LEARNING

OPERANT CONNDITIONING THEORY

Operant is defined as behavior that produces effects.

Operant conditioning suggests that people emit responses that are rewarded & will not emit responses
that are either punished or not rewarded. Operant conditioning implies that behavior is voluntary & it is
determined, maintained & controlled by consequences.

The basic principle of learning new behaviors( operant or also called instrumental) involves
relationship between three elements:

 Stimulus situation
 Behavioral response to the situation &
 Consequence of the response to the person.

Example- application of brake by a vehicle driver to avoid accident. Here, the possibility of accident
without application of break is stimulus situation, application of break is the behavior & avoidance of
accident is the consequence of behavior. Through this process, human beings learn what behaviors will
be rewarding & they engage in those behaviors.
Implication of theory- most behaviors in organizations are learned, controlled & altered by
consequences. Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully to control &
influence the behavior of employees by designing the suitable reward system.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Cognition refers to an individual’s thoughts, ideas, knowledge, interpretations& understanding about
himself & his environment.

Cognitive theorists argue that he learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, preserves & organizes
information about the various events that occur in a learning situation.
Experiment- Tolman trained a rat to turn right in a “T” shaped maze in order to obtain food. Then he
started the rat from the opposite part of the maze; according to conditioning theory, the rat should have
turned right because of past conditioning. But the rat, instead turned towards where the food had been
placed. This phenomenon forced Tolman to conclude that rat formed a cognitive map to figure out how
to get the food.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

This theory agrees with some parts of behavioral & cognitive theories but finds that these theories do
not explain the processes & elements therein fully. It state that that learning can also take place via
VACARIOUS or MODELLING.
Modeling process- it essentially involve observational learning. Learning does not result from stimulus-
response- consequences. Instead, learning can take place through imitating others.
According to social learning theory, learning occurs in two steps:
 The person observes how others act & then acquire a mental picture of the act & its
consequences ( reward & punishment).
 The person acts out the acquired image & if consequences are positive, he will tend to do it
again. If consequences are negative, the person will not do it again.
A simple example of this phenomenon is that people learn that “fire burns the body” is learned from
others & not necessarily by touching the fire.
Modeling Applications- modeling has some practical applications in developing desirable behaviors in
the organizations. People behave not necessarily according to the prescribed mode of behavior but they
engage in the types of behavior which are demonstrated by their seniors.

LEARNING

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior.

Learning is the process by which new behaviors are acquired. It is generally agreed that learning involves
changes in behaviors, practising new behaviors, & establishing permanency in the change.

Nature of Learning
 Learning involves change in behavior, though this change is not necessarily an improvement
over previous behavior.
 The behavioral change must be relatively permanent.
 The behavioral change must be based on some form of practice or experience.( example- the
ability to work which is based on physical maturation would not be considered learning).
 The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning o occur.

Learning & Maturation

The development of physical abilities is called maturation. Changes in a person’s behavior may be due to
physical & mental maturation. These changes are natural with age. however, these are different form
the changes due to learning. Nature of changes in behavior due to maturation & learning is presented
below.
 Behavioral changes due to maturation are natural, while for learning, a person has to make
efforts.
 Changes in behavior due to maturation are racial, but in the case of learning, these changes are
only in the person who learns.
 Practice of behavioral change is necessary in learning but it is not necessary in the case of
maturation.
 Generally, maturation takes place up to the age of 25 years but a person can go on learning
throughout the life.
 O
S
U
L
A
R
P
V
IC


T
E
M
N
F
G Maturation takes place irrespective of the conditions, favorable/unfavorable, but learning is
possible only in the favorable conditions.
Since maturity is a natural process, it does not require motivation to change behavior but
learning is cognitive process which is affected by motivation in some form.

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Since learning is an acquires process. It is quite natural that several factors may affect the process.
 Motivation- learner’s motivation is one of the major conditions for learning.( motivation is
something that moves a person to action & continues him in the course of action already
initiated. This course of action includes learning too.)
 Mental Set- mental set refers to the preparation for an action, in this context of learning. If a
person is prepared to act he can do the things quickly & in no time. Without mental set, learning
cannot go smoothly & easily.
  Nature of learning materials( easy/difficult, familiar/unfamiliar etc).
 Practice-Practice is a very basic external condition of learning & affects all types of learning. The
more a person practices, more he absorbs learning contents. Most of the motor skills( like
typing, swimming etc) are learned based on this principle.
 Environment- environment in which learning process occurs, affects learning. Environment,
here, refers to the situational set up for learning. Environmental factors can either strengthen or
weaken the innate ability to achieve & learn.

INTERNAL FACTORS

 Psychological Need- an individual’s psychological needs influence his perception. Sometimes

even things which do not exist are ‘seen’ because of a psychological need.
Example- a thirsty person may keep seeing water: such mirages are common in deserts.
When people are deprived of a particular need, they perceive the concerned objects more
frequently.
 Background- one’s background also influences one’s selection of objects. People from a
particular background look for people from a similar background.
Example- a person educated in a management training institute may attend more to a person
who has been through a similar education.
 Experience- experience prepares a person to look for people, objects, & phenomena similar to
his/her earlier experience.
Example- a person who has had a bad experience with people speaking a particular language
may perceive people speaking that language unfavorably, even in different surroundings. The
same holds true for pleasant experience.
 Attitudes & beliefs- general attitudes & beliefs also influence perception. Generally things which
conform to our individual beliefs & attitudes attract attention.

MOTIVATION

A MODEL OF MOTIVATION

Although a few human activities occur without motivation, nearly all conscious behavior is motivated, or
caused.

Example- it requires no motivation to grow hair, but getting a hair cut does.
 A manager’s job is to identify employees’ drives & needs & to channel their behavior, to motivate them,
toward task performance.

The role of motivation in performance is summarized in the model of motivation.

 Internal needs & drives create tensions that are affected by one’s environment. For example-
the need for food produces tension of hunger. The hungry person then examines the
surroundings to see which foods (external incentives) are available to satisfy that hunger.
 Results occur when motivated employees are provided with the opportunity ( such as proper
training) to perform & the resources ( such as the proper tools) to do so.
 The presence of goals & awareness of incentives to satisfy one’s needs are also powerful
motivational factors leading to the release of effort.
 When an employee is productive & the organization takes note of it, rewards will be distributed.
If those rewards are appropriate in nature,, timing, & distribution, the employee’s original needs
& drives are satisfied. At that time, new needs may emerge & the cycle will begin again.

Opportunity

Needs &
Derives Tension Effort Performance Rewards

Goals & Incentives

Environment Ability

MOTIVATION THEORIES

MASLOW’s NEED HIERARCHY

 One of the earliest & most popular models of motivation was proposed by Maslow.
 He considered several needs to explain human behavior & proposed that these needs have a
hierarchy, i.e, some are “lower-order” needs as compared to other “higher-order” needs.
u
t
-
g
E
n
c
f
S
io
s
y
h
P
d
e
lN
a
z
ti



He also proposed that unless the need at the lower level is satisfied, the higher-order need will
not be operative, & that once the lower order need is satisfied, it will no longer motivate the
person.
Maslow proposed five main hierarchical levels of needs.

Maslow’s Model of Need Hierarchy

1. Physiological Needs ( hunger, thirst, etc, symbolized by the need for wages & salary in modern
world) are the lowest needs in the hierarchy.
2. Safety Needs come next. These would include security of all kinds such as bodily
safety( freedom from a dangerous work environment) & economic security (like no-layoff
guarantee or a c comfortable retirement plan) etc.
3. Social Needs ( the need to relate closely to others) are next in the order.
4. Ego/Self Esteem needs- the need for status & recognition.
5. Self-actualization- (the highest order need) which means becoming all that one is capable of




becoming using one’s skills to the fullest, & stretching talents to the maximum.

Applied to work organizations, then,

 The lowest-order need would be that for a salary.

Security needs would include seniority & security in the job.
Social needs would include the need to belong to a friendly work group.
Ego or esteem needs would be the needs for status & promotion.
  The highest is the need for self actualization, which is the need for achievement of things
consonant with one’s self-image.
Critical analysis of Maslow’s Theory
 There is lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by Maslow, though every individual
has some ordering for his need satisfaction.
Examples- some people may be deprived of their lower order needs but may try for self
actualizing needs like Mahatma Gandhi.
There are certain persons for whom self-esteem needs are more important than social needs.
Many people do not care for job security but care for social need. Similarly, many people may not
care for social need but for esteem needs etc.
 There is another problem in applying this theory into practice. A person tries for his higher-level
need when his lower-order need is reasonably satisfied. What is this reasonable level is a
question of subjective matter. Thus, the level of satisfaction for particular need may differ from
person to person.

HERZBERG’s MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY/ TWO FACTOR

HTEORY
 On the basis of research , Frederick Herzberg, in 1950s, developed a two factor model of
motivation.
 He asked his subjects to think of a time when they felt especially good about their jobs &
a time when they felt especially bad about their jobs. He also asked them to describe the
conditions that led to those feelings.
 He found that employees named different types of conditions that produced good & bad
feelings, i.e, if a feeling of a achievement led to a good feeling, the lack of achievement
was rarely given as cause for bad feelings. Instead some other factors, such as company
policy etc, was given as a cause of bad feelings.
 Herzberg concluded that two separate sets of factors influenced motivation.
( prior to that time, people assumed that motivation & lack of motivation were merely
opposites of one factor on a continuum. He upset the traditional view)
HYGIENE FACTORS or MAINTENANCE FACTORS- certain job factors, such as
security & working conditions, dissatisfy employees primarily when the conditions are
absent. However their presence generally brings employees only to a neutral state. The
factors are not strongly motivating. These potent dissatisfies are called Hygiene factors,
or Maintenance factors, they must not be ignored. They are necessary for building a
foundation on which to maintain a reasonable level of motivation in employees.
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS- other job conditions operate primarily to build this
motivation, but their absence is strongly dissatisfying. These conditions are known as
motivational factors, motivators or dissatisfies.
 High Negative Feelings Neutral High Positive feeling

(absence) Maintenance factors (presence)

(absence) Motivational factors (presence)

Effects of maintenance & motivational factors

Interpreting the Two Factor Theory-

 Herzberg’s model provides a useful distinction between maintenance factors, which are
necessary but not sufficient, & motivational factors, which have the potential for improving
employee effort.
 Managers should now be aware that they cannot neglect a wide range of factors that create at
least a neutral work environment. In addition, unless hygiene factors are reasonably addressed,
their absence will serve as significant distractions to workers.
 According to Herzberg, preventing or reducing dissatisfaction in the work environment is not the
same as providing positive satisfaction.
 According to him, motivation can be provided only if motivators are used in the work situation in
addition to hygiene factors.

Critical Analysis of the Theory-

 Job satisfaction & dissatisfaction are two opposite points on a single continuum. Individuals on
the job are affected by any change either in the job environment or in the job content.
 This theory does not attach much importance to pay, status or interpersonal relationship which
are held generally as important contents of satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Two-factor Model of Work Motivation
H
F
C
P
a
t
o
n
i
l
r
w
p
n
s
g
&
y
m
c
d
b
h
i
v
p
e
f
l
u
e
M
/
ti
a