3

HOW TRANSISTORS ARE MADE

While the operation of an electron tube depends on the flow

of current through a vacuum or gas, transistors require a chip
of specially prepared semiconductor for proper operation.
It is relatively easy to evacuate an electron tube, but the
preparation of semiconductor material pure enough for use
in transistors is not nearly so simple. The problem is com-
pounded by the fact that various parts of the individual chips
used for transistors must be made either n- or p-type. This
chapter will describe the techniques manufacturers have devel-
oped for obtaining pure semiconductor material and fabricat-
ing it into transistors.

CRYSTAL GROWING
While silicon and germanium are found in nature, they are
always mixed with other elements and are never pure enough
for use in transistors and other semiconductors. Very pure
semiconductors are needed so that carefully controlled amounts
of impurities can be added to tailor the material for specific
types of transistors. In addition to purity, the semiconductor
must be a singular crystal in nature.
Several techniques are employed to obtain high purity semi-
conductors. The most common for germanium is called zone
refining and is shown in Fig. 3-1.
The zone refining purification technique capitalizes on the
fact that crystal impurities tend to stay suspended in a molten
rather than solid material. In operation, a bar of germanium
is placed in a furnace where a series of radio-frequency (rf)
heating coils melt layers in the bar as it is slowly pulled

29
through the furnace. By subjecting the crystal to zone refining,
the impurities tend to collect at one end of the material giving
a final purity level of about 1 part in 10 10.
Because of its high melting point (2588° F), silicon is not
purified by the zone refinin g process. Other problems, such as
the possibility of contamination from the boat used to hold the
molten material, are the reason silicon is almost always purified
chemically and not thermally. Fortunately, available chemical
techniques give impurity concent rations of only about 1 part
in 10 10 •
When high purity germanium or silicon is obtained, it must
be formed into a crystalline structure with no internal imper-
fections or defects. Imperfections may take several forms in-
cluding point, line, and plane defects. All t hese imperfections
are a result of deformities in the semiconductor's structure and
can be compared to stacks of blocks. If the blocks are neatly
stacked, the crystal structure is perfectly formed. But if extra
blocks (point defect) or slippage between rows of blocks (line
and plane defects) are present, the structure is imperfect. Two
crystalline defects are shown in Fig. 3-2.
GERMANI UM BAR IMPUR ITY ATU\IS

oo o o o oO o oo .. o o o
0 ~0 0 0 0 , 0 0 ~ 0 0 ""'
00 O o o O O o 0 0 00 0 0 0000
0 0
~ Oo 00 0 o o o O o 00
o _ o 0_ _o_ o_ o_ _ £ _ o o0 ~ o_

(A) Germanium bar contain-in.g impurities.

lo\OlllN ZONE /RF HEATI NG COILS

••• •••
,, -
•••
IMPUR ITY CONCENTRATION IN MotTEN ZONI
(B) Germaniiim bar traveling pa.sl. heat coils.

DISCARDEO PURE GERMANIUM BAR

~~!-~~~~-'"~~\-~~~-'-~
( C) Refined bar of uen11cmim11.
Fig. 3-1. Zone refining of ge rmanium .

30
 To achieve a prefect crystal, the semiconductor material is
melted and grown into a single crystal. Such a crystal consists
of one uniform structure and, ideally, no interrupting imper-
fection s.

(A) Sc1·ew di.slocation. (B) Plane or boundary defect.

Fig. 3-2. Two common crystalline defects.

Single crystal germanium is often grown in a crystal-pulling

furnace. Shown in Fig. 3-3, the furnace consists of a crucible
surr ounded by rf heating coils. A shaft, which is connected to
a mechanical system which both rotates and moves in and out,
is installed in the furnace assembly to provide a point for
crystal formation. Argon or some other inert gas is pumped
through the furnace to keep out impurities. Highly purified
germanium is placed in the furnace and heated until it m elts.
When the temperatur e of the melt has been properly adjusted,
t he shaft is lowered so that a small "seed" crystal attached to
it is immersed in the liquid germanium. The shaft is then ro-
tated (to stir the melt and encourage uniform crystal forma-
tion) and pulled upward at a rate of no more than a few inches
every hour.
As the seed crystal leaves the melt, t he small amount of
molten germanium which wets its lower portion is cooled and
returned to a solid state. The solidified material takes on the
same crystalline orientation as the original seed. Eventually,
a crystal up to ten-inches long and one-inch in diameter is
pulled from the melt.
Appropriate impurities are added to the melt to obtain p- or
n-type germanium. Since the dopants tend to stay behind in

31
the molten germanium, more impurity material is added to the
melt than eventually ends up in the finished crystal.
Silicon's very high melting point and susceptibility to con-
tamination during crystal growth are reasons why germanium
was first perfected for use in transistors. Silicon can also be
formed into large single crystals by using the pulling process
just described. Modifications, however, are necessary to pre-
vent the dopants from vaporizing in the presence of the ver y
high furnace temperature required to melt the silicon.
Another technique of forming single crystal silicon is similar
to the zone refinement method used to purify germanium. A
rod of pure polycrystalline silicon is mounted inside a hollow
quar tz tube which is sealed at both ends. A movable rf heating
coil then slowly slides up the tube from bottom to top. As the
heating coil applies heat to the silicon bar or ingot, a thin sec-
tion of the bar melts. Therefore, as the coil moves up the tube
the molten section crystall izes with the orientation of the seed

INERT GAS GAS OllTlET

//
/

QUARTZ TUBE

/
4

GERMANIUM

.• ,.,
CRYSTAL
/

, CRUC IBLE
:'
RF HEATING ____. //
COILS ---. ,

.•'
• 1'
• t
/{ .

'-~~~~~~---"~
/..~~====</
•
MOl.TIN , ,,/ ;,' /. / ~ • TUIPERATURE
GERhlAlll U.\I INDICATOR
Fig. 3 -3. Germanium crystal-pulling furna ce.

32
crystal and another thin layer of molten silicon is formed. The
process eventually results in a single cr ystal silicon bar.
A variety of tests are made on single crystal germanium and
silicon to determine the dopant concentration and other prop-
erties of a particular ingot. The most r outine measurement is
resistivity. Or dinar y ohmmeters are not used. Instead, special
multicontact meters which apply tiny amounts of current to
t he sample under test are employed. By using ver y small,
closely-spaced contacts it's possible to accurately measure the
resistivity of an ingot along its entire length without altering
its properties. Measur ements are not necessarily made on all
ingots but may be used to spot-check the quality of a number
of crystals gr own from a single batch of purified semiconductor.

JUNCTION FORMAT ION

A fascinating var iety of techniques has been developed to
form the two pn junctions necessary for t r ansis tor action to
occur. The most common ones are: grown j unction, alloy junc-
tion, diffused junction, and epitaxial junction. From these vari-
uos junction-formation techniques dozens of different transis-
tor structures have evolved. We will describe several of t he
import~nt ones, but first let's discuss the grown junction.

Grow n Junction
This is the earliest technique used to make junction tran-
sistors. Grown junctions are formed by changing the impurity
concentration as a germanium crystal is being pulled from the
melt. T he process is simple. First, the melt is doped with a
donor to obtain n-type material. After the crystal has been
pulled slightly from the melt, enough acceptor dopant is added
to counteract the original donor dopant and a thin layer of p-
material is grown. The pr ocess is repeated again to give an-
other layer of n-material. As shown in Fig. 3-4, the end result
is a crystal with consecutive npn layers. By reversing the
doping procedur e, pnp layers can be fo rmed also.
After a bar of junction crystal is gr own, it is sliced by a
diamond saw into wafers containing two junctions (pnp or
npn). To facilitate the attachment of connecting leads, the
wafers are usually lapped to make their saw-roughened sur-
faces smoother. Then each wafer is scribed along crystall ine
planes and broken into individual transistor chips. One wafer
may yield several hundred transistors.
An advantage of the grown junction technique is that sever al
npn or pnp sandwiches can be grown at one time in a single

33
 ~ - ~: - ffi~:
p
N

( A ) C1·ysta/. (8) W afer. ( C) T 1·ansistor chips.

Fig. 3-4. Grown junction trans istor format ion.

crystal. To accomplish this kind of growth a rate-grown method

is employed. The technique is quite similar to the standard
gr own junction method except both acceptor and donor dopants
are initially added to the melt. The cr ystal is then pulled from
the melt at varying rates. Since p- and n-dopants tend to con-
centrate at different rates, pnp or npn sandwiches are formed.
A lloy Ju nction
Another early method of making transistor junctions is
alloying. In t his method two small dots of indium, a soft,
silvery-white metal, are placed above and below a chip of n-type
germanium. One of the ind ium dots is slightly larger than the
other. The combination is held in place inside a graphite jig
and heated to the melting point of the indium. When the indium
begins to melt, some of it combines with the adjacent ger-
manium. Since indium is an acceptor dopant, thin regions of
p-type germanium are formed directly next to the indium
pellets. The assembly is then cooled and is r eady fo r attach-
ment of emitter, collector, and base wires. The central n-region
becomes the base, while the large indium dot becomes the col-
lector and the small one the emitter. The manufacturing process
is s ummed up in Fig. 3-5 and a cross section of a complete
alloy transistor is shown in Fig. 3-6.
The advantage of this particular technique is that the finished
transistors are mer ely a few steps away from completion.
Alloy-junction transistors are relatively easy to manufacture
and are low in cost. Their frequency response, however, is
limited to about 20 MHz due to the rather thick base region.
Better frequency response is obtained by using a unique micro-
alloy technique to form a transistor with a thin base region.
In this method, two jets of liquid electrolyte ar e directed
against the flat base material in order to etch away two pits
opposite one another. When the jets have et ched away the

34
 GRAPHITE J IG fOR ALLOY ING HUNDREDS
Of SEMICOHOUCTOR CHI PS Ar ONE TIME.

INDIUM "a P-TYPE

GERIMNI~~

250 c
& 156° c
~

5'J(/' I;
~ GERMANIUM

FINALAUOY JUNCTIO)I
Fig . 3 -S. Manufa ctu re of a lloy ju nc t io n tra ns istors .

proper amount of material, the pits are electroplated t o form

junctions and contact points. Transistors made in this manner
have excellent frequency r esponse but are structurally fragile.

MOUNTING TAB - - --1·

(BASE)

r-~
~
CQLECTOR

EMITTER

Fig. 3 -6 . Cross section o f o complete alloy junction t ra nsistor.

Diffused Junction
Very predictable transistor junctions can be obtained by
diffusion. In this process, as shown in F ig. 3-7, the semiconduc-
tor wafer is placed in a closed fu rnace and heated in t he pres-
ence of a dopant. When t he temperature conditions are right,
the dopant will evaporate a nd its atoms will diffuse through the
exposed portions of the wafer . Since the penetration rat e of

35
various dopants is well know11, it is possible to accurately con-
Lrol the placement of the resulting junction.
By diffusing both s ides of an n-wafer with an acceptor
dopant, a pnp sandwich is formed. The npn structures are
formed similarly. It is relatively common to use difTusion tech-
niques to form one of the transistor junctions and another
method for the remaining junction.
As we shall soon see, diffused transistors a r e in wide use.
While certain kinds are difficu lt to manufacture and involve
numerous fabrication steps (with possibly two or three sepa-
rate diffusions ), large number~ can be made at one time by
us ing a photoresist process similar to that used in manufactur-
ing printed-circuit. boards .

••••••••• FURNACf

DOPANT

ii++++i+ii++++++i

r----S~B~:Tf - - -j-SILICON OR GER/llANIUM WAFER

•••••••• · - HEATING COILS

Fi g. 3 -7 . Diffus ion process.

Epitaxial Junc tio n

While not as frequently employed, the epitaxial pr ocess
pr oduces very uniform pn junctions. Typically, a waf er is
heated in the presence of a gas which will react with the wafer
to form a thin layer of identical semiconductor but with op-
posite polarity. The process is called vapor phase epitaxy and
is summarized in Fig. 3-8.
A related kind of junction formation is liquid phase epitaxy.
Here the wafer is wetted with a molten semiconductor of op-
posite polarity. When t he wafer is r emoved from the melt, the
thin coating of semiconductor "freezes" on its surface to form
a very thin, uniform junction.
While the eiptaxial process is not often used in making
transistor junctions, the resistivity characteristics of an epi-
taxial layer have been extensively used in fab.ricating certain
kinds of transistors. Practically all planar transistors are made
in epitaxial layers, and we will describe how this is done
s hortly.

36
 Cl<S SILICOI; l'i~fCRS V[t, j

_ _ _ _ _L_ -
OUARIL 1U B[
'
HEAf lNC S1R IP

HYDROC[N
SIUCO\ TElRAChlO~IOf

Fig. 3-8. Vapor phase epitaxy.

TRANSISTOR STRUCTURES
The previous section on junction formation ha:-; provided
several dues on how working transistors can be made, and in
th i:-; section we w ill describe several of the mosl commonly used
methods. Keep in mind that space limits us from going into all
the details about how the structures are formed-we ha\'e to
g-o on to the transistors themselves in a fe\,. pages. However,
the highlights are here, and they should provide a good basis
for understanding the numerous variations which exist.
Alloy Transistors
Much of the process for making alloy transistors was de-
s<:ribed in the section 011 alloy junction formation. After the
r equired junctions arc fo r med 011 either ;;ide of tiny :-;ilicon or
g-ermanium chips, each in dividual chip i::; attached to a header
u~· wt>lcling the metal base tab to one of the header's three leads.
(The leads are insulated from the header by g-lass sleeves .)
Next, very thin leads arc welded to the indium dots forming
the collector and emitter and to the remaining leads emerging
from the header.
Before the transistor and header are installed in a protective
<.:an or co,·er, the en ti re unit is carefully etched and wa::;hed to
remove any foreign matter which might short <:in:uit the junc-
tions. Then a metal can is placed O\'er the header and welded
in place. More details on how transistors are enclosed in metal
and plastic packages will be provided later in this chapter.
Mesa Transistors
More rugged than the a lloy and grown junction structure,
lhe mesa transistor is fo r med using photoresist and etching

37
techniques. Though there are several variations, a mesa tran-
sistor is often fo r med by diffusing an acceptor dopant into an
n-wafer to give a base-collector j unction. The collector, which
fo rms the substrate for the transistor, may by 25-thousandths
of an inch square.
Next the top su l'face of the chip, the base, is oxidized by a
photoresist process which leaves a tiny opening near the center
of the chip. The dimensions of the chip can be carefully con-
trolled since a photographic process is used to reduce a much
larger original pattern down to a few thousandths of an inch
across. A second di'ffusion step then forms an emit ter section
into the transistor structure.
The final semiconductor treatment gives t he mesa transistor
its name. To isolate the base-collector junction and reduce its
overall area, an etching process is used to remove the excess
substrate (collector) material from around the central junction
region of the device. Since this leaves an area projecting from
the su bstrate, mesa, the spanish word for table or platform,
is used t o describe the transistor.
The deposition of a luminum contacts over t he base and
emitter regions completes the semiconductor processing steps,
and the chips are then ready for packaging as individual tran-
sistors. The res ulting structure is shown in Fig. 3-9.
The mesa transistor has a variety of useful properties. F re-
quency response and power capability are good and t he com-
pleted device is more r ugged than alloy types. However, the
exposed j unction edges of t he mesa structure are extremely
vulnerable to shorting caused by contaminants. To alleviate
this problem and still preserve the excellent properties of the
mesa structure, the planar transistor was invented.
Planar Transistors
T he manufacture of a planar transistor is a complicated but
marvelous process. By precision photoetching t echniques, t he
ALUMINUM CONTACT BASE EMITTER DIFFUSED N-R£GION

DIFFUSED P - RCGION

METAL HEADER
\
COLLECTOR

Fig . 3-9. M e sa trans ist or con struction.

38
entire transistor is literally buried within a layer of silicon or
germanium. Here's how it is done.
To make a silicon npn planar transistor, an n-type silicon
wafer is coated on one side with a thin layer of glasslike silicon
oxide. The coating is relatively easy to obtain since silicon oxide
is produced when very hot silicon is exposed to oxygen. Next a
photoresist is sprayed onto the silicon-oxide layer and a photo-
graphic mask is used to expose a circular opening on the res ist.
This is one of the wonders of the planar structure. Since photo-
graphic procedures are used to outline the various parts of each
transistor, literally hundreds of transistors can be made on a
single silicon wafer at the same time.
When the photoresist is developed, a circular opening cor-
responding to the photographic mask is removed. This permits
the silicon-oxide layer directly under the opening to be etched
away without affecting the remaining silicon oxide, since the
photoresist is not attacked by the etching chemical.
After the circular area of silicon oxide is removed, the ex-
posed n-type silicon is diffused with an acceptor dopant to give
a base-collector pn junction.
By applying a second coating of photoresist and forming a
smaller circular opening inside the first, a second pn junction
is formed. This gives the complete npn t ransistor. Metal con-
tacts are evaporated onto the appropriate sections of t he t r an-
sistor, and the exposed base-emitter junction is oxidized to give
a silicon-oxide coating. The process is summarized in Fig. 3-10.
Since all the junctions of the planar transistor are either
buried within the silicon substrate or coated with silicon oxide,
there is little chance contamination will affect the device. This
high degree of reliability coupled with ruggedness and good
frequency response, make the planar transistor popular for
many applications.

PACKAGING
All transistors are relatively fragile, since t iny wires are
usually used to make contact with at least one of t he base,
emitter, or collector sections. Also, both silicon and germanium
are very brittle crystals. To protect the chip and its connec-
tions from mechanical damage, nearly all commercial transis-
tors are sealed in metal cans or potted in sturdy plastics.
The cross section of a typical metal-encased transistor is
shown in Fig. 3-11. Of ten inert fluids or silicone greases are
placed in the can before it is welded to the header to provide
a second defense against water vapor or other contaminants.

39
 SILICON OX I DE ETCH P·DOPANT

CJ ~ ~wOXID IZED
SILIC ON CHIP
PHOTOElCHED
Cl RCULAR OPENING
Fl RST
DIFFUSION
CQ\1PLCTED
SASE

SECOND PHOTOETCHEO SECOND CC\\IPLETED

OX I DATI ON CIRCULAR OPENING DIFFUS I ON EMITIER

METAL SASE EMITTER COLLECTOR

HEADER

M M~\ UllRD
OX IDATI ON
PHOTOETCHED
CI RCULAR OPENINGS
VACUUM -DEPOSI TED
ALUMI NUM CONTACTS
g.,j:
...z:
N
· ::::;:~I::::;:::;z!~

WIRE ELECTRODES

Fig , 3-10, Planar transistor fabrication.

This is good protection since bending the transistor's external

leads may open tiny channels into the sealed can.
Though met al encased transistor s are extremely sturdy, the
costs of packaging add significantly to final pricing of com-
mercial units. Therefore, most companies also encase their
transistors in plastic. While plastic transistors are much
cheaper than metal encased units, many companies were at
TRANSISTOR CH IP

METAL CAN ··--~ METAL HEADER

-------
W(LO --

( POXY INSULATI ON

c E
Fig. 3-11. Cross section of a metal-e ncased trans istor.

40
:first reluctant to use them. The military was particularly wary
and even now limits their use to certain noncritical applications.
The reason for the doubt is that some very bad experiences
were had with early plastic encased transistors. One problem
was that light tended to travel through the partially trans-
parent plastic and affect the transistor's operation. That prob-
lem was solved by developing highly opaque plastics and was
a minor irritant compared to the major problems of contamina-
tion from water vapor and other material. Also, plastic tran-
sistors are just not as sturdy as metal encased units.
A concentrated research effort has finally eliminated most
problems associated with plastic encased transistors. Though
certain critical military and industrial applications still require
their metal encased cousins, plastic t ransistors are finally find-
ing very wide acceptance in all sorts of applications.
Besides being inexpensive by virtue of not having to undergo
hermetic sealing inside a metal can, plastic transistors offer
another important advantage. They can be manufactured auto-
matically in huge quantities by special machines. Some semi-
conductor companies have been us ing such machines for more
than six years now and an important result is very inexpen-
sive transistors. In 1960, good transistors cost several dollars
each, but today the experimenter can buy half a dozen plastic
transistors with even better capabilities for the same amount
of money.

41
 C HAPTER 4

TYPES OF TRANS ITORS

The various junct ion-form ing and manufacturing techniques

described in Chapter 3 can be combined to give numerous dif-
ferent kinds of transistors. The reason no one particular man-
ufacturing method is used over the others is that frequency
response, switching speed, gain, and other factors can be better
controlled by selecting particular kinds of fab rication.
In this chapter we will first discuss the transistors made
from the processes already described. Then we will get into
the specialized transistors that are being used more frequently
in modern circuit des ign. Finally, the chapter will conclude
with a discussion of some very unique, special-purpose tran-
sistors.

GERMANIUM VERSUS SILICON

We have already noted that both germanium and silicon
have relative advantages and dis advantages when used in tran-
sistors. The r elative merits of each material ar e very important
to transistor design.
First, recall that germanium has a much lower resistance
than silicon. This characteristic is important in applications
where current losses in a t ransistor cannot be tolerated. A good
example of where a germanium transistor proved superior to
silicon units is in a pulse generator designed to operate a light-
emitting diode in a miniatur e optical radar. The current pulses
through the LED have to be as high as possible in order to
obtain the maximum amount of infrared output, and only ger-
manium transistors had an "on" resistance low enough to give
the desired current.

43
 Another advantage of germanium over silicon is ease of
purification. With its r elatively low melting point, germanium
is much easier to purify than silicon. One of the major dis-
advantages of germanium transistors is the tendency toward
thermal nwau:ay. As the name implies, this conditions occurs
when the Lransistor is permitted to become too warm. Since the
r esistance of germanium decreases as temper ature increases,
the transisto1· permits more current to fiow as it warms up.
Sometimes the cycle perpetuates itself until the transistor is
destroyed. Silicon transistors are not immune to the phenome-
non of thermal runaway, but their better temperature capabil-
iLy makes Lhcm less susceptible than germanium devices.
Thermal runaway can be controlled by careful biasing tech-
niques or use of temperature-sensing resistors called thermis-
tor s . In the latter case, a thermistor is sometimes allached to
the transistor's case and used to control the amount of bias in
the transistor. Al!. the transistor warms up, the thermistor's
resistance changes and the current through the Lrnns istor is
reduced.
Silicon transistors have far better temperature immunity
than germanium units. Additionally, silicon is far more com-
mon than germanium since it accounts for about 85'.; of the
earth 's cn1sl. Ordinary beach sand is composed primarily of
silicon. Germanium, on the other hand, is relatively rare. It is
found in certain copper and zinc ores and is almosL always a
byproduct of zinc refineries. Good yields may produce up to
half a pound Of germanium for eYery ton of processed ore.
Initially, sil icon transistors were far more expensive than
Lhci1· germani um counLerpartH, but the technology of purifying·
lhe clement has improved to Lhe poinl that costs arc now very
competitive. I Iigh quality silicon and germanium transistors
arc now available for less than 50<' each in si11glc unit quanti-
ties, and for only pennies each in volume or as su rplus.
Though si li con and germanium are the most common tran-
sistor matcrittl)-1, it should be noted that several oLhe r semicon-
ductors have been employed in experimental transistors. A
major goal of using different semiconductors is to achie\"e much
higher frequency responses than are possible with silicon and
germanium. Transistors made from gallium arsenide, for ex-
ample, will opernte well in to microwave frequencies with high
efficiency. Gallium arsenide has a high radiation resistance and
has the1·cforc been investigated for some time as a suitable
semiconductor for spaceflight applications. Though only
specialized transistors arc now made from the material, 1·e-
:::;ea rch with gallium arsenide has led to very efficient semi-

44
conductor injection lasers, light-emitting diodes, and micro-
wave generators.
Galli um arenside is an intermetallic or three-five compound.
While silicon and germanium have fou r valence electr ons, gal-
lium arsenide is a combination of an element with three valence
electrons (gallium) and an element having five valence elec-
trons (arsenic) .
Other intermetallic compounds suitable for use in semicon-
ductor applications include gallium phosphide, indium arsenide,
gallium arsenide phosphide, indium antimonide, and indium
phosphide. While some of these compounds are very difficult to
fabricate into working semiconductor devices, several are be-
ing used in light-emitting diodes and magnetic-sensitive com-
ponents. As processing techniques improve, more of these inter-
metallic semiconductors wiU be used in solid-state devices.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Since t he transistors we have discussed so far have two types
of semiconductor material, positive (p) and negative (n), they
are called bipolar devices. Bipolar t ransistors are the ones most
commonly used and literally thousands of different types are
available.
We have already described how they are made, so now it's
appropriate to list some of the characteristics of bipolar tran-
sistors.
Alloy Junction
Typical alloy junction transistors are the Radio Shack types
RS-2001 t hrough RS-2007. These particular transistors are
made of germanium. Since germanium has a lower resistance
than silicon, t hey are useful in switching applications r equir-
ing a low voltage drop across the transistor. While the power
dissipation of these devices is not as high as silicon transistors,
they all have relatively high gain.
Most alloy junction transistors have limited frequency re-
sponse and are therefore better suited to audio applications.
The RS-2003, however, is manufactured with a partially dif-
fused germanium chip so that the impurity concent ration near
the base-emitter junction is much higher than t hat near the
base-collector junction. Two important advantages res ult from
t his kind of structure. First, the graded impurity concentra-
tion in the base region tends to speed up current flow, and
second, the structure tends to reduce capacitive effects between
the junctions of the transistor. The end result is an alloy tran-

45
sistor with much higher frequency response than conventional
alloy units.
Alloy transistors made in this fashion are called "drift field"
or just "drift" transistors after the tendency for electrons to
drift toward the more positive section of the base and holes to
drift toward the more negative sections. The RS-2003 has an
upper frequency response of about 50 MHz and is therefore
well suited to radio-frequency applications.
Diffused Mesa
As noted in Chapter 3, the application of diffusion techniques
greatly simplified the manufacture of transistors with predict-
able, repeatable characteristics. In addition to improving the
yield of a particular kind of transistor, mesa construction gives
units a much higher frequ ency response and current capability
than alloy transistors.
The Radio Shack RS-2017 through RS-2020 are examples of
mesa trans istors. All four of these units are npn silicon power
transistors capable of handling from 30 to 90 watts. They are
mounted in tab cases and can be used as high speed switches or
power amplifiers.
The complements to three of the previous transistors are also
available. Designated RS-2025 through RS-2027, these mesa
transistors have the same characteristics as their npn counter-
parts.
Diffused Planar
The planar technique is probably used to make more transis-
tors than any other manufacturing process. As explained in
Chapter 3, planar technology preserves the advantages of mesa
construction while sealing all exposed junctions in a protective
coating of silicon oxide.
Radio Shack offers more than fourteen different planar tran-
sistors. For more careful control of final characteristics, most
of these transistors are formed in an epitaxial layer grown
over a low-resistance si licon s ubstrate.
The flexibility of silicon epitaxial planar transistors is broad
indeed. They can dissipate almost twice t he power of similarly
packaged germanium alloy types without special heat sinking.
Due to very thin base regions (a result of careful diffusion
timing), the frequency r esponse is good. Typical planar tran-
sistors such as the Radio Shack types RS-2009 and RS-2015
perform well at frequencies in excess of 100 MHz.
Radio Shack planar transistors are available in both metal
and plastic packaging. Because of the development of a new

46
plastic compound which is both sturdy and impervious to light,
the plastic versions can be used in practically any application.
The cases are so sturdy they can withstand soldering tempera-
tures without being deformed.

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
Closely related to semiconductor devices first proposed in
1925 by J. E . Lilienfeld, the modern field-effect transistor
(FET) offers several important characteristics not available
with conventional bipolar devices. The best characteristics of
the FET are a very high input impedance, good frequency re-
sponse, and low noise.
FETs are made in a number of configurations and we will
describe several of them here. The first to be developed was the
junction FET (JFET). This transistor consists of a single bar
of either n- or p-type semiconductor with a contact affixed to
each end (Fig. 4-1). The bar is called the channel since it serves
as a current path, and the terms n-channel or p-channel are
used to designate the primary current carrier in the bar.

- - ----e--- GATE
SOURCE DRAIN

AICTAl HEADER

p ~: ~:
N·CHANNEL P·CHANNEL

fig . 4 -1. An n-chonncl JFET.

One of the two leads is designed to be connected to a source

of current and is called the source electrode. The other lead is
called the drain. A third connection surrounds all or part of the
channel region between the source and drain connections and
is called the gate.
The operation of the FET is very similar to that of a triode
electron tube. Current flows thxough the channel from source
to drain very much like electrons in a tube flow from cathode
to plate. When a small voltage with the same polarity of the
channel material is placed on the gate electrode a field is built
up which tends to restrict the free flow of channel current. As
the gate voltage is increased, a point is reached where the field
extends completely across the channel and the current flow is

47
completely blocked. This cutoff point is often refer red to as
"pinch-off" and is shown in Fig. 4-2.
Like t he electron tube, only a tiny amount of current flows
in the gate (grid ) circuit. This is because ther e is an extr emely
h igh r esistance between the gat e and both source and drain
electrodes. T he channel r esistance itself (source to drain) is
usually no more than a few thousand ohms.
+IOVOUS +10 VOi.TS •10 VOLTS

ALUMINUM
CONTACTS

OfPlfllON REGIONS

-1 :
' I
_....
..'' -
0 I
....

'. P ... p / \ p ~ p / \ p
N :: ,,/ N \ '.: / N '

SOORCE SOURCE SOURCE

GATE GATt

GATE !UNCONNECTED)

(A) Zero gate bias. (B) Low gate bier..~. ( C) High gate bicis.
Fig . 4-2. Ope ration o f an n -ch an n c l JFET.

The very high gate channel resistance of t he junction FET,

on the order of a few million ohms, provides the high input
impedance r equired in a wide variety of electronic circuits.
Formerly, bipolar transistors were so limited in high imped-
ance cir cuits that additional components were needed, and in
some cases designers were forced to stick wit h the bothersome
electron tube just to obtain the r equired input impedance.
More recently new kinds of FETs with gate-channel resis-
tances of thousands of megohms have been developed. These
new FETs are made possible by t he fact t hat the gate is used
to establish a field in the channel r egion. Since direct contact
is not r equired to establish the channel-voltage field, a thin
layer of silicon oxide is for med over the channel, as shown in
Fig. 4-3, to insulate the gate from the sem iconductor forming
the channel. It is the glasslike silicon oxide which gives the
gate-channel r esistance thousands of megohms.

48
 GAIT

SILICON·OIOXIDf INSULATION

SOURCE DRAIN
N· TYPE SILICON

Fig. 4-3 . Insulating the gate from the channel.

Depending on the manufacturer, FETs made with an insu-

lated gate are called IGFETs (insulated gate FETs) and
MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs) . Both IGFETs
and MOSFETs are made in half a dozen different configura-
tions in order to obtain special characteristics.
As with the JFET, both IGFETs and MOSFETs are made
with p- and n-channels. These categories are further subdivided
into three additional configurations: enhancement, depletion,
and enhancement/ depletion. There are also IGFETs and
MOSFETs with two separate gates. These dual-gate FETs also
have, in effect, two channels. The circuit diagram symbols for
some of these FETs are shown in Fig. 4-4.
The JFETs we described earlier were characterized as pre-
senting little resistance to the flow of channel current until
gate voltage was applied. Enhancement IGFETs and MOS-
FETs, on the other hand, act like conventional bipolar tran-
sistors in that channel current does not flow until gate voltage
is present. The big advantage of the FET, of course, is that it
retains a very high input impedance.
The way enhancement IGFETs and MOSFETs achieve this
capability is by separating the source from the drain and plac-

ENHANCEMENT DEPLETION

H"M~C ~ ~
Fig. 4 -4. The IGFET

''""'" ~ ~
(MOSFET) symbols.

G •GATE
B • BULK IS UBSTRATE>
0 ·DRAIN
S ·SOURCE

49
ing the insulated gate over both. Normally, no current can flow
through the interrupted channel, but application of gate volt-
age turns the transistor's channel "on." This normally "off"
FET is well s uited to switch ing applications.
Depletion IGFETs and MOSFETs are similar to standard
FET's since the channel region is continuous. A fourth elec-
trode connected to the channel region permits more control
over the operation of the transistor. The resultant structure
is shown in Fig. 4-5.
A type of depletion FET which shows some channel current
flow when no gate voltage is present is sometimes called the
enhancement/ depletion FET. Since the current can be cut back
to zero by application of negative gate voltage or increased
over the zero gate voltage value by applying a positive gate
voltage, enhancement/ depletion FETs are valuable for use in
both voltage and rf amplifier circuits.
SOURCE INSULATED GATE DRAI N

_..........ALUMINUM CONTACTS

,-J:.<..<..<.f-Ld'-.:..._---'--'-'~"-"'"'~-'-----Lu-;..'"'---, - - . SI LI CON · OIOX I OE

INSULATION

p
SILICQl'l METAL HEADER
SULK ·
. .. :· ···, ' ...;,; . .. _,. /

Fig. 4-5. Basic structure of o depletion IGFET (MOSFET).

While field-effect transistors have several highly desirable

characteristics, they haven't yet found the wide range of appli-
cations presently served by bipolar devices. An important dis-
advantage is that insulated-gate FETs are susceptible to dam-
age from static electricity. This is because the layer of glasslike
silicon oxide is very thin and is easily penetrated by static dis-
charges. Since rubbing a transistor's leads on ordinary plastic
can generate a static discharge of several thousand volts or
more, IGFETs and MOSFETs are almost always shipped in
electrically conducting containers with their leads twisted to-
gether. The leads should not be untwisted until the transistor is
soldered into a circuit and even then a s mall strip of aluminum
foil should be wrapped around the leads just below the tran-
sistor and removed only after soldering is completed.
Though individual FETs are not yet used on as wide a scale
as bipolar transistors, MOSFET technology has made impor-
tant contributions to integrated circuitry. FET structures are
less complex than their bipolar counterparts, therefore, far

50
more FETs can be fabricated onto a silicon chip. lVIOSFET in-
tegrated circui ts have been assembled which have the equiv-
alent of more than 150,000 components per squar e inch.
Unijunction Transistors
Though its properties are unlike those of any t ransistors dis-
cussed so far, the unij unction transistor (UJT) is a ver y useful
device. Referring to Fig. 4-6, note that the internal structure
of the UJT is very similar to that of the junction FET. In the
configuration shown there, called the bar structure, a small bar
of n-type silicon is attached to a thin ceramic disc. Contacts are
made directly to each end of the bar on either side of the disc
and a pn junction is formed near one end of the bar by alloying
a thin aluminum lead to the top surface of t he bar. The disc is
attached to a header and the entire assembly is enclosed in a
plastic or metal case.
Another kind of UJT is made with a cube of n-type silicon.
This kind of UJT has certain characteristics which make it
more suited to low-voltage operation. The bar structure, how-
ever, performs better at temperature extremes.
The major application for the UJT is in pulse and waveform
generation circuits. Such circuits are commonly used t o switch
SCRs on. In a typical UJT oscillator, such as the one shown in
Fig. 4-7, a capacitor (Cl) is charged through r esistor (Rl)
until the capacitor voltage reaches the value of the voltage be-
tween Bl and the n-side of the emitter's junction. Until this
point is reached, the "diode" formed by t he emitter-Bl junction
is reverse biased and does not conduct. But when the proper
BASE 2

. ~- .

E~H ITE R

Fi g. 4-6. Simplified
N
unijunction transistor .

S lll CON BAR

··~ '

BASE I

51
voltage is reached the emitter-Bl junction becomes forward
biased and immediately switches on. The capacitor is then
shorted across R3 and discharged in a very rapid pulse. The
pulse can be seen by connecting an oscilloscope from Bl to
ground.
When the capacitor is discharged, the emitter-Bl junction
is again r everse biased and Cl begins cha rging again. The
charge-discharge cycle repeats itself at a rate which can be
varied by appropriate adjustments of Rl and Cl.

RI

Cl

Fi g. 4-7. Uni junction oscillator.

In addition to producing a series of brief spikes, the uni-

j unction oscillator shown in Fig. 4-7 also produces a modified
triangle wave or "ramp." The ramp can be seen by connecting
an oscilloscope across the capacitor.

POWER TRANSISTORS
Actually, power transistors are almost always bipolar junc-
tion t ransistors. But their mechanical structure and applica-
tions are so different they deserve a section of their own.
Because the small chips of semiconductor material used to
make transistors possess some resistance to the flow of elec-
trons, they tend to warm up as the current flow is increased.
Germanium transistors, as we have already noted, can be seri-
ously damaged by the thermal runaway which eventually ac-
companies excessive heating. While silicon can withstand much
higher operating temperatures than germanium, the high
power requirements of many amplifier, converter, inverter, and
other power circuits require current levels which would quickly
ruin even silicon transistors.

52
 Sometimes transistors are cooled by fans or miniature re-
frigeration systems. But this is often impractical, particularly
where the transistors are being used in consumer and experi-
menter electronics.
The solution to the problem is to use a massive metal case for
the transistor which is in intimate contact with one of its three
regions, often the collector. The metal acts like a heat sink and
serves to radiate heat generated in the transistor junction into
the surrounding air by means of convection.
Sometimes additional heat sinks with heat-radiating fins are
used in conjunction with power transistors. Capacitive dis-
charge systems for automobiles, hi-fi amplifiers, and power sup-
plies are common examples where this additional heat sinking
is employed.
Besides metal heat sinks, power transistors usually employ
specially modified junctions which permit more of the inter-
nally generated heat to be radiated to the heat sink. Since mesa
and planar structures have a relatively large amount of chip
area in direct contact with the metal t ransistor header, they
are often used in power transistors.
Other than their special mechanical configurations, opera-
tion of bipolar power transistors differs little from that of
standard units. The major difference is, of course, that the
power transistor can be operated at power levels of up to 100
watts or more.
Radio Shack offers several quality power transistors employ-
ing a metal tab heat sink. This kind of heat sink has become
more popular than large metal cases since it gives a much more
compact transistor package.

SPECIAL PURPOSE TRANSISTORS

Some of t he standard bipolar and unipolar (FET) t ransis-
tors are well suited to specialized applications. Some applica-
t ions such as detecting light, are relatively common. Others,
however, can be very unusual. Several of these special purpose
transistors are described below.
Phototransistors
Early in the development of practical transistors it was no-
ticed that semiconductor junctions became more conductive
when exposed to light. By int entionally leaving an opening in
the case, transistors can be made to respond to light and per-
form useful work. These modified transistors are usually called
photo transistors.

53
 ' ' '
''' ''' '''
'LICHT' '

GLASS LENS

METAL CASE
Fig. 4-8. Cross section of
a phototrans ist or.

TRANS ISTOR
CH I P !PLANA RI

Practically any transistor will respond to light in one way

or another and several years ago it wasn't uncommon for an
engineer to simply saw the end from the case of a standard
transistor to obtain a makeshift, but working, phototransistor.
Now, however, literally dozens of kinds of phototransistors
are manufactured by many semiconductor companies. A typical
such transistor is shown in the cross section in Fig. 4-8. This
particular transistor has a small glass lens to focus light onto
t he semiconductor chip, but others are avai lable with flat glass
windows so external lenses can be used. A unique feat ure of
the plastic encased units is that the lens is formed from the
case itself.
An interesting feature about phototransistors is that the
base lead, if present, is not necessarily used. The light striking
the base region serves as a stimulus to transistor action and is
identical in effect as if electrical bias current had been applied
to the base.
Ultra high- Fre que ncy Trans istors
Considerable progress has been made in applying transistors
to uhf and microwave applications. These transistors are often
enclosed in special containers, with access provided to the vari-
ous semiconductor sections with strips of metal rather than
ordinary wires. Since operation at frequencies of 100 MHz or
more often causes oscillation and impairs gain, transistors de-
signed to be operated at such frequencies are mounted using
a stL-ipline technique instead of conventional wiring. The metal
striplines present very little resistance and inductance, and
therefore enhance operation at high frequencies.

54
Pressure-Sensitive Transistors
In 1962, Dr. W. Rindner, then employed by the Raytheon
Corporation, noticed that current fluctuations occu r red when
a sharp probe was pressed against a germanium diode. He con-
cluded a study of this effect and found that pressures of a small
fraction of an ounce would change the current by sever al
decades.
DIAPHRAGM

STYLUS

TRANSISTOR
CHIP

RCU£F PORT

Fig. 4-9. Internal construction of a PITRAN .

Scientists in several countries studied the pressure sensi-

tivity of semiconductor junctions, and in 1966, a company,
called Stow Laboratories, was formed to manufacture commer-
cial pressure-sensitive transistors. The company now markets a
line of these unique devices, called PITRAN, for use in sensi -
tive scales, leak detectors, accelerometers, air speed detectors,
and high-intensity blast gauges.
The internal construction of a PITRAN is shown in Fig. 4-9.
The stylus is attached to a flexible diaphragm and normally
rests on the surface of a planar transistor chip. When the dia-
phragm is forced inward by pressure, the stylus presses against
the transistor chip and causes an incr ease in output current di-
rectly proportional to the amount of pressure.

SS
 CHAPTER S

I
HOW TO USE TRANSISTORS
I

I
Tbis book includes a number of transistor circuits which the
expeb:imenter can easily assemble and operate. So that the
op~1ji.tion of these circuits can be better understood this chap-
ter i ~ intended t o explain some of the practical aspects of using
tra.ns istors. We will get into some transistor principles shortly,
but first let's review some basic electronics in order to be better
prepared for discussing transistor operation.

BASIC ELECTRONICS REVIEW

Transistor circuits almost always use a variety of electronic
components for proper operation. While components which
amplify an electronic signal (e.g. electron tubes and transis-
tors) are called active components, those which assist in the
amplification process are called passive components.
Three classes of passive components are very important in
most transistor circuit applications : resistors, capacitors,
and inductors. There are other passive components as well, but
these are the ones most frequently employed in transistor cir-
cuits.
Resis tors
As the name implies, resistors resist the flow of an electrical
current. Above the temperature of absolute zero even the best
conductor presents some resistance to a current. For many ap-
plications, fairly high resistances are needed. And to obtain
them, specially form ulated carbon mixtures or high resistance
wires are molded in thin plastic or ceramic tubes with a wire
emerging from each end. The tube is usually ~.oded with the
amount of resistance by a series of colored bands (Fig. 5-1).
I
57
 The unit of resistance is the oh?n, and the current is directly
related to the value of the resistor and the voltage across it.
This relationship is dependent on the fact that voltage divided
by resistance equals current.
Resistors come in values ranging from less than a tenth of
an ohm to hundreds of megohms (a megohm being one million
ohms). They are also available in a variety of wattage ratings.
High-wattage resistors are used in high-power applications
where t he resistor will be required to dis!ipate heat . Potent i-
ometers, rheostats, and trimmers are adjustable resistors.

- - -
!cf
!~
_ r:.::;: =:.!. l:..: i~' - - -
-
..

I
Fl RSr SECOND
\ """""' '""
GOLD • 5%
SILVER • 10%
MONE • 203

COLO!! rMIRD BAND IMULTI PllERl

81\NO BAND
BL1\CK 0 0 1
BR OWN 1 I 10
RED
.._____ 2 2 100
ORANG( 3 J 1000
YELLOW 4 4 10,00D
GREEN s s 100, 000
BLU[ 6 6 1.000, 000
VIOLET 7 7 \ 0, 000, 000
GRAY 8 8 100, 000,000
WHll ( 9 9

Fig. 5-1 . Resisto r color code.

Ca pacitors
These devices come in dozens of sizes and configurations but,
in theory at least, always consist of two plates of conducting
material separated by an insulator called a dielectric.
Capacitors have several unique properties which qualify
them for use in transistor circuits. Their best known capability
is storing an electric charge ; hence they are rated in terms of
their maximum storage ability. The unit of capacitance is the
farad, but transistor circuits almost always use capacitors
rated in microfarads (,uF) or picofarads (pF) .
Since capacitors can store an electric charge, it's not un-
common to connect a large value capacitor across the batt ery
terminals of some transistor circuits. If the circuit suddenly
requires a momentary increase in current, the capacitor acts

58
like a battery in par allel with the power-supply battery and
helps to supply the demand.
Capacitors are often used to filter pulsating electrical cur-
rents for operation of transistor circuits. This is particularly
true when t he circuit is operated from household ac. But
though an ac current is filtered or smoothed out when a capaci-
tor is connected across it (parallel), it is not affected when the
capacitor is connected in series with it. This interesting prop-
erty is very useful in transistor circuits. By placing series ca-
pacitors before each t r ansistor in an amplifier, for example,
each transistor is isolated from its neighbor. The ac signal gets
through without any trouble, but de is completely blocked. Ca-
pacitors used for this purpose are called blocking capacitors.
Induc to rs
In its simplest form an inductor is merely a length of wire
formed into a coil. An inductor has no effect on a direct current,
but it can be used to control an alternating current.
Inductors may be in the form of coils which are operated in
parallel with a capacitor to achieve a frequency resonance. By
properly tuning the coil (usually by moving a fe rrite slug
through a hollow core) or adjusting the capacitor, the circuit
will resonate at a single frequency and be very useful in select-
ing frequencies in a radio receiver.
Inductors are also used to smooth out an alternating current.
Their resistance to de is very low but their ac resistance (im-
pedance) is very high.
Transformers represent still another kind of inductor. Be-
cause of their impedance conversion ability, transformers are
ideal for matching separate sections of a t rans istor circuit.
The unit of inductance is the henry. One henry is the induc-
tance present in a closed circuit when an alternating current
variation which varies its rate of flow by one ampere pe1· sec-
ond induces a force of one volt. Several common inductors are
shown in Fig. 5-2.
Impe dance
Impedance is a term frequently encountered in transistor
circuit description. The word refers to the opposition a circuit
presents to an ac signal and is measured in ohms.
Impedance is designated by the letter Z and is derived by
combining a circuit's reactance and resistance.
The input impedance of a circuit is very important since
whatever device is to be connected to the circuit must have a
similar impedance. If the input impedance of a transistor am-

59
plifier is, for example, 2500 ohms, there would be little use in
connecting a high-impedance crystal microphone to the circuit
since little or no signal generated by the microphone would be
transferred into the ampli fier.
Similarly, there would be little efficiency in connecting a low-
impedance (e.g. 8 ohm) speaker to a transistor amplifier with
an output impedance of 800 ohms. As with the crystal micro-
phone, very little signal would be coupled from the amplifier to
the speaker.

Fig . 5-2. Typic:al induc: tors .

Several techniques are used to match impedances in transis-

tor circuits. One of the most efficient methods is the use of an
interstage transformer. By selecting a transformer whose pri-
mary impedance matches that of one stage of an amplifier and
whose secondary impedance matches that of the next stage, a
near perfect impedance match can be obtained.
Transformers can also be used at both input and output
stages of transistor circuit s. In the case of the amplifier and
speaker mentioned previously, a transformer whose primary
winding has an impedance of 800 ohms and whose secondary

60
has an impedance of 8 ohms would efficiently couple the ampli-
fier to the speaker.
Transformers are very efficient impedance-matching devices,
but they are relatively large, bulky, and heavy when compared
to most transistor components. Some manufacturers have got-
ten around the problem by producing transformers which are
not much bigger than transistors. But miniature transformers
are expensive so most circuits are designed without them. The
r esult may often be a slight Joss in gain, but the benefits of size
r eduction and low cost usually make up for the small gain r e-
duction.
A very frequ ent requirement in electronics is to connect a
circuit to a high-impedance input such as a crystal transducer.
Since bipolar t r ansistors have inherently low impedances,
FETs are often used for t his purpose. In this application, the
FET serves very much like a transformer in converting a high
impedance to a low impedance.

TRANSISTOR RATINGS
Manufacturers have devised dozens- of different specifica-
tions to explain the operating characteristics of their transis-
tors. In fact, one major company lists no less than 136 rating
symbols. Some of t he r atings refer to the maximum limits of a
particular device in terms of temperatur e, voltage, current,
and power dissipation. Other ratings describe the capabilities
of a device in terms of frequency response, rise time, switching
speed, and amplification factor . It is not feasible to our dis-
cussion to list all ratings, but some of the more important
ratings and t heir symbols are listed below.

Maximum Ratings
BVcuo Collector to base breakdown voltage (emitter
left open)
Collector to emitter breakdown voltage (base
left open)
BV1mo Emitter to base breakdown voltage (collector
left open)
P c- Maxim um power dissipation (collector )
!11,Ic,IE Current (de) into base, collector, or emitter
TA°C Maximum ambient temperature (Celsius)
T J°C Maximum junction temperature (Celsius)
TsTG °C Maximum storage temperatur e (Celsius)
P,. Power dissipation (usually e:>..l)ressed in watts)

61
 Electr ical Characteristics
hn: Static forward current transfer ratio (de gain)
hrc Small signal forward current transfer ratio (ac
gain)
IcM Collector to base current for a specified voltage
I cE Collector to emitter current for a specified volt-
age
f11r.- hr. cutoff frequency
f,. Gain-bandwidth product (frequency at which
h,., becomes unity; hi ghest usable frequency)
VcEo Collector to emitter voltage (base open)
Vrno Collector to base voltage (emitter open)
V nE Base to emitter voltage

Most of these maximum ratings and electrical specifications

are self explanatory. But to see their real significance, let's use
them to interpret the specifications of the RS-2009, a good
quality npn switching transistor.
From the transistor's data sheet, we first find that the RS-
2009 is an npn silicon epitaxial planar transistor. Since the
transistor is made of silicon, this tells us its power dissipation
is greater than a similarly packaged germanium unit. And the
epitaxial planar construction indicates its frequency response
is probably very high.
As the data sheet reveals, we're right on both counts. The
RS-2009 can dissipate a maximum of 500 milliwatts (P·1·) and
the gain-bandwidth product (f... ) is typically 350 MHz. With
the transistor's case temperature maintained near room tem-
perature at 25°C, the unit can diss ipate up to 1.8 watts.
Going further, we find that the V <-110 and Vn:o are 60 and 30
volts respectively. The V1n: is 5 volts. To prevent damage, the
trans istor must not be biased at values which exceed these
ratings.
The next important specification is hn:, the static forward
current transfer ratio or de current gain. The specifications
list values for hn: for various collector currents (l .. ) at a Vc·E
of 10 volts. At an I,. of 100 microamperes, for example, the de
current gain is only 35 (minimum); at an l e· of 10 milliamperes
the h1 . r:: increases to a minimum of 75.
The final specifications for the transistor concern is its
switching characteristics. We find the RS-2009 has a typical
t 0 x of 25 nanoseconds and a l.wr.- of 200 nanoseconds.
By now it should be apparent that all these specifications tell
us quite a lot about this particular transistor. As the manufac-

62
turer points out, the RS-2009 has such good f ..., tl);.i , and toFF
values that it is ideal for switching purposes. And the relatively
high values of hrn indicate the transistor should operate well
in general purpose amplifier applications.

TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Now that we have briefly reviewed some basic electronics
and explained some of the more important transistor ratings,
we can move into transistor circuits. Three basic circuits are
used in most transistor applications. These are called common
emitter, common base, and common collector. The term "com-
mon" is used to indicate the section of the transistor which is
common to both t he input and output of the circuit.
The Co mmon- Em itte r Circuit
Because of its high-gain characteristics, the common-emitter
circuit is the one most often used in amplifier applications. A
basic version of t he circuit is shown in Fig. 5-3. T he circuit
diagram shows two power-supply batteries fo r purpose of
clarity. In actual applications the battery between base and
emitter, which is included to provide a proper base-bias volt-
age, is replaced by one or more resistors which borrow current
from the remaining battery t o accomplish the same purpose.
The input impedance of the common emitter is low (20-5000
ohms), however, and special coupling procedures must be used
if the ci rcuit is to be connected to a high-impedance input. A
common technique is to employ a preamplifier with high input
and low output impedances.
An interesting feature of the common-emitter circuit is that
the output signal waveform experiences a phase sh ift of 180°.
That is, a positive-going input signal is negative at the output
and a negative-going input signal becomes positive at the out-
put. For this reason, the common-emitter circuit is said to in-
vert an input signal. Inversion does no harm and is even
desired for some applications.

Fig. 5-3. Com mon -e mitter circuit.

63
 c

INPUT OUTPUT
INPUT

OUTPUT

C>--<...---+--- --- - ----0 o---:J1------1j1h------o

Fig. 5-4. Common-base circuit. Fig. 5-5. Common-collector circuit.

The Common -Base Circuit

The basic common-base circuit is shown in Fig. 5-4. The
chief advantage of the circuit is that its voltage gain is the
same as that of the common emitter. Current gain, however, is
less than unity giving a power gain (voltage gain x current
gain) well below the common emitter 's.
While the output impedance of the circuit is high, the input
impedance can be lower than the common emitter's. Unlike the
common-emitter circuit, the common-base circuit does not in-
vert the signal.
The Common-Collector Circuit
The chief advantage of the common-collector circuit is that
it has a much h igher input impedance than either of the other
two circuits (Fig. 5-5). This is of particular importance in
many transistor applications. Voltage gain of the circuit is less
than unity and when combined with its current gain, the com-
mon-collector circuit gives a power gain less than either of the
other two circui ts. Often the gain is of little consequence, how-
ever, and the common collect or can then perform a valuable
role as an impedance converter.
The three basic transistor circuits are summarized in Table
5-1. The table is helpful when choosing a circuit for a particu-
lar application.

Table 5- 1. Characteristics of the Three Bas ic

Transistor Circuits

Common Common Common

Emitter Base Collector
Voltage Gain Yes Yes No
Cunent Gain Yes No Yes
Power Gain Yes Yes Yes
Input I mpedance Medium Low High
Out put Impedance Medium High Low
Signal Invers ion Yes No No

64
 The common-collector circuit resembles an electron-tube cir-
cuit called the cathode follower. Since their characteristics are
so similar, the common-collector circuit is often called the emit-
ter follower.

BI ASI NG
For a transistor to oper ate properly it must be biased. Bias-
ing can be accomplished by means of separate batteries, but it's
far more practical to use resistors to borrow current from the
transistor's main power supply.
A simple bias arrangement for a common-emitter circuit is
shown in Fig. 5-6. T he resistor connected between the positive
terminal of the power supply and transistor's base forward
biases the transistor so that it is slightly on. In this manner an
incoming signal can be linearly amplified. If the transistor was
not biased, the incoming signal would not turn the transistor
on immediately and the s ignal would not be linearly amplified.
The simple biasing arrangement of Fig. 5-6 provides what is
called fixed bias. Unfortunately, the slight difference in tran-
sistor char acteristics and the sensitivity of transistors to tem-
perature mean that fixed biasing can only be used in very
simple applications.
Self-bias can overcome some of the shortcomings of fixed
bias. Ref err ing to Fig. 5-7, note that the bias resistor is con-
nected directly from base to collector of the transistor. I n
effect, self-biasing automatically provides a degree of stabiliza-
tion by regulating the current through the transistor. If the
transistor becomes warm, for example, the collector current
increases. This causes the voltage across the bias resistor RB
to drop, thereby reducing the collector current.
The self-b ias technique improves temperature stability but
at the expense of gain. Gain is r educed since some of the output

+
+

RL RL
RB
R
B

Cc cc
o-j B
OUTPUT o-j OUTPUT

I NPUT I NPUT

Fig. 5-6. Si mple biasing a rrangement . Fig. 5-7. Self-bia sed amplifie r.

65
signal is diverted back to the transistor's input to regulate the
collector current.
A method of achieving stability without significantly reduc-
ing gain is shown in Fig. 5-8. Here a resistor is connected be-
tween the emitter and ground in order to provide the necessary
stability. The capacitor across the resistor permits an incom-
ing signal to be passed without any loss. Without the bypass
capacitor, some of the signal would be lost to the emitter re-
sistor. By adjusting the value of the capacitor, t he lower fre-
quency response of the circu it can be easily controlled.
+

Fig. 5-8. Biasing fo r

inc reased stabi lity.
OUTPUT
INPUT R2

Cl

Base bias in this circuit is provided by t he voltage divider

comprised of Rl and R2. The combination of bias and stability
offer ed by this arrangement permits efficient, stable operation
of the t ransistor. The only added expense is a few additional
components, and resistors and capacitors are generally very
inexpensive.

AM PLIFIER CLASSES
Class A
The transistor amplifier we have been discussing is con-
nected for class-A service. This type of amplifier gives a very
linear output. That is, it faithfully reproduces the input signal.
However, it is inefficient from a power consumption standpoint.
This is because there is always a collector current (because of
the base-bias resistor) whether or not an input signal is
present. Remember, biasing keeps the transistor slightly on
and permits it to operate in the linear region required for dis-
tortion-free amplification.
The power consumption of class-A amplifiers is often so
small that their inefficiency is of little concern. High-power

66
output stages, however, require so much power that a second
class of amplifier is often employed.
Class B
The class-B amplifier solves the current consumption prob-
lem of the class-A amplifier by means of a biasing arrangement
which permits only a tiny flow of collector current. A circuit
of a class-B amplifier connected for push-pull operation is
shown in Fig. 5-9. In operation, both transistors are biased so
that there is negl igible collector current. T he signals appearing
at the input transformer's secondary are amplified by the tran-
sistor which is forward biased at any one time. The amplified
signals are then combined in the output transformer and used,
in this case, to drive a loudspeaker.
This is a push-pull arrangement and it permits the advan-
tages of a class-B amplifier to be efficiently utilized. The circuit
is often used in the output stage of transistor radios in order
to decrease current drain and improve battery life. Push-pull
circuits are not limited to class-B amplifiers-and class-B am-
plifiers need not be connected in a push-pull configuration.
Class C
A third amplifier configu ration is designed for use in oscil-
lators and radio-frequency applications. Designated class C,
this amplifier is biased so that there is a collector current only
when an input signal is present. Unlike the class-B amplifier,
class C has no collector current when no signal is present.
Since this kind of amplifier causes a n input signal to be
badly distorted, it is not used in audio applications. But it's

OUTPUT
TRANSFORi\\ER

IN~ D KSPEAKER

Fig. 5-9. Closs-B push-pull amplifier .

67
ideal for oscillators since waveform distortion is usually of no
consequence.

FIELD- EFFECT T RANSISTOR AM PLI FIERS

Bipolar pnp or npn transistors serve well in many amplifier
applications. B ut the availability of low cost, high quality FETs
has significant ly enhanced amplifier design. The FET, as was
noted earlier, has a very high input impedance, low noise, and
good high frequency r esponse.
A basic FET amplifier is shown in Fig. 5-10. In operation,
an electron current normally flows through the FET from
source to drain impeded only by the relatively low channel re-
sistance of a few thousand ohms. A signal at the gate electrode
of the FET however, changes the channel resistance and causes
the current flow to be modified accordingly.

=9 VOLTS Fig. 5-10. Basic FET

am p lifie r sch ematic.

It is possible to assemble a simple FET amplifier t o better

understand its operation. The general layout wh ich uses the
same circuit of Fig. 5-10, is shown in F ig. 5-11. The meter is
connected in the output cir cuit t o show the effect of an input
signal on the source-to-drain current flow. With the parts val-
ues shown, the meter should show a current of about 10 mA
with no connection to the gate electrode. A current meter is
not connected in the gate circuit since the current is so small.
To demonstrate the effect of an input signal at the gate, con-
nect a crystal microphone between the gate electrode and
ground. While watching the meter needle, tap the microphone
>vith a penci l. T he needle should move slightly toward zero and
then r eturn to the previous current level. If an oscilloscope is
available, connect it across the meter terminals and speak into
the microphone. The scope trace should reproduce the voice
waveform.
The gate electrode of most FETs is so sensitive that the out-
put meter n eedle can usually be moved by merely touching the

68
 Fig. 5 -11 . Basic FET amplifier circuit.

disconnected gate lead with a finger. Hemoving the finger from

the gate should also cause a meter movement. The reason for
this high sensitivity is body capacity.
In Chapter 2 we discussed the pinch-off or cutoff effect in
FETs. This condition occurs when the gate bias is such that
the resultant field extends completely across the source-drain
channel and literally "pinches-off' the current flo\v. To demon-
strate pinch-off, disconnect the microphone and touch the two
input clip leads together momentarily. The meter needle should
drop back to almost zero.
In order to make use of their superior high input impedance
and low no ise characteristics, FETs are frequently cascaded
with bipolar transistors . Such arrangements are commonly
used in solid-state oscilloscopes, vom's, ampl ifiers, and mixers.

OSCILLATORS
An amplifier is only one step removed from an oscillator.
A ll it needs is a certain type of feedback. High-gain amplifiers
ar e particularly susceplible to oscillation and circuit designers

69
go to great lengths to avoid coupling and feedback which will
cause an amplifier to oscillate.
When a circuit is designed to oscillate rather than amplify
it can perform a variety of useful tasks. Radio frequency gen-
eration circuits employ high frequency oscillator circuits, and
audio frequency oscillators find use as tone generators, metro-
nomes, alarms, code-practice oscillators, and sirens.
There are several classes of transistor oscillators which pro-
duce a waveform with both positive and negative components.
Some use a quartz crystal to accurately control the frequency
of oscillation. Others use a tuned inductor-capacitor (LC) net-
work to govern the frequency. These basic oscillators can be
designed in a variety of configurations.
A special class of transistor oscillators produce nonsinusoidal
output waveforms. These oscillators employ resistor-capacitor
(RC) or resistor-inductor (RL) feedback to obtain a series of
either positive or negative output pulses. The pulses may take
the form of narrow spikes, rectangular pulses, or sawtooth
waveforms.
A typical example of a nonsinusoidal oscillator is the multi-
V'ibrator. This oscillator employs a back-to-back arrangement
of two transistors, one normally on and the other normally off.
In operation, the transistors switch one another on and off in
sequence, thus producing a square-wave output. Multivibrators
are commonly used as pulse generators, pulse stretchers, light
flashers, and clocks. Some multivibrators are normally off but
are triggered into operation by an external pulse.
A second kind of nonsinusoidal oscillator is called the block-
ing oscillator. This circuit uses inductor-capacitor feedback to
achieve a series of brief, widely spaced pulses. Since the in-
ductor used to obtain feedback can be a transformer, the block-
ing oscillator is often used in de converter circuits. The uni-
junction transistor can be used in a third kind of sinusoidal
oscillator, but it is so unique it will be described in a separate
section.
Unijunction Transistor Oscillators
The unijunction transistor (UJT) can be used in a very
simple nonsinusoidal oscillator. The circuit for a typical UJT
oscillator is shown in Fig. 5-12.
Operation of the UJT oscillator is identical to that of a neon
lamp relaxation oscillator. The neon lamp circuit operates by
charging a capacitor through a resistor until the capacitor
voltage exceeds the ignition voltage of the lamp. Since the lamp
is in parallel with the capacitor, the capacitor discharges

70
through the lamp causing it to fire. The lamp turns off and the
cycle repeats.
The UJT circuit is virtually identical in principle. The major
exception is that the neon lamp is replaced by a transistor.
Referring to Fig. 5-12, note that capacitor Cl is charged
through Rl. When the charge on Cl reaches a value which
forward biases the UJT emitter, the UJT conducts and Cl
discharges through the UJT and R3. R2 helps to stabilize the
circuit against adverse effects of temperature changes.
The discharge of Cl is very fast and appears as a spike
across R3. The charging time of Cl, however, is relatively
slow. The slow charge and rapid discharge of Cl is responsible
for the sawtooth output.
UJT oscillators are so simple they are widely used as tone
generators and for firing SCRs. Recall from Chapter 1 that an
SCR is a four-layer device which normally does not conduct.
A current spike applied to the gate electrode, however, turns
the SCR on as if it were a mechanical switch or relay. Uni-
junction oscillators are often used to supply the necessary
pulse.
We'll describe a UJT circuit which can be easily built by the
experimenter in a later chapter. But first let's move on to still
another nonsinusoidal transistor oscillator.

470

RAMP
Fig. 5-12. Unijunction oscillator. OUTPUT : 2& VOLTS

SPIKE
t------<:;----o OUTPUT
27

AVALANCHE TRANSISTORS
As we noted earlier in this chapter, bipolar transistors are
characterized by several different breakdown voltages. BVcno,
for example, stands for the collector to base breakdown volt-
age. Some transistors are made to be operated in a mode which
calls for the BVc£o (collector to emitter breakdown voltage)
to be intentionally exceeded for a very brief time. The result
is a current spike rising very fast.
Actually, many kinds of transistors can be made to operate
in the breakdown or avalanche mode. A circuit which will per-

71
 RI
lOOK

Cl 0.()1 µF

: 90 VOLTS

R2 7.SK ~---{)~
R3 1 SQ-NANOSECOND PULSES

Fig . 5- 13. Avalanche transisto r oscil lator.

mit the RS-2009 transistor to be operated as an avalanche-

transistor oscillator is shown in F ig. 5-13. In operation, capaci-
tor Cl charges through Rl. Base bias for the RS-2009 is pro-
vided by R 2. When the charge on Cl exceeds the collector to
emitter breakdown voltage, the transistor avalanches and dis-
charges Cl t hrough R3. With the component values shown in
Fig. 5-12, a pulse only 50-nanoseconds wide will appear across
R3. Since the current is so very high (25 amperes), this kind
of circuit can be used to drive semiconductor laser diodes very
efficiently.
The reader may wonder why 25 amperes of current does not
destroy the tr ansistor. If the current were continuous, the
t ransistor would indeed by destroyed, but the 50-nanosecond
pulse is so brief that the silicon forming the heart of the tran-
sistor scarcely has time to warm up before the capacitor has
been discharged.

SWI TCHING CIRCUITS

The nons in usoidal oscillators we have been discussing bring
home a fact brought out in Chapter 2- transistors can be used
as switches. In an amplifier, a transistor is operated in the
relatively linear region between cutoff and saturation. But in a
switching cir cuit, a transistor is operated in either the cutoff
or saturation r egions; the linear region in between is ignored.
The switching ability of certain transistors makes t hem very
useful in a large variety of digital logic circuits such as fl ip-
flops, gates, and other triggered circuits.

72
 CHAPTER 6

CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
FUNDAMENTALS

As we have noted throughout this book, transistors can be

used in a wide variety of practical applications. The best way to
learn about many of these applications is to actually use tran-
sistors in working circuits. Now that we have discussed the
theory, manufacture, and characteristics of these little devices,
the remainder of this book will be devoted to a variety of simple
construction projects. Each of these projects can be assembled
in an hour or two by anyone, regardless of electronic experi-
ence. No special skills are required, and the cost of each project
is quite low.
For ease of assembly and understanding, each construction
project includes details on circuit operation, assembly, testing,
and applications. For the experimenter desiring to go a little
further, each project includes a section describing variations
and improvements on the basic circuit. A parts list, circuit
diagram, and figures showing the completed circuit greatly
simplify construction.
Before actually getting into the construction projects, this
chapter w ill present some hints on electronic assembly and con-
struction. Read this chapter carefully, and then begin work on
one of the construction projects presented in the next chapter.

COMPONENT SELECTION
The first step in assembly of an electronic construction
project is selecting the various components required for the
circuit. There are a variety of sources for electr onic parts so
this is usually not a difficult procedure. Most of the parts used

73
in the circuits described in this book, for example, were ob-
tained from Radio Shack.
The parts list for an electronic construction proj ect is not
necessarily intended as an exact guide. Substitutions can
usually be made and frequently a slightly different component
value must be used when the specified value is out of stock or
no longer available.
A few general guidelines can be quite helpful when making
parts substitutions.
Res istors
Since most electronic construction projects use resistors with
a ten- or twenty-percent tolerance, it's generally not harmful
to make substitutions within a range of perhaps plus or minus
ten percent tolerance from the specified value. For example, if a
10,000-ohm resistor is specified but is not available, values
between 9000 and 11,000 ohms should work just as well.
An important exception to these general guidelines for re-
sistor substitution is when a parts list specifically calls for no
substitutions. This rarely happens, however, and is usually
limited to special-purpose circuits where a resistor value is
critical to the calibration of the circuit.
Most low-power transistor circuits use resistors rated at
Ys or ~ watt. Higher-power circuits may specify resistors rated
at higher wattages, however, and these should always be used.
Capacitors
Like most resistors, capacitor values usually vary from the
rated specification. It is not uncommon for a capacitor to have
from twice to half its rated value. Because of this wide varia-
tion, capacitor values specified in a parts list may be substituted
if exact values are not available. For example, it usually does
no harm to use a 0.2-p.F capacitor for a 0.1-p.F unit.
When selecting a capacitor, always make sure it is rated at
more than the maximum power-supply voltage. If, for example,
a capacitor is rated for operation at 16 volts, it may be de-
str oyed by operation at 30 volts. It's per fectly acceptable to use
high-voltage capacitors in low-voltage circuits.
Transistors
In simple transistor circuits it is usually possi~l e to substi-
tute many types of transistors for the one specified, as long as
it has the same polarity (pnp or npn). Often simple circuits
will simply specify a "general purpose" pnp or npn transistor
for a particular application.

74
 The circuits described in this book all use specified transisto1~
type numbers. In most cases, however, substitutions can be
made without affecting ci rcuit performance.
In many circuits transistors should only be substituted
within a specified class. For example, if a power transistor is
specified, a similar type transistor capable of dissipating at
least the specified power should be used. If a 20-watt pnp unit
is specified, there should be no harm in using a 30-watt pnp
transistor.
Other examples where substitutions should be made only
within a specific class include high-frequency and switching
transistors. An audio-frequency transistor, for example, will
not necessarily work properly at frequencies of one megahertz
or higher.
Sometimes the semiconductor material used to make a par-
ticular transistor is an important limiting factor. In high-
temperature applications silicon transistors are almost always
preferred over germanium units. Also, germanium transistors
are sometimes preferred when a very low collector-emitter ON
impedance is desired.
As a final reminder, never substitute bipolar transistors for
field-effect (FET) or unijunction (UJT) devices. The substitu-
tion just will not work.
Diodes
Diode substitution is usually less critical than transistor sub-
stitution. In most circuits specifying a particu lar diode, liter-
ally dozens of types will operate as well as the one specified.
There ar e, however, important exceptions to this general
rule. Some switching and pu lse circu its require special-purpose,
fast rise time diodes for proper operation. Also power-supply
diodes must be rated at least as high as the maximum expected
voltage.
Sever al electronic parts distributors offer bags of ten or
twenty diodes for only a dollar so. Sometimes the diodes are
manufacturer's rejects, but usually they will work fine in gen-
eral purpose experimenter applications. Just make sure the
diode is rated at the proper voltage before using it in a power-
supply application.
A special class of diode which should be substituted with
care is the zener diode. Since these diodes are almost always
used as voltage-reference devices in power supplies and other
circuits, very close or exact substitutions are usually required.
Tolerance specifications for zener diodes are usually much
tighter than those for typical resistors and capacitors.

75
 POWER-SUPPLY SELECTION
The most convenient power supply for a transistor circuit
is the battery. Batt eries a re readily avai la ble, co nvenie~1t to
use, and reliable in most transistor-circuit applications. Fur-
thermor e, battery-power ed circuits can be operated anywhere
and are not restricted by a power cord, as a r e the line-operated
circuits.
On the other hand, line-operated ci rcuits are usually much
cheaper to operate th an equivalent battery-powered units. The
initia l cost of the components necessary to convert the ac line
voltage into the low voltage de required to operate a typical
transistor circuit is usually more than offset by the r elatively
high cost of replacement batteries.
The major disadvantage of line-operated circuits is the
hazard of coming in contact with 110 volb ac. Careful wiring
and assembly practice must always be fo llowed when working
with circuits powered by household current. For this important
reason the construction proj ects desc ribed in t his book are all
battery powered.
Most transistor circuits require from 1.5 to 15 volts for
proper opei-ation. Practically any battery or arrangement of
batteries giving the r equired voltage can be used.
Penlight batteries ar e ideal for tra1rnistor circuits . They a1·e
inexpensive, easily replaced, a nd a variety of com mercial
holders are a.vai lahle.
An excel lent gencrn l-p u rpose power source fo 1· transistor cir-
cuits is the nine-volt tran:-;isto r rndio battery. These batteries
are common ly avail able, low in cost, and easy to use. Since they
are supplied with snap-type encl connectors, they can be
quickly removed from a circuit for replacement.
A special class or nine-volt transistor radio battery is the
mercury battery. This battery costs f'ar more than the typical
nine-volt battery, hut its in creased lifetime offsets the addi-
tional inve::>tment. Mercury batteries deliver approximately 8.4
volts instead or 9.0 volts.

READING CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Transistor circuits are almost universally shown as sche-
mcltics or circuit diagrams. The schematic is simply a shor t -
hand technique of showing the various components of a circuit
and their relationship to one another.
We have a lready used a number of circuit-diagram symbols
in this book to illustrate several types of basic circuits.

76
 There are other component symbols as well, and many of
them are described in detail in the Realistic Guide to Schematic
Diagrams, a Radio Shack publication.

CIRCU IT BOARDS
T he circuits described in this book are all assembled on per-
forated boards so that component placement can be easily
visualized. The perforated board is a very convenient medium
for constructing a circuit, particularly a prototype or experi-
mental device. If care in layout and wiring is taken a very neat
assembly can be made.
Several types of perforated board are available. For most
general-purpose construction the alternate grid board used for
the proj ects in this book is ideal. The perforations are close
enough to one another to permit easy installation of closely
spaced transistor leads. Boards with wider spaced and larger
perforations are also available.
Another kind of circuit board is copper-clad phenolic. Cop-
per-clad boards are designed for etched circuits. The etched-
circuit board replaces the wiring of conventional circuits with
carefully etched strips of copper.

SOLDERING
No matter what method of construction is used, soldering
will be necessary to make permanent and reliable connections
between components. The beginner should practice soldering
scrap lengths of wire together before working with actual
component leads. The soldering procedure is as follows :

1. Obtain a soldering iron rated at about 25-40 watts and

tin the tip according to the manufacturer's instructions. Keep
the tip clean by using a damp sponge or cloth to wipe away
accumulated oxidation and foreign matter during soldering.
Do not use a soldering gun for assembling transistor circuits,
as its high heat output may damage some components, par-
ticularly heat-sensitive semiconductors.
2. Always use a good grade of r osin-core solder when solder-
ing electronic components to one another. Never use acid core
solder for this purpose as it is highly corrosive and may damage
electronic parts.
3. Remove grease, oil, paint, and other matter covering parts
to be soldered together. This will insure a good bond between
the solder and connection.

77
 4. Begin soldering a connection by first heating the joint to
which solder will be applied. When the connection has been
heated, leave the iron in place and apply solder to the connec-
tion (not the iron).
5. Permit the solder to flow throughout and around the con-
nection for a second or so before removing the iron. Let the
connection cool before moving it in any way.

If these five steps are followed, a good solder connection is

easily made. A good connection will be shiny and smooth in
appearance while ·a poor connection will look dull.

PACKAGING
Experimental circuits are often built on perforated boards
and not enclosed in a housing. This is perfectly adequate for
"breadboard" work as it permits components to be changed or
switched around within a circuit.
For a more permanent application it's usually desirable to
mount a circuit inside a housing. Besides providing protection
for the components, the housing provides a convenient base for
controls, switches, pilot lamps, and hardware. In addition, cir-
cuits mounted inside a housing are more compact and con-
venient to use than their breadboard counterparts.
Better results can be had by employing enclosures made
specifically for use with electronic circuits. Radio Shack offers
several such enclosures, including two with a perforated back.
These "perfboxes," as they are called, eliminate the need for a
separate circuit board inside the enclosure.

TOOLS AND TEST EQUIPMENT

The most valuable tools for electronic construction are a
pair of long-nose pliers, a wire cutter, a wire stripper, and a
set of screwdrivers. Conventional pliers, files, a set of wrenches,
and an electric drill can also come in very handy. As we have
already indicated, a soldering iron is absolutely necessary for
making permanent and reliable connections.
A relatively good assortment of tools can be purchased for
less than $12. Test equipment is another matter and a single
instrument can cost far more than a box full of tools.
The most important pieces of test equipment for the elec-
tronics experimenter is the volt-ohm-milliammeter (vom).
Voms are used for measuring voltage, resistance, and current.
They are very handy for checking the resistance of unknown
78
components, the status of batteries, the polarity of diodes and
transistors, and the continuity of wiring connections.
An inexpensive vom is adequate for many test purposes, but
for optimum flexibility best results will be had with a high
input impedance meter. Older meters used a vacuum-tube input
circuit to give the isolation required for high input impedance.
These kind of meters are called vtvrns for vacuum-tube volt-
meters.
More recent high input impedance voms use a field-effect
transistor input stage to achieve the high impedance input.
They are more convenient to use since they operate from self-
contained batteries.
The significance of a high input impedance voltmeter is that
readings can be made without significantly affecting the oper-
ation of a circuit. This is very important in some (but not
all) transistor applications.
The more experienced electronics experimenter will want to
obtain an oscilloscope. One of the most versatile pieces of test
equipment in electronics, the oscilloscope permits a signal wave-
form to be displayed on the screen of a cathode-ray tube s imilar
to those used in television sets. While the oscilloscope is vir-
tually a necessity for advanced experimentation, a great deal
can be accomplished with the low cost vom.

79
I
 CHAPTER 7

TRANSISTOR PROJECTS

ON E-TRANSI STOR RADIO

When transistors first became inexpensive enough for home
experimenters to purchase, one of t he most popular construc-
tion projects was the simple one-transistor radio. In the 1950s,
dozens of articles on how to construct such radios appeared in
magazines specializing in popular science and electronics.
The receiver described here is very s imilar to those early
radios, but that doesn't make it obsolete. This kind of r adio is
so simple and reliable that it can prove invaluable as an emer-
gency receiver. Unlike the more sophisticated transistor re-
ceivers on the market, it will operate from a wide variety of
voltages and even a s ingle flashlight cell is capable of powering
it. Besides being practical, this project provides a valuable
demonst ration of the basic principles of a radio receiver.
How It W o rks
Operation of the receiving portion of the basic one-transistor
radio is virtually identical to that of the early cat-whisker
crystal radios. The main difference is t hat this version uses a
ready made diode detector rat her than the erratic cat-whisker
detectors. A circuit diagram of the radio is shown in Fig. 7-1
and the parts list is given in Table 7-1.
In operation, the antenna wire picks up the radio signals
and passes them to a resonant circuit composed of a tuning
coil and a capacitor. Both of these components are adjustable
so the receiver can be carefully tuned for best recept ion.
The s ignal passes through t he coil and capacitor and all but
the resonant frequency is attenuated. The result is that the rel-
atively wide range of frequencies picked up by t he antenna are
filtered so that only a narrow frequency band remains. The

81
frequency which passes through the coil-capacitor circuit can
be easily varied by merely changing the value of either or both
these components. The selected frequen cy leaves the circuit and
passes through a semiconductor diode. The signal is composed
of both positive and negative components and is t herefore a
kind of alternating current. The diode rectifies the signal so
that it is composed of a series of positive pulses which are
representative of the audio signal carried by the transmitted
frequency.

~GROU ND • PLUG EARPHONE I mo JACK

Fig. 7-1 . One-transistor radio circuit diagram.

It's possible to connect an earphone between the output of

the diode and the ground side of the coil and hear the s ignal.
In fact, this is how the early crystal sets operated. But the
signal is so small that the volume is not very high.
The rectified (detected) signal can be increased in volume by
means of a single transistor connected as a common-emitter
amplifier. In the receiver described here, an RS-2005 pnp
transistor (QI) is used to amplify the signal. Base bias for the
transistor is supplied by Rl. The output signal is sent to a
miniature magnetic earphone which converts the electrical
fluctuations into an audio signal.

Table 7- 1. One-Transistor Radio Parts List

Item Description
Bl 9-volt battery
Cl Miniature tuning capacito1· (530 kHz to 1600 kHz)
Dl Diode (1N34)
Jl Phone jack
Ll Ferrite loop antenna coil
PHl Magnetic earphone
Ql Pnp transistor (RS-2005)
Rl 220K l·esistor
Misc Perforated board, battery clip, wire, solder

82
Circuit Assembly
The prototype one-transistor radio was assembled on a per-
forated board. The construction is fairly straightforward.
First, bore a single %;-inch hole into the board for mounting
the variable capacitor. Then enlarge two of the board's holes
to a diameter of Ys inch with a reamer or drill for installation
of the tuning coil. Next, drill a ~~-inch hole for the earphone
jack. Fig. 6-2 shows how the various components can be placed.
When all the mounting holes have been completed, mount
the bracket for the tuning coil on the board. Insert the adjust-
able end of the coil into the bracket so that the two mounting
clips snap in place.
Next, install the variable capacitor. Remove the knob by
turning the inset to the left until it lifts out. Secure the variable
capacitor in place with its mounting nut, and replace the knob
with its threaded insert.
The miniature jack is mounted next. As with the variable
capacitor, use the nut supplied with the jack to secure it in
place.
Finally, mount Dl, Ql, and Rl following the layout shown
in Fig. 7-2. Solder the various component leads to one another.
Short lengths of wire must be soldered to the tuning coil if the
component leads are not long enough to reach the coil lugs. The
completed project is illustrated in F ig. 7-3.

I ONE TRANSISTOR RADIO I

AITTENNA
I NPUT~o
0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Bl
9 VOLTS
000
0 000 00

Fig. 7-2. Component placement.

83
Testing and Operation
To test the operation of the one-transistor radio, connect the
antenna lead of the coil to a good external antenna. Ideally,
25 feet of copper wire could be used for an antenna. If this is
not convenient try connecting the antenna lead to the metal
dial-stop on a dial telephone. The telephone wiring will then
act as an external antenna.
When the antenna is connected, plug the earphone into the
jack and connect a 9-volt battery to the battery clip. Then
slowly rotate the variable capacitor knob until a station is
heard. If no station is heard, try rotating the adjustment screw
of the tuning coil until the ferrite core inside the coil form is
approximately midway in the coil. Rotate the capacitor knob
again until a station is heard.

Fig. 7-3. Completed one-transistor radio.

When the radio is operating, the variable capacitor can be

calibrated. This procedure will permit stations to be accurately
t uned. First adjust the tuning coil slug so it is approximately
centered inside the windings. Then t urn the variable capacitor
knob to the far right and place a small mark under the number
16 on the dial.
To check the calibration, tune in a station of known fre-
quency and see if the number on the dial approximately
matches the marker point. If not, readjust the tuning coil until
a match is made.

84
Going Further
A number of improvements can be made to the basic one-
transistor radio. First, some diodes operate better than others
as radio detectors. While most general purpose silicon or
germanium diodes will work fine in the circuit, a few may
operate considerably better than others. Selecting an optimum
diode is a simple manner. Connect several into the circuit one
after another while listening to a station with the earphone.
The diode that gives the loudest signal is then soldered into the
circuit.

TRANSISTORIZED LIGHT METER

Using but a single transistor s uch as the RS-2001 (2N1304),
it's possible to construct a very sensitive light meter. The meter
can be used for general purpose experimentation or calibrated
and used for photographic purposes. The meter uses a total of
only four components : photocell, transistor, potentiometer, and
milliammeter. The components were mounted on a perforated
board for the prototype circuit, but they can easily be housed
in a small plastic case if desired.
How It Works
Operation of the light meter is dependent on a photocell
which changes its resistance when exposed to light. The photo-
cell used here is the photoconductive type. That is, it increases
or decreases its resistance according to the amount of light
striking the cell. 'l'he dark resistance of the cell used here is
normally very high, perhaps 5000 megohms or more. When the
light level is increased, the photocell's resistance drops con-
siderably and may be but a few hundred ohms at high illumina-
tion levels.

Fig. 7-4. Basic lig ht-me te r circuit.

=9 VOLTS METER

It is possible to make a working light meter with a photocell,

meter, and battery. A circui t for this kind of light meter is
shown in Fig. 7-4. But this kind of circuit is not very sensitive
to very low light levels unless an extremely sensitive current

85
 Table 7-2. Transistorized Light-Meter Parts List

Item Description

Bl 9-volt battery
Ml 0-1 milliammeter
P Cl Photocell (6000 megohms dark resistance)
Ql Npn transistor ( RS-2001)
Rl 1-megohm potentiometer
Misc Perforated board, battery cli p, wire, solder

meter is used. Such meter s are expensive and their movements

are inherently fragile.
A better approach is to use a transistor to amplify the cur-
rent and use the amplified current to drive a relatively inex-
pensive meter. In this manner very low light levels can be
easily measured using a milliammeter.
The circuit for the transistorized light meter is shown in
Fig. 7-5 a nd the necessary parts are listed in Table 7-2. In
operation, the light striking photocell PCl decreases the photo-
cell's resistance and permits a larger current to flow. This cur-
rent, which may be very small at low light levels, is a mplified
by Ql which is connected in a common-emitter configuration.
The 9-volt battery s upplies bias voltage for both the photocell
and transistor. The value of the amplified current is indicated
on the milliammeter.
Since various photocells have different characteristics, po-
tentiometer Rl is included to permit the circuit to be cali-
brated. The potentiometer is in series with the photocell and
permits the current flow to be adjusted under a set light
condition.
Circuit Assembly
The prototype light meter was assembled on a perfo1·ated
board. Follow the layout shown in Fig. 7-6 when assembling

ISEETElrn

COUECTOR

BASE-Q
Bl : 9V EMlnER
QI

Fig . 7-5 . Transistorized light-meter circu it.

86
the circuit. The transistor is mounted by merely inserting its
three leads through the holes in the board and bending them
outward on the rear of the board. The potentiometer is mounted
by soldering two 2-inch lengths of wire to the center terminal
(rotor), and two to the outer terminal (stator) and inserting
the wires through the board. For a sturdier mounting
arrangement, a %-inch hole can be dri11ed through the board
and the potentiometer mounted in place with its retaining
hardware.

0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
00

Fig. 7-6. Transistorized light-meter layout.

The meter is mounted by slightly enlarging two holes in the

board and securing it in place with the terminal screws. As
with the potentiometer, a sturdier mount can be provided by
cutting a circular hole in the board and anchoring the meter in
place with its four mounting screws. Finish installing the com-
ponents. Fig. 7-7 illustrates the completed project.
Testing and Operation
Check all wiring to make sure there are no errors and then
connect a 9-volt battery to the battery clip. Make sure the room
lights are dimmed before connecting the battery to prevent t he
meter needle from being slammed.
When the battery is connected, slowly point the sensitive
end of the photocell toward a source of light. As the cell is
pointed toward the light, the meter needle should advance up
the scale. If the needle does not advance, try rotating the
potentiometer's rotor to increase the circuit's sensitivity.

87
 When the light meter is operating properly try pointing it
at a variety of light sources. The meter needle will swing to
the far right off its scale if the light is too bright. To prevent
this, adjust the sensitivity potentiometer downward.

fig. 7-7. Compl eted transistorized ligh t meter.

Going Further
While the perforated board used to assemble t he light meter
is adequate for general purpose experimentation, better results
will be obtained by assembling the circuit inside a small plastic
or metal box. This construction technique will permit the light-
sensitive photocell to be mounted inside a dark-colored tube
which will help alleviate the adverse effect of bright lighting.
The tube can be made from a painted section of a plastic soda
straw or a short length of metal tubing.
Another big advantage of housing the light meter inside a
small case is convenience. The sensitivity control can be easily
calibrated by simply using a marking pen to indicate the vari-
ous sensitivity zones through which the control rotates. Also,
the battery is easier to mount in a fixed position and does not
flop about as when mounted . to a perforated board without
using a battery holder.
To install the circuit in a small box, cut a strip of perforated
board one-inch wide and about three-inches long. Mount the
photocell and transistor on one end of the board so that the
photocell points toward the end of the board. Mount the po-
tentiometer in a %-inch hole bored into the box and wire it to
the circuit board. The meter should also be mounted in a hole
cut into the case. Secure it in place with the four mounting
88
screws and use short lengths of wire to make t he connections
to t he circuit board.
The battery can be mounted in place by simply using a
rubber band to hold it against the bare portion of the circuit
board. If the inside of the box is so large that the complet ed
assembly does not remain in a fixed position, use a few screws
and nuts to secure the circuit board in place.

DARK-ACTIVATED LAMP
An interesting circuit with a very practical application is the
dark-activated lamp. The circuit incorporates a light-sensitive
photocell whose operation is identical to that of the cell em-
ployed in the light meter.
Operating from two penlight cells, the dark-activated lamp
can be used as a night light or even as a limited use intrusion
alarm. The circuit is easily assembled in less than an hour.
How It Works
Operation of the circuit involves operating an RS-2009
(2N2222) npn transistor as a saturated switch. The ability of
transistors to switch from a nonconducting to highly conduct-
ing state is one of their most important characteristics. Switch-
ing transistors are used in logic circuits, nonsinusoidal oscil-
lators, and in applications like the dark-activated switch where
low cost, efficient electronic switching is required.
The dark-activated switch is shown schematically in Fig. 7-8
and the parts for construction are given in Table 7-3. It oper-
ates as follows. When light falls on the photocell, its resistance
lowers and Ql (the RS-2010 or 2N2484 transistor) is turned
off. .When Ql is off, Q2 receives no base bias and it is also
t urned off.
When the photocell receives suffic ient darkness to signifi-
cant ly raise its r esistance, Ql becomes properly biased and

ISEE TOOi

Fig. 7-8. Dar k-activated

lamp schematic.

89
begins to turn on. Q2 then receives base bias through the col-
lector-emitter circuit of Ql and also turns on. Since the re-
sistance between the collector and emitter of Ql is consider-
ably lowered when Ql is t urned on, Q2 usually goes directly
into saturation. This causes the output lamp to turn completely
on. Only by carefully adjusting the light falling on the photo-
cell can the lamp be made to come partially on.

Table 7- 3. Dark-Activated Lamp Pa rts List

I t em Description
Bl Two 1.5-volt AA penlight cells
Ll 3-volt lamp
P Cl Photocell with a dark resistance of 5000 megohms
Ql Npn transistor (RS-2010)
Q2 Npn transistor (RS-2009)
Rl SOK potentiometer
R2 100-ohrn resistor
Misc Perforated board, battery holder, wire, solder

Sensitivity of the dark-activated lamp is controlled by po-

tentiometer RI. Together with photocell PC!, it forms a volt-
age divider whose adjustment determines the conduction in the
collector-emitter circuit of QI.
Circui t Assembly
The prototype dark-activated lamp is assembled on a per-
forated board. To duplicate the assembly, install the parts as
shown in Fig. 7-9, and use the component leads or separate
wires to connect the components to one another.
The sensitivity control potentiometer can be installed as
shown, but a sturdier arrangement can be made by boring a
%-inch hole in the board and securing the potentiometer in
place with its mounting hardware. The battery holder can be
anchored in place with glue, or fastened to the board with wire.
The prototype's lamp is simply soldered in place. For a more
efficient arrangement, however, use a socket to facilitate
mounting and replacement of the lamp.
When installing the circuit in a case, be sure to wire in a
switch at point "X" in the circuit diagram of Fig. 7-5. Po-
tentiometers are available with built-in switches, but better
results will be had by using a separate switch. This will pre-
vent the need for readjusting the sensitivity control each time
the unit is turned on. Fig. 7-10 illustrates the completed
project.

90
 00000

j
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o;,~ _,,-;r~-~~so~o ~~~

000
o o RI
u " _ ··_

0 ',, 0-e 0 /I + I'

<1>0~', o 00 01o \ ' \\ \
~O t I / I
I : ic / I
.J ' - " QI I 15 I\' I VOll
1. 5 l
--- ' 'Yr' A VOLl I
0°~-- i'o --0><." ." '
v-=-----=~::~Lo _o_
0

_
PLACE PHOTOCELL o
fACINSAl~AY FRQ'.Hl 0 0 °
000
0 I DARK ACTIVATED LAMP I 00 0

Fig. 7-9. Dark-activated lamp pictorial.

Testing and Operation

Carefully check all wiring and then place the dark-activated
lamp circuit in a lighted room. A fair amount of illumination
should be permitted to fall on the sensitive face of the photo-
cell. Next, using care to observe correct polarity, insert two
size AA penlight cells in the battery holder. This will turn the
circuit on.

Fig. 7- 10. Compl e ted dark-activated lamp.

91
 When the batteries a r e ins talled, slowly rotate the potentio-
meter's shaft unti l the lamp turns on. When the lamp turns on,
back up on the control until it turns off. If the lamp is on when
the batteries are installed, rotate the potentiometer until it
turns off.
When the sensitivity cont rol has been adjusted so that the
lamp is off, t urn the room lights off. If there is no direct light
on the photocell, the la mp should now t urn on. If it fails to turn
on it may be necessary to readjust the sensitivity control. A
flashlight can be very helpful if this is the case. Simply dim
the r oom lights so that the light sensitive face of the photocell
receives no direct illumi nation and use t he flashlight to simulate
lighted and nonlighted conditions.
During calibr ation of the circuit, the lamp may become ex-
cessively bright when adjusting the sensitivity contr ol. This is
especially likely to occur if a lamp r ated at a lower voltage than
t hat supplied by the batteries is being used. If this occurs, be
sure to turn the control s haft back io a point wher e the lamp is
less bright to prevent it from being burned out. Ideally, use a
lamp rated at the voltage supplied by the batteries used to
power the cir cuit .
Going Further
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, t he dark-activated lamp
can be a very practica.I circuit. At times, it may be necessary to
keep extraneous light away from the photocell. This is easily
accomplished by placing a small tube over the photocell as
shovvn in Fig. 7-11 so that only light from the outside can
reach t he cell's light sens itive surface.

OPAOllE TU BE

Fig. 7- 11. Photocell light shield.

When used as a night light, the dark-activated lamp should

be placed where daylight can illuminate the photocell.
To use the dark-activated lamp as an intrusion alarm, mount
it in a place where the beam from a light source can be pro-
jected across an access way. With the beam illuminating the
photocell, the lamp will be off. But when the beam is broken the
lamp will flash on.

92
 The intrusion alarm configuration can be used to announce
visitors, customers, or unwanted intruders. A variation of the
circuit is described in a later chapter. This circuit provides an
output relay which stays on when a light beam is broken. It is
better suited for some intrusion alarm applications since the
relay contacts can be used to operate a bell or buzzer.

LIGHT-ACTIVATED RELAY
As we have seen in the two preceding chapter s, light-sensi-
tive photocells can be paired with transistors to give a variety
of useful electronic circuits. In this chapter we will describe
still another of these circuits, a relay which is activated by an
external source of light. The circuit is unique in that the r elay
can be connected to stay on once it is activated. As in the
previous light-activated circuits, the light-activated relay in-
cludes a potentiometer as a sensitivity control.
How It Works
A simple common-emitter transistor amplifier is the heart
of the light-activated relay circuit.Table 7-4 lists the parts
necessary for construction. Referring to the circuit diagram of
Fig. 7-12, note t hat when the resistance of the photocell is h igh ,
little base current can flow in transistor Ql. When the photo-
cell is illuminated by a light source, its resistance is signifi-
cantly lowered and transistor Ql is biased into saturation. The
resultant collector-emitter current is sufficient to pull in the
relay and activate an externally controlled device. Resistor R2
is necessary to limit the current through the t ransistor to keep
it from overheating when the r elay is pulled in. R2 also limits
the current through the relay coil.
Fig. 7-13 shows how the circu it should be connected if it is
desired to keep the relay on once it is activated. The "normally
open" contact of the r elay is connected to the lower relay coil

Table 7-4. Light-Activated Relay Parts List

Ite m Desc ription

Bl 9-volt battery
PCl Photocell with a dark res istance of 5000 megohms
Ql Npn transistor (RS-2010)
Rl 25K potentiometer
R2 27-ohm resistor
Relay Spdt 6-mA, 500-ohm relay
Misc Perforated board, battery clip, wire, solder

93
 Fig. 7-12. Light-activa ted relay
circuit d iagram.
81 _;_ RI >-~vvv+---l-1
9 VOi.TS 2SK

contact. When the circuit is activated the relay latches and

stays in that state until the reset switch is pressed.
By the way, R3 must be included in this version of the cir-
cuit in order to limit current through the relay coil to the rated
value and preserve battery life.

RELAY COIL NC NO

RESH 81
,..-.......,U>---,,l"'t--~--~
INORi\IALLY 9 VOlTS
CLOSED! R3 500

Ql
RS -2010 C
1\0- NORMAUY OPEN
2SK l\C-NOR/llAU YQOSfO

Fig. 7 -1 3. Latching circuit.

Circuit Assembly
The components are all mounted by means of their connec-
tion leads, with the exception of the sensitivity control potenti-
ometer. The potentiometer was mounted by soldering 2-inch
long connection wires to each of its three terminals and using
them to hold the potentiometer in place. As with the other cir-
cuits which use potentiometers, the sensitivity control can be
mounted more firmly by drilling a %-inch hole in the perforated
board and installing the potentiometer in the hole with its
mounting hardware. Fig. 7-14 shows a pictorial of the light-
activated relay project.

94
 Practically any general purpose tr ansistor can be used in the
amplifier portion of the circuit. While t he RS2010 used for Ql
in the prototype circuit is an npn unit, a pnp transistor can be
used by s imply revers ing the batt er y connections.
Note that the prototy pe light-activated r elay shown in Fig.
7-15 uses a black tube over the photocell. The tube acts to shield
the cell from am bient light so the ci rcuit can be controlled by
the light from a fiashlight even in a normally lighted room.

0 0 Bl
0 0 9 VOLTS
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0
000
Q
I
p-
n ~n
~------,

LIGHT ACTIVATED RELAY I

Fig. 7 - 14. Light-activate d relay pi cto rial.

As with the previous two circuits, many types of photocells

will work with the light-activated relay. For best results, how-
ever, use a cell with a large dynamic range. A cell with a very
high dark r esistance a nd very low light resistance is ideal. For
optimum operating r esults several different cells can be tried.
Testing and Operation
To test the cir cuit fo r proper operation, set the sensitivity
control at about the midpoint and clip a 9-volt battery to the
battery connector. At this point the relay should not be acti-
vated. But if it is, adj ust the sensitivity control until it drops
out. Make sure the photocell is not brightly illuminated, of
course, or the r elay will tend to activate.
When the circuit ha s been adjusted so that the relay is not
activated, point a flashlight toward the photocell's light-sensi-

95
 I
Fi g. 7 - 15 . Completed light-a cti vate d relay.

tive surface. The relay should immediately activate. If it does

not pull in, adjust the sensitivity control until proper operation
is achieved. Activation of the relay can be observed by watch-
ing the moving central contact. The contact w ill move down
and make a distinct click when the relay "pulls in."
When using the light-activated relay in the latching mode
(Fig. 7-13). it will be necessary to push the reset button so that
the up and down motion of the central contact can be obser ved .
If this isn't done, the r elay will r emain activated (latched)
once it turns on.
When the circuit (Fig. 7-12) is working, test it for proper
operation by moving the light source toward and away from
the photocell. If the sensitivity control is properly adjusted
the r elay should click in each time the light str ikes the photo-
cell.
Going Furthe r
The light-activated circuit can be used in a variety of prac-
tical applications. But first it should be built into a small case
so it can be conveniently used. As with the previous circuits
this is easily done by installing the components on an appropri-
ately sized circuit board. Make sure the photocell is placed
where it can be exposed to external light. To keep it from
triggering from the room lights, it is a good idea to put a small
opaque t ube around the photocell, such as the one shown in the
preceding chapter.

96
 An interesting application for the relay is to connect it as an
automatic annunciator. By shining a light across a door or
other entrance, the relay will trigger a bell or buzzer when a
visitor breaks the light beam. To connect the relay for this
application use the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 7-16.
When the relay is connected in the latching mode (Fig.
7-13) , it can be used as an intrusion alarm. When the light
beam is broken, the relay contacts will remain pulled in and an
external bell or buzzer will stay turned on until the reset switch
is activated. The reset switch momentarily turns the circuit off
and permits the photocell to once again initiate activation of
the relay.

LAMP

RELAY
CONTACTS
ON -OFF

DOORBELL
OR
25K BUZZER

LANTERN ..=.. 6 VOi.TS

BAffiRY -=-

Fig. 7-16. Relay used as automatic annunciator.

UNIJUNCTION TIMER
Unijunction transistors are ideal for use in pulse generators
and precision timers. The timer described here has an adjust-
able delay ranging from less than a second to thirty seconds or
more. The circuit is actually a unijunction oscillator with an
adjustable time constant.
Operation of the timer is simple and reliable. To begin a tim-
ing cycle, a start switch is activated. Then, after a preset inter-
val, the unijunction transistor (UJT) issues a pulse with suffi-
cient amplitude to pull in a sensitive relay. The relay is con-
nected so that its contacts keep the relay activated until a reset
switch is activated.
Applications for the UJT timer are numerous. It can be
housed in a small plastic box, for example, and used to trigger

97
 RI

Cl • JOµF 01

Fig. 7-17. Uni junction timer circuit diagram.

a warning light every thirty seconds for long distance calls. By

connecting the relay contacts to a bell or buzzer, the unit can
be used as a darkroom timer. The unit can also be used in vari-
ous experimental applications.
How It Works
The parts necessary for construction of the UJT timer are
given in Table 7-5. Operation of the circuit can be determined
by referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 7-17. In operation,
capacitor Cl charges through potentiometer Rl until the UJT,
an RS-2029, fires. When the UJT fires, Cl discharges through
the UJT and the relay coil. T he pulse activates the relay, and
the relay is kept in a latched position by using its normally
open contacts (wh ich are turned on by the activation pulse) to
supply driving voltage to the coil. The timer is reset for an-
other timing cycle by turning it off for a moment (Sl) . R3 is
used to limit the current through the relay coil. Without R3,
excessive current will flow through the coil and possibly cause
its destruction. Also, battery life will be significantly short-
ened. The diode (Dl) is used to short circuit any high voltage
pulses wh ich may be generated when the UJTs firing pulse

Table 7 -5. UJT Timer Parts List

Item Description
Bl 9-volt battery
Cl 10-µ,F, 15-volt capacitor
Dl Diode (1N914)
Ql Unijunction transistor ( RS-2029)
Rl 1-megohm pot entiometer
R2 220-ohm resistor
R3 470-ohm resistor
Relay Spdt 6-mA, 500-ohm relay
Sl Spdt switch
Misc Perforated board, battery clip, wire, solder

98
rapidly falls off. Such a pulse frequently occurs when a voltage
across a coil is suddenly removed. The voltage in t he coil r ap-
idly collapses and induces a very high voltage spike througn the
coil's windings. Without a protection diode to absorb the volt-
age pulse, the UJT might be permanently damaged.
Rl and Cl form the timing part of the circuit. When Rl is
set to a relatively high value, Cl takes more time to charge to
the circuit's firing voltage. When Rl is set to a low value, Cl
charges are more rapid and briefer timing periods are ob-
tained. The timing periods can be made very brief (less than
a second) by decreasing the value of Cl to about 10 µ,F and
making appropriate adjustments of Rl. If Cl is made much
smaller tha n about lOµF the timer 's firing pulse may be too
brief to pull in the relay.
Circuit Asse mbly
Install the components on the board and solder the leads in
place as shown in Fig. 7-18. Do not install capacitor Cl at this
time.
The relay is installed by passing its flexible leads through
the circuit board and bending t hem flat against the rear of the
board. Cut the leads to the minimum length necessary to reach
their connection points in order to keep the relay firmly against
the cir cuit board.

ooo
ooo o
o o
,
FROM RELAY~ SI
00 0 0
oooooo
.-----, CON'fACTS ~ ---u-0-1 0
iN
o' o ~', oo-000 l\\ 1 -i
i--R~o~ 1n!<:t\,\~--J FRQ~\ ~
00

00
RI

_, - FROM ' / I~ RELAY

, RELAY 1 \ COIL
1 00 O , ,COIL\ ~,
II I 81
1 II "~ -
O 6) II
• I [ (h 01 I 01 1
' I
~ '--°!'JJ_
~ / s2_0_
I
0
0 ' 1
-
--=-- - I
1
--- - 0 o- 0 ,\,,, / :
+-' ob d> \'---- -- - - - - ·
I 0 ' ---- -- ----- -

0 0
0 Cl l l>,JF
0 0 0
0 0 0 Bl
0 0 0
0 0 0 9 VOLTS
0 0 0 0 ., - I
o~ o
0 _ 9 __

Fig. 7- 18. Unij unction ti mer p icto rial.

99
 Fi g. 7-19. Completed unijunction t ime r.

When the relay and all remaining parts are in place, the
capacitor can be installed. If relatively long delays are re-
quired, use a 100-µ.F capacitor rated at 25 volts. If short delays
are required, proceed to the section on testing and operation
fo r further instructions. The completed project is illustrated
in Fig. 7-19.
T est ing and Operation
Test the timer by connecting a 9-volt battery to the battery
clip and adjusting Rl until the relay activates. When the re-
lay latches on, turn the power switch (Sl) off and then on
again to reset the circuit. Try adjusting Rl to see the minimum
and maximum time delays which can be obtained.
If ver y short time delays are required Cl should be less
than 100 µ.F. In the prototype circuit a 10-µ.F capacitor pro-
duced time delays of as little as a tenth of a second. A capacitor
with a value much less than 10 µ.F may produce a trigger pulse
too brief to operate the r elay. Capacitor values between 10
and 100 µ.F can be selected to give a variety of timing periods.
Going Further
The precision timing circuit can be easily modified for a
variety of different uses. We have already descr ibed the sim-
plest modification-varying Cl to permit very brief timing

100
periods. To exploit the wide range of timing periods available
with several different timers, it's easy to connect several ca-
pacitors in t he circuit and use a low cost rotary switch to select
the appropriate one to give the desired timing period.
To ease adjustment of the t imer, it should be calibrated
against a known time reference. This is easily accomplished by
r otating the time-delay adjustment potentiometer while mak-
ing appropriate timing marks at various settings. Several sets
of marks can be made if more than one capacitor is used.

UNIJUNCTION TONE GENERATOR

Electr onic tone generators are used for a variety of pur-
poses. By using a telegraph key for a switch, a tone generator
can be used as a code practice oscillator. They are frequently
employed in warning indicators. And most t one generators are
also well suited for use as signal generators in radio, television,
and ampli fier troubleshooting.
The unijunction transistor relaxation oscillator is ideal for
use as a tone generator. It uses few components and those that
are required are very inexpensive. This chapter describes the
assembly of a UJT tone generator which can be adapted fo r a
variety of a pplications. Assembly time for the basic oscillator
should be well under an hour, making this one of the quickest
projects in this book.
How It Works
Operation of the unijunction transistor in a relaxation oscil-
lator mode is described in Chapter 4. The operating principle
of this kind of relaxation oscillator can be seen by referring
back to Fig. 4-7 . A capacitor (Cl) is charged through a charg-
ing resistor (Rl) until the capacitor voltage reaches the emit-
ter-Bl breakdown voltage. Until this point is reached the
"diode" formed by the emitter-Bl junction is reverse biased
and does not conduct. But when the capacitor's charge reaches
the proper value, the emitter-Bl junction becomes fo rward
biased. T he junction t hen switches on and the capacitor dis-
charges through R3 in a very rapid pulse.
When the capacitor is discharged, the emitter-Bl junction is
again reverse biased. The UJT does not conduct so the capaci-
tor once again begins to charge. The cycle repeats itself con-
tinuously in what is known as a relaxation oscillator mode.
In or der to utilize the basic UJT oscillator as a tone genera-
tor, R3 in Fig. 4-7 is replaced by the coil of a magnetic speaker.
The result is shown in Fig. 7-20. As the capacitor discharges
101
 R2 lK
<SEE rrxn

Fig. 7-20. A UJT tone genera t or

ci rcuit diogram .

81 =9 vous
Cl KS PEAKER

through the speaker, the speaker converts the electrical signal

into sound.
The frequency of the tone can be varied by simply changing
t he value of Rl. Since Rl governs the charging time for Cl,
the repetition rate is easily varied. The frequency can also be
altered by changing the value of the capacitor. Smaller values
will give higher frequencies while larger values will result in
lower frequencies. The difference in frequ ency is due to the
increase in charging time required of larger value capacitor s.
Also, with the larger value capacitors the tone amplitude may
be increased over that of small value capacitors. This is be-
cause the longer discharge time of larger value capacitors pro-
duces a wider pulse through the speaker coil a nd, therefore, a
larger audio pulse.
Circuit Assembly
The parts for the UJT tone generator are given in Table 7-6.
It can be assembled on a perforated board (Fig. 6-1 6) or in a
small plastic or metal case. Whichever technique is used, t he
wiring is straightforward and uncomplicated. The most im-
portant consideration is to make sure the unijunction transis-
tor is connected properly.
Potentiometer Rl, which is included to give a variable tone
capability, can be mounted in a %-inch hole bored in the board.

Ta ble 1-6. UJT Tone Gene ra tor Pa rts List

Item Description
Bl 9-volt battery
Cl .1-µ,F capacitor
Ql Unijunction transistor (RS-2029)
Rl 50K potentiometer (271-1716)
R2 IK resistor
Speaker 8ohms
Misc P erforated board, battery clip, wire, solder

102
Use 1.5-inch lengths of hook-up wire to make the connection
to the control's central (rotor) and one outer (stator) termi-
nals. If desired, the potentiometer can be secured to the top of
the board by these connection leads.
The speaker is connected to the oscillator by means of two
lengths of wire. If the tone generator is to be used for limited
experimentation, the speaker does not need to be mounted to
the board. But if the circuit is to be used for a practical pur-
pose, it's a good idea to mount the speaker behind the perfo-
rated board or in a protective enclosure. By mounting the
speaker behind the board, its delicat e paper cone will be pro-
tected from damage, and the tone it generates can escape
through the perforations in the board.

00
Rl 0 0
0 0
0

0 0
00
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0

00
0 0
I UJT TONE GENERATOR I 0 0 0
o

Fig. 7-21. A UJT tone-generator pictori al.

A standard 9-volt battery clip can be used for mounting the

batt ery. Since the oscillator can be turned off by simply remov-
ing the battery,' a switch is not needed. One can be installed,
however, by connecting it at point "X" in the circuit diagram
of Fig. 7-20. Fig. 7-22 illustrates the completed project.
Tes ting and Operation
When the oscillator has been assembled, recheck the wiring
to make sure there are no errors. Then snap a 9-volt battery
to the battery connector. A tone should be heard from the
speaker.

103
 Fig. 7-22. Completed UJT tone gene rator.

Rotate the potentiometer's shaft to change the tone's fre-

quency. If an oscilloscope is available connect it to the speaker
terminals to see the waveform across the speaker coil. A series
of spikes will be seen on the screen. The capacitor's charging
cycle can be seen with either an oscilloscope or a high input
impedance voltmeter.
When the tone generator is operating properly, it can be
used for a variety or practical applications.
Going Furthe r
The simplest application for the UJT tone generator is as a
code-practice oscillator. All that is required to use the tone
generator for this purpose is a low cost practice key. The key is
available for less than a dollar. When the tone generator is used
as a code practice oscillator, the frequency control should be set
t o obtain a comfortable tone. ·
To use the oscillator as an indicator or warning tone gener-
ator it's a good idea to enclose the circuit in a small metal or
plastic box. Whichever is used, provisions will have to be made
for the speaker's output. This is easily accomplished by drilling
a concentric array of holes into the box where t he speaker will
be mounted. Be sure to use an on-off swit ch if the circuit is
installed in a box. Also, for convenience mount the potentio-
meter (Rl) in a %-inch hole bored into the box.

104
 In operation as a warning tone generator it may be a good
idea to solder two wires to the switch terminals and run them
outside the box. When the wires are touched together the
switch is bypassed and the oscillator is turned on. The wires
can be connected to the relay contacts of a circuit like the uni-
j unction timer described in the previous chapter, or connected
to a remote switch.

AUDIO AMPLIFIER
One of the most useful circuits is the amplifier. Transistors
are particularly well suited to amplifier applications since their
power consumptions is low and their size is small.
The amplifier described here is distinguished by its ability to
amplify audio signals from a high impedance source, such as a
crystal microphone. These microphones are somewhat less ex-
pensive than most other types and are popular with experi-
menters.
·•9 VOUS Bl
n

DK
SPEAKER

R2 2. 2K

·PLUG MI CROPHONE INTO JACK •

Fig. 7-23 . Audio omplifier ci rcuit diagram:

While the amplifier described here is used to drive a small

speaker, it can also be used to operate an earphone. Other
variations are also possible and some will be described later.
How It Works
Operation of the amplifier can be understood by referring to
the circuit diagram in Fig. 7-23. In operation, sounds picked up
by the crystal microphone are converted into representative
electrical fluctuations. The signal is passed to the gate of Ql,
an n-channel field-effect transistor. QI gives the amplifier its
high input impedance.

105
 The signal is next coupled through blocking capacitor Cl to
Q2, a high gain audio amplifier transistor. Q2 amplifies the
signal and passes it to output transformer Tl. The transformer
impedance matches the output of Q2 t o a small speaker. De-
pending on the ga in of Q2, the original microphone s ignal is
amplified up to several hundred times.
As with most high gain audio amplifiers with a microphone
input and speaker output, it is very easy to generate an acous-
tical feedback by .merely placing the microphone near the
speaker. Feedback occurs when naturally occurring sounds
picked up by the microphone are amplified and passed on to the
speaker. The sound passes back into the microphone and the
cycle repeats itself. The result is a high frequency audio tone
wh ich can be made to vary in frequency, somewhat, by moving
the microphone toward and away from the speaker.
Circuit Assembl·y
The prototype high input impedance audio amplifier is as-
sembled, using the parts in Table 7-7, on a perforated board,
as shown in Figure 7-24. Begin assembly by boring a %-inch
hole for the micr ophone jack. Install the jack and secure it in
position with a mounting unit.
Next, install Ql, Rl, and R2 and solder their leads to one
another as indicated in the circuit diagram of Fig. 7-23, and
the pictorial of Fig. 7-25.
A 1-µ.F capacitor was used for Cl in the prototype circuit.
Actually, any value between about 0.1 µ.F and 10 µ,F should

Fig. 7-24. Assembled audio amplifier.

106
 Table 7 -7. Audio Amplier Parts List

Item Description
Bl 9-volt battery
Cl 1-µ,F capacitor
Rl 4. 7K resistor
R2 2.2K resistor
R3 1-megohm resistor
Jl Miniatu re jack
Ql FET (RS-2028)
Q2 Npn transistor (RS-2013)
1 Tl Miniat ure transformer (1000-oh m primary and
8-ohm secondary)
Speaker 8 ohms
Misc Crystal microphone, perforated board, battery clip,
wire, solder

give similar results. Install Cl between t he dr ain of Ql and the

base of Q2 and solder its leads in pos ition . Install R3 and solder
it in place. Then solder the battery clip in place.
Finally, install the output transformer by slightly enlarging
two perforations %-inch apart so that the tr ansformer's
mounting tabs can be inser ted in place. Bend the tabs outward

000 0 0 0
000000000
0
dtl00

Fig. 7 -25. Audio amplifier picto rial.

on the back side of t he board so that the t ransformer is secured

in place, and insert its primary leads through holes in the
board. The primary leads are colored green, red, and white.
The red lead is not used and can be cut off. Solder the green
lead to the collector of Q2 and the white lead to the positive bat-
tery connection. T hen solder the black and the white trans-
former secondary leads to the speaker. The circuit should now
be ready for testing.

107
T es t ing and Opera tion
Recheck all wiring to make sure the amplifier is properly as-
sembled. Pay close attention to the transistor leads.
When the wiring has been checked, plug a crystal micro-
phone into the input jack and insert a 9-volt battery into the
battery clip. When the microphone is brought near the speaker,
a shrill tone should be heard from the speaker. This is the
audio feedback described earlier. If the tone is heard move the
microphone away from the speaker until the tone ceases, and
speak into the microphone. Your amplified voice will be heard
coming from the speaker. If the feedback tone is not heard
when the microphone is placed near the speaker, disconnect
the battery and recheck the wiring.
The gain of Q2 is so high that the amplifier may sometimes
oscillate without the microphone being near the speaker. This
kind of oscillation can be caused by disorganized wiring on the
lower side of the board providing a feedback path. The prob-
lem is cured by reorienting the wiring so that it is more point
to point and less disorganized.
Going Fu rther
This basic audio amplifier can be used as an experimental
device or for its intended purpose. Experimental applications
include various types of tone generators and general ampl ifier
applications requiring a very high input impedance. In the
former role, the feedback provided by a closely spaced speaker
and microphone gives a tone generating capability. More con-
sistent results can be had, however, by disconnecting the micro-
phone and encouraging oscillation by permitting some of the
circuit wires to overlap one another. The wires of course, must
be insulated or the amplifier may be damaged.
In the prototype amplifier, the feedback necessary to sus-
tain oscillation could be easily generated by connecting a clip
lead to the unused (red) primary lead on the transformer and
allowing the other end of the clip lead to be brought near the
microphone jack. Depending on whether the lead was held by
the hand or clipped to a plastic insulator when brought near
the jack, an impressive variety of tones could be generated.
In applications requiring a high input impedance, the micro-
phone jack is used as the input point. For example, a high im-
pedance phono cartridge can be connected to the amplifier in
this manner. The amplifier can a lso be used to follow a signal
through a piece of equipment during troubleshooting.

108
 INDEX

Circuit(s)
boards, 77
A
common-base, 64
Alloy common-collector, 64
junction, 34-35, 45-46 common-emitter, 63
transistors, 37 diagrams, reading, 76-77
Aluminum, 22 switching, 72-73
Amplifier classes, 66-68 trans istor, 63-66
Anode, 25 Classes of amplifiers, 66-68
Antimony, 22 Coherer detector, 8
Arsenic, 22 Common
Audio amplifier, 105-108 -base circuit, 64
Audion, 10 -collector circuit, 6<t
Ava lanche transistors, 71-72 -emitte r circuit, 63
Component selection, 73-75
Covalent bond, 18
B
Crystal
Banier, potential , 24 detector, 8-9
Basic electronics review, 57-61 growi ng, 29-33
Biasing, 65 n-type, 22
Bipolar junction transistors, 45-47 p-type, 22
alloy junction, 45-46 -pulling f urn ace, 31
diffused mesa, 46 seed, 31
diffused planar, 46-47 Current, 18-19
Blocking oscillator, 70 semiconductor, 23
Bond
covalent, 18
D
ionic, 1.8
Dark-activated lamp, 89-93
D emonstrating diode action, 25-27
c Detector
Capacitors, 58-59, 74 coherer, 8
Cathode, 25 crystal, 8-9

109
Diffused
J
junction, 35-36
mesa, 46 Junction, 24
planar, 46-47 a lloy, 34-35, 45-46
Diode (s), 21, 75 diffused, 35-36
Esaki, 13 epitax ial, 36
light-emitting, 13, 26 formation, 33-36
physics of, 23-25 grown, 33-34
zener, 13 transistor, 12
Donors, 22
Drain, 47
L
Lamp, dark-activated, 89-93
E
Light
Electron-tube era, 10 -activated relay, 93-97
Epitaxial junction, 36 -emitting diode, 13, 26
Era, electron-tube, 10 meter, transistorized, 85-89
Esaki diode, 13
M
F Mesa, diffused, 46
Field-.e ffect transistor amplifiers, Mesa ti·ansistors, 37-38
68-69 Metal-encased transistor, 39
Field-effect transistors, 47-52 Molecule, 17
Formation, junction, 33-36 MOSFET, 49
Furnace, crystal-pulling, 31 Multivibrator, 70

G N
Gallium, 22 N-type crystal, 22
Gate, 47
Germanium, 19
Germanium versus silicon, 43-45 0
Growing of crystals, 29-33 One-transistor radio, 81-85
Grown junction, 33-34 Oscillator (s), 69-71
blocking, 70
unijunction transistor, 70-71
H
Other semiconductor devices, 13-14
Heat sink, 53
Hole, 18
p
Packaging, 39-41, 78
Phos phorus, 22
IGFET, 49 Phototransistors, 53-54
Impedance, 59-60 P hys ics of the diode, 23-25
Indium, 22, 34 Physics of transistor, 28
Inductors, 59 Pinch-off, 48
I ntegrated circuits, 14-15 P I TRAN, 55
Ionic bond, 18 Plana1-, diffused, 46-47

110
 Planar transistors, 38-39 Transistor (s) - cont
P lastic-encased transistor, 39 field-effect, 47-52
P'oint-contact transistor, 11 junction, 12
Potential barrier, 24 mesa, 37-38
Power-supply selection, 76 metal-encased, 39
Power transistors, 52-53 physics of, 28
Pressure-sensitive transistors, 55 planar, 38-39
Projects, transistor, 81-108 plastic-encased, 39
P-type crystal, 22 point-contact, 11
power, 52-53
pressure-sensitive, 55
R
projects, 81-108
Ratings, transistor, 61-63 audio-amplifier, 105-108
Reading circuit diagrams, 76-77 dark-activated lamp, 89-93
Relay, light-activated, 93-97 light-activated relay, 93-97
Resistors, 57, 74 one-transistor radio, 81-85
Review of basic electronics, 57-61 transistorized light meter,
Runaway, thermal, 44 85-89
unijunction timer, 97-101
unijunction tone generator,
s 101-105
Seed crystal, 31 ratings, 61-63
Selection of components, 73-75 special purpose, 53-55
Selection of power supply, 76 structures, 37-39
Semiconductor current, 23 alloy, 37
Semiconductor tailoring, 19-23 mesa, 37-38
Semiconductors, 19 planar, 38-39
Shell, valence, 17 ultrahigh-frequency, 54
Silicon, 19 unijunction, 51-52
controlled rectifier, 14 Transistorized light meter, 85-89
solar cell, 14
Soldering, 77-78
Source,47 u
Special purpose transistors, 53-55 Ultrahigh-frequency transistors, 54
Switching circuits, 72-73 Unijunction
timer, 97-101
T
tone generator, 101-105
transistor, 51-52
The first semiconductors, 7-9 transistor oscillators, 70-71
_': Thermal runaway, 44
Timer, unijunction, 97-101
Tone generator, unijunction, v
101-105
Tools and test equipment, 78-79 Valence shell, 17
Transistor ( s)
alloy,37
amplifier, field-effect, 68-69 z
avalanche, 71-72 Zener diodes, 13
circuits, 63-66 Zone refining, 29-30

111
 RADIO SHACK PUBLICATIONS
TUBE SUBSTITUTION HANDBOOK REAllSTIC G UIDE TO HI-Fl ANO STEREO
An up-to-date DIRECT tu be sub s1i1v1ion 9vido. Includes E)(pll'lins 1ho meaning of h igh fideli1y and stereo. Dis·
more 1h3n 12,000 sub stitv liom fo r oll types o f receiving cuues h igh .fide lity Gmplificrs, speaker sys1ems, ster eo
tubes and pic::tv ro tvbc3. lnstruc1io1u ~ccomponyin9 ct3Ch 1uner1 dnd re-ceiverl, anre r'l nas \Jsed fo r stereo r eception,
scc1ion guide the reader in making p roper 1ubc svb stilu •
rions a nd expla in how to cron•rcforcnco between soc- ~~~~~~ :~~{~~tdto~ye,,;:~.rd;~~~~~~~ledi!~~r~s~s s~~,~~~n=~
1iom for o th er $ubUit utes. olso Included .
62·2030 s1.7S 62·2~3 s .95
REALISTIC GUIDE TO CB RADIO
TRANSISTOR SUBSTITUTION HANDBOOK The fi ri t c.hap1er contains an inirod uction 10 CS radio,
Th is upd ated guide Ii .sis over 100,000 i.ubs1i1u1io n, , felt,
covering 1he .)dvent o f CB and its uses. O ther cov erage u '
Includes obtaining a license, different types o f CB radio
how and when to use wbs1i1vto 1ransh1ors. Aho In-
cludes manvfaclurcr.s recommc nd.,1ion.s for replacement
transistor lines. Computer-compiled for accut\ICy.
cquipmen1, equipment ins;1alla1ion, ante nna systems, sta·
:::,i:r:;i~h~ K~ F~!idiiffi'c e~n appendix lim. the
'
62-2031 Sl .25 62-21>44 S .9S

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRON ICS

SHORT.WAVE llSTENER' S GUIDE
Covell btiic. ele<rron theoty. Oiscusu-' magnetism. etec·
A practical g-uide to internation.il short•wfvti • letiom . u iciry. llnd radio principtes. hplains the structure and
l ists ,ho.rt•wave stotiom by counlry, city, cell lett er~. v se.! of reiiuors, c.apacirors, induc1e1s, 1r.11nsformers,
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several of the Voice of Am.ctic4 4nd Radio Free Europe several ele-cttonic expetimrnts and construction p roiec1s.
sta1ions. Includes o handy log where yov CM record 62-2~5 s .95
stations r eceived .
62-2032 Sl.9S REAllSTIC GUIDE TO TAPE RECORDERS
ficpltins the varloui use1 for a lolpe rec-ord!r. Oe.suibes
1he func1ions of the esu ntial pans of a recorder, Covers
TV TUBE SYMPTOMS & TROUBLES tho advantages and disadvan1a9~ of th e th.ree rypc-s o f
1ecordon- reol·1Crroel. u r1rid9e, and c.useu e. Guides you
A p icture book of typical 1v uoublos uuscd by dofcclive in purc.hailng a tecord!r accotding to its ~podfic use.
!h~:~9hE1tfel;in~1C:C~~d!:;r~:nd~~~:i~hns~ta~:n1~!n: ~ho::: Coven geneial m6intenanceo of recorders, 1ape, and
occouotiei.
of tlclual rv pic1ure ttouble-s, accompa1\ied by e1tpltm11ions
to help iden tify which tubes arc tll fault . ~~6 s ~

62-2033 s1.95 ELECTRONICS DICTIONARY

Whethef you are " b4!g inner in rh e elec11on ic.s f'ietd , a
CB HAM SWL LOG BOOK l tvdcnl, or experimcn iet, yov w ill find 1hi, book 10 be
a helpful reference. Th e def'i nitions arc written in an C .1SY·
Helps CB'e u. and SW l'ers kee p accvralo 1ocords of • IO· to·vndctu.tan cf sivle. Different terms for 1he same word
tions hcMd. Hll-s 11blcs for recording h oqvcncv, call ere e1ou-1efcr onced. M!ny illvs1ra1ions supplement the
letters, do>y, time, more. 80 p oQcs. lc•I tor fur ther clariOution.
62-2034 s1.00 62-21>47 Sl.2S

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ENCYCLOPEDIA

REALI STIC GUIDE TO ELECTRONIC Kil BUILDING
A listin g In alphab etical o rder of rho bltsic electronic
Discvsses reasons fo r bvilding 3 J.tit, Coven I ooh needed components being \.ISed today. lhe text is supplemented
for kit building. h phlins how 10 solder nnd sh ows oood wilh lllui.tratlons where needed for clarification . Whete
and poor solder joints. Eicpl.Jins tho function s o f corn· co1npo nonri con b e referred 10 by several diffe rent names,
ponents. The construction o f fovr pro joc1i- a mc1i11I lo . cron·tttferenccs hllVe b een included. The book is par·
cator, clcctronic or9 .,n, power sUl)J)ly, on d t'n electronic ticv1nrly helpful to newcomers to 1he field of elecironiu.
me1er-is der.cr ibed in det.iil. 62-2048 S 1-2S
62-2038 s .95
REALISTIC GUIDE TO SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
REAllSTIC GUI DE TO VOM'S AND VTVM'S An eiW/·roadlng 1~ 11. 1 el(plaining different electronic com·
p ononts ond how they aro vi;ed in a cir<uil. Explains
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Meter fundamen tals and b.n k opor.:ition .JtO covered . ton , copodrors, coils, and tr&n$fOtmers and their cor·
The v~ riO u$ v~os o f 1he me ler for tos1ino compo nonrs, responding schematic rep resentations. The fi nal chapter
and rad io , tv, stereo, <1m<1lour, and CB rndio lost tech · covcr1 clrcv it tr~ci ng wilh 1he use o f a schematic.
ni<ives and trovbleshoo ting arc all included. Fln,, lly,
ca1ibration -0nd mtiintcn"rlCC procedures M C d otallod. 62·2~9 S .9S
62-2039 S .9S
REAllSTIC GUIDE TO OSClllOSCOPES

ELECTRONICS DATA BOOK

A book use fv l for technicians, srudcnh, oicperinlcntcn .
~:~~de.;;'~'~v~~.0 O~~i1f::~~;e f~~da~::::1~~~=' n::, :~d
ore fo llow ed bv the bo$ic w ays to use rhe oscilloscope.
end hobb ybh. Conraitu b,uic formulas til'ld lows u,od In Elecrroni< sor'Vicino 3pp lic11tions .:ire thorou9h ly cov ered.
cle<ttonics, constants and slandards, symboh and codes, lntermed i111c 11n d l11b ·1vpc $Copes are ah o g iven coverage.
d esign d ata, mttlhcm..,iical robles, resistor and ~p3ci ro r Finally oscilloscope p tobes and auiciliary devices ate
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62·2040 S1.2S 62-2050 s .95
INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTORS Beoini with i11 b asic discussion of rad io woves. fre·
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Basic informa tion on somic(lndu<tOrs. Exploins lr-'n.ii:tor 1enMs 0 $ rolatod to radio waves. Co'Vers differ ent rvpe-s
makeup and transistor action. fhc 1ypos of tt<:11'1Sistori, nto o f itnienna.s for television and fm recop1ion. Advises ho w
ro choose an an1enna for a sp ecific purpose <Jnd diffe·renr
~~sl~~!~!~;;~ifr~l~~is~~~c~~;'ge u~ii~l,~i°e'ipta1~~/.o~e; b~~~ loutlom . Covet·s inuallarion of anten.nas and acccuorie.s.
is completed b y prcscnling actv(ll 1tansiilor p:ol«ls 10 Aho covers CB Mtcnnu for bo1h mobile and fix ed in .
be constructed. s111lla1ions.
~~~1 s~ 62-2051 s .95
INTRODUCTION TO SHORT.WAVE USTENING
INTRODUCTION TO INlEGRATED CIRCUITS Contains much infotm.at iol'I on how 10 enjoy listen ing to
AND IC PROJECTS shOft·w•ve broadcasis. II ex.plains what short w ave-' are.
Con1ain.s all basic coverage on inte9ra1od circuih. De· how they w ork,. 4nd how to recei ... e them. Covcra9e i.s
scribc.s whot on in1e9r41cd circuit is. 1ypei of circuhs, given to various rtteivers be11 sui1ed foe SWl. The ry_p e
and the func-1ions of in1cc;r•t"d circuih. Aftrr lelrning of 1ecep1ion received on ell.ch p4rtic-ular ban.d is al.so
given. lhe function' of the variovs controls on the re·
~!!v~~i~-; ',~;9 s/n1!~1i~~' ~ n/u~,~~~j' i:1e~::1o~~i:C~7;
0 1
cc:ivcr are exol•lned, and information on how to u,_e
proie<U which are included in 1he book. 1he-m properly i:a. supplied.
~00 SM 62-20Sl S .95
 ..
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racllO 1hack
M A TANDY CORPORATION COMPANY

62-2041