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Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................5
1.1 Introduction and Purpose................................................................................................5
1.2 Contract Data.......................................................................................................................7
1.3 Scope of Service and Objective.....................................................................................7
1.4 Purpose of the Engineering Design Report................................................................8
2.0 ENGINEERING STUDY.................................................................................................................9
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................9
2.2 Existing Road Condition...............................................................................................................9
2.2.1 Geometry of Existing Road...................................................................................................9
2.2.2 Existing Pavement Condition..............................................................................................11
2.2.3 Existing Drainage Condition................................................................................................13
2.3 Terrain Classification.................................................................................................................22
2.4 Geology and Geological Setting.................................................................................................23
2.5 Meteorology..............................................................................................................................23
2.5.1 Climate...............................................................................................................................23
2.5.2 Rainfall...............................................................................................................................23
2.5.3 Temperature......................................................................................................................24
2.6 Land use and Land cover...............................................................................................25
2.7 Soil Extension Survey.....................................................................................................25
3.0 FINAL ENGINEERING DESIGN..........................................................................................27
3.1 Design Standards.............................................................................................................27
3.2 Topographic Survey.........................................................................................................27
3.3 Geometric Design.............................................................................................................30
3.3.1 Design Controls.............................................................................................................30
3.3.2 Horizontal Alignment...................................................................................................33
3.3.3 Vertical Alignment........................................................................................................37
3.3.3 Vertical Curves...............................................................................................................38
3.3.4 Intersections...................................................................................................................40
3.3.5 Intersection at Grade..................................................................................................40
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3.3.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................40
3.3.5.2 General Design Considerations........................................................................42
3.3.5.3 Channelization........................................................................................................50
3.3.5.4 Auxiliary Lanes.......................................................................................................55
3.3.6 Interchange Design..................................................................................................57
3.3.6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................57
3.3.6.2 Interchange Design Element............................................................................58
3.3.6.3 Underpass versus Overpass Roadways.........................................................59
3.3.6.4 Roundabouts...........................................................................................................64
3.3.6.5. Summary of Intersections................................................................................66
3.3.7 Design Road Cross-Sections.................................................................................66
3.3.7.1 Design Cross Section and existing Right off way......................................68
3.4 Pavement Design..............................................................................................................75
3.4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................75
3.4.2 Sub grade Soils along the Alignment....................................................................................76
Introduction....................................................................................................................................76
Expansive Soils in the Project Area...........................................................................................76
Method of Treatment of Expansive Soils..................................................................................76
Determination of the design CBR...............................................................................................76
3.4.3 Traffic Survey and Analysis.........................................................................................................77
Traffic Count..................................................................................................................................77
Determination of Annual Average Daily Traffic........................................................................79
Traffic Forecasting........................................................................................................................83
Traffic Growth Rates....................................................................................................................83
Baseline AADT Computation.......................................................................................................84
Traffic Projection.........................................................................................................................85
3.4.4 Axle Load and OD Survey...........................................................................................................86
Axle Load Survey.........................................................................................................................86
Determination of Truck Factors...................................................................................................87
3.4.5 Design Traffic..............................................................................................................................88
3.4.6 Pavement Structure...................................................................................................................91

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3.4.7 Cost Comparison between Alternative Pavement Structures....................................................91

3.4.8 Design of Walkways...................................................................................................................93
3.4.9 Construction Materials Specification..........................................................................................94
Borrow Material.............................................................................................................................94
Sub-base Material........................................................................................................................94
Graded Crushed Stone Base Course........................................................................................96
Crushed Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes.................................................................................96
Fine Aggregate (Sand) for Concrete Works...........................................................................100
3.4.10 Conclusion and Recommendation..........................................................................................102
Traffic...........................................................................................................................................102
Subgrade Soils...........................................................................................................................102
Pavement Structure...................................................................................................................102
3.5 HYDROLOGY HYDRAULICS and STRUCTURAL DESIGN................................................103
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................103
General......................................................................................................................................103
Objective of the Study...............................................................................................................104
3.5.2 GENERAL INFORMATION......................................................................................................104
Topography and Land Use........................................................................................................104
Land Use...................................................................................................................................104
Climate......................................................................................................................................105
Reference and Publications Used..............................................................................................106
Maps and Aerial Photographs...................................................................................................106
Available Rainfall and temperature Data..................................................................................106
Watersheds or Basins................................................................................................................107
Soil Type of the watershed Area...............................................................................................107
Field Surveys............................................................................................................................108
3.5.3 DATA ANALYSIS....................................................................................................................109
General Considerations.............................................................................................................109
Rainfall Analysis.......................................................................................................................109
HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY..................................................................................112
Return Periods for Peak Design Floods.....................................................................................112

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Methods of Maximum Flood Computations..............................................................................113

3.5.4 HYDRAULICS.........................................................................................................................118
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................118
Existing Drainage Conditions.........................................................................................................118
Hydraulic Design of Structures......................................................................................................120
Hydraulic Design of major Structures.......................................................................................120
Hydraulic Design of Culverts....................................................................................................120
Design of Storm Sewers (Longitudinal drainage).....................................................................122
Hydraulic Design of Gutter, Inlets, Manholes and longitudinal pipes.......................................123
3.5.5 Structures.............................................................................................................................127
3.5.5.1 SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS....................................................127
3.5.5.2 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE.................................................................................129
3.5.5.3 SELECTION OF SUBSTRUCTURE TYPE.................................................................129
3.5.5.4 SELECTION OF SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPE............................................................129
3.5.5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINT AND CLEARANCES......................................130
ANNEX – I (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONTROL POINTS).....................................131
ANNEX – II (HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT DATA)...............................................................132
ANNEX – III (VERTICAL ALIGNMENT DATA)....................................................................133
ANNEX – IV (SOIL EXTENSION SURVEY)..........................................................................134
ANNEX – V (TEST PIT LOG)....................................................................................................135
ANNEX – VI (HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS SHEETS)................................................................136
ANNEX – VII (SAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS )...................................................137

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction and Purpose
Addis Ababa, the administrative and financial capital of Ethiopia, is
experiencing continued growth and change. Change is experienced in all
dimensions, peripheral areas are growing faster. Economically the city is
transforming from a predominantly administrative and service center into
an industrial and financial sector. In influence it is changing from a
national to an International city.

A major sector on which the impacts of change are intense is transport.

On the other hand, transport sector profoundly affects the rate and
process of growth and change and influence their directions. The
relationship is interdependent and interacting. This symbiotic relationship
enables synergy through mutually supportive policies, strategies and
programs.

Now, therefore, the Addis Ababa city roads Authority hereby commits part
of its budget to finance for consultancy services for design, tender
document preparation and construction supervision of road upgrading
project. This study calls for an integrated design of road and LRT line to a
highest professional standard.

To this effect CORE Consulting Engineers Plc has entered in to contract on

29th September 2011 with AACRA to carry out the consultancy services
for Design, Supervision and Contact Administration of the road from of
Megenagna RA – Meskel Sq. – Tor hailoch RA.

To solve the Problem of Urban transportation the Government of Ethiopia

has signed a contract to construct Light Rail in the city of Addis Ababa,
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Currently this project designed two lines, the East-West route and the
North-South route.

The Initial design of the E-W LRT has weak Integration with the rest of
the traffic system; it could result into more traffic congestion and
confusion. The initial design also didn’t consider issues like Right off way,
Utility Lines, Lane & walkway widths for motor traffic & pedestrians.

Core Consulting Engineers carried a repetitive meeting with different

Stake holders such as Addis Ababa Water Supply & Sewerage, Ethiopian
Railway Corporation, Addis Ababa beautification Center etc. to keep the
integration of the scheme.

One of the main achievement from the meetings is the decision for the
dislocation of the main water supply line from Megenagna to Mexico, in
addition different technical negotiations were made with Ethiopian
Railway Corporation and the Contractor of Light Rail Transport on the
type of Junctions and right off way.

Initial concepts for an overcrossing and an under crossing were shared

with different stake holders at repetitive public meetings. In response to
comments from that meeting an alternatives screening was conducted to
determine if a grade separation of the tracks could be achieved in another
location with less impact to the community.

The screening evaluated and detailed study is made at each proposed

highway grade separation to determine whether the main road should be
carried over or under cross road. This decision is made considering
elements such as topography, highway classification, and drainage, social
& economic impact. Several nearly completed preliminary layout plan and
profile was made before a decision was made.

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Along the route Megenagna RA- Torhailoch RA, 8 minor and 13 main
Junctions exist namely Megenagna, Lemhotel, 22Mazoria, WehaLimat,
Getahun Besha, Urael, Bambis, Maskel Square, Legehar, Mexico, Firdbet,
Cocacola and Torhailoch Roundabout, with the exception of Bambis and
Cocacola intersection it has been reached an agreement on all Junction
types with ERC. Although Bambis and Coca Junctions are found to be
important reliefs in connection with vehicular traffic the needs of other
stake holders (ERC) required closure of these two junctions.

1.2 Contract Data

Name of the CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR DESIGN,SUPERVISION AND
Consultancy CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION FOR EAST-WEST LRT ROAD
services PROJECTS(MEGENAGNA-MESKEL SQ-TORAHAILOCH RA)
Client ADDIS ABABA CITY ROADS AUTHORITY (AACRA)

Consultant CORE Consulting Engineers Plc.

Phase I : DESIGN AND TENDER DOCUMENT PREPARATION

Type of service Phase II: CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION AND CONTRACT

ADMINISTRATION

Length of Project 9.30km APPROXIMATE LENGTH

Project Location Addis Ababa region

Funding FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA (FDRE)

Date of Contract 29th September 2011

Agreement
Commencement 15 October 2011
date
Planned Duration Phase I = 9 months
Project Cost: Total (Phase I and II) = 3,637,674.71ETB

1.3 Scope of Service and Objective

(i) To carry out field investigation, survey works and detailed
engineering design of :
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a. Urban road (street) with all its components including drainage

facilities, pavements ,structures, pedestrian walkways and
crossing, appropriate intersections, traffic lights, signs, street
lights, parking etc.
(ii) To prepare complete set of appropriate Procurement Document
for the construction of the road project.
(iii) To carryout construction supervision of the construction works of
road.

1.4 Purpose of the Engineering Design Report

The purpose of this study is to produce Final Engineering Design that is
backed up by sufficient assessment, analysis and consultation to give the
Client team confidence that the design was implementable and can move
onto the next stage of the consultation process.
Within the overall objective, are included a number of key sub-objectives
which will be discussed and reviewed within the contents of this report.
However, in summary, these sub-objectives include:

• Minimizing delay to, and maximizing priority for the proposed LRT;
• Attempting to minimize negative effect to other road users – especially
delay and congestion;
• Ensuring ease of pedestrian access to and from the proposed stations;
• Producing an integrated LRT & Other traffic scheme which should bring
real benefit to the City and its residents; and
• Providing a design which will coordinate with LRT and other users of the
subject transport corridor.

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2.0 ENGINEERING STUDY

2.1 Introduction
To help ensure a robust design, a comprehensive assessment of all
engineering parameter has been undertaken in this section.

The work will further need to be refined as other detailed complimentary

assessments are completed during design review that will be carried
throughout the construction supervision stage.

2.2 Existing Road Condition

2.2.1 Geometry of Existing Road
The high plateau in Addis Ababa is cut in to 6 valleys with torrential
waters that run from North to South. The route can be divided in to 10
different slopes defined by a repetitive topography, linking the summits to
the rivers. These summits are between 2358 and 2375m high, with low
points between 2340m to 2350m or a difference in altitude of 15 and
20m. The east-west axis shows a succession of slopes that are generally
regular and rather linear that varies between 2 and 5% locally.

At lowest point, the violent and torrential character of these rivers are
expressed by deep, abrupt banks, with steep sides, and are often invisible
from the east-west axis

The horizontal and vertical alignment of the project generally is found

good except at some stretches

Horizontal Alignment

 The curve found at Awash wine factory where the project road
meets the newly constructed road is found sharp

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Vertical Alignment

 A lot of river with a Bridge generally at a low point with difficult

longitudinal profile: slopes of about 5 to 8% and curves with low
radii

Legehar Maskel Sqr

Taxi Terminal Slope 8% Slope 5%
Taxi Terminal

22 Junction
TORHAILOCH Cocal Cola Lideta Mexico Gumruk Megenagna
Kidus Urael

Congested Junctions and Critical Slopes

Right off way

The proposed design requires widening of the east-west axis from 30m
width to 40m and at Junctions wider width is required. The following
areas have critical right off way limitations due to existence of large
buildings in the East-West axis.

 22 Mazoria
 Legehar Area
 Mexico

              

Pipes Under Side walk

to be relocated
Centeral Water Pipe 900
to 500mm with manhole
(to be relocated)

Existing Cross-Section

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2.2.2 Existing Pavement Condition

Based on the comfort/discomfort felt while driving with normal speed and
visual assessment; distress types, distress extent and distress frequency
are observed.

Since it is Asphalt standard road, the common distresses seen are

Longitudinal Cracks, Alligator Cracks, and Potholes, Corrugation, rutting &
shoving. During the site visit, in almost the whole stretch including on the
newly constructed section of the road from Awash Wine Factory Km8.04
to end of the project road at Tor Hailoch roundabout Km8.90, the above
stated distresses are observed.

Following this, the pavement condition of the project road is discussed in

detail in different sections.

Section1 (0+000 – 4+000): Megenagna – Start of Meskel Square

This section of the road is two directional bituminous surfaced road. The
carriage way width of this section is approximately 21m for the entire
length. However, the median varies from 1 - 4m near 4+000 and near
0+000 respectively.

The main type of pavement distresses observed are cracks (Alligator

cracks and longitudinal cracks) and maintenance patching. Corrugations
resulting from poor maintenance practices are also observed. However
this section of the road is relatively found in fair pavement condition.

Section2 (4+000–6+370): Start of Meskel Square – Mexico Roundabout

This section is also two directional bituminous surfaced road. This section
of the road contains narrow as well as wide section of project road.
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Narrow carriage way encountered near Lagar area (5+330). Moreover the
outer lanes of each side are usually occupied as parking; resulting in two
lanes of effective pavement width that worsen the traffic jam. The widest
part along this section is found at Meskel Square area (4+000 – 4+700).
The width at this section is about 63m with seven lanes on each direction
along with the pedestrian walkway.

The pavement condition of this section; especially from the end of Meskel
Square Km4.70 to Mexico square Km6.37 is found to be in an inferior
condition. The existing pavement is affected by ruts, corrugations and
shoving of patches. On those sections where the vehicles are forced to
stop for a longer period ruts are seen to be severe and on some points
they are found to develop to deformations.

Section3 (6+370–8+900): Mexico RA – Tor Hailoch RA

In this section the carriageway width is found to be 21 - 24m. From

Mexico roundabout to Coca-Cola junction (6+370 – 8+040) the road
section has no open median and as a result the width is reduced to 31m
which comprises 2.5m wide walk ways both sides, 24m carriage ways and
2m wide median.

In this section around Lideta Church Km7.04, the existing pavement

condition is highly deteriorated mainly because of corrugations,
maintenance patching and alligator cracks associated with depressions.
As a result the ride-ability of this section of the road is varying from poor
to very poor.

From Coca-Cola junction road Km8.04 to the end of the project Km8.90,
median of 11 meters wide is provided. As a result, the total road way
width including the median and 5m wide walk way width on each side is
42meters. In this section, distresses like potholes and undulation resulted
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from poor workmanship during construction and maintenance is

observed.

2.2.3 Existing Drainage Condition

1. Slab Culvert at 0+250

The first drainage structure observed is a slab culvert located at Km0.25

from the start of the project road Megenagna square.

Location 0+250
Type of super-structure Slab Culvert
Type of sub-structure Masonry Abutment & wing wall
Clear Span 3.00m
Clear height 3.20m

As it’s observed, the main part of the culvert is in good condition i.e. the
abutment masonry wall and the concrete slab are in good condition. At
the median, the culvert is open at top. At the upstream side the wing wall
is severely damaged and its backfill is eroded by the road’s side drainage
water that is not properly guided into the stream course. As widening of
this structure was found to be compulsory, retaining wall shall be
provided to maintain eroded river bank.

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During the site visit, it’s learned that at times of rain, the road is usually
flooded at this section and the water overtops the side drainage manholes
and enters the stream course passing the inhabitants compound.

Figure 1: Damaged wing wall of upstream side of the Figure 2: Top opening of the culvert at median of the
culvert. road.
So, during the design stage, the design flood of the area was properly
estimated and provision of a larger diameter pipe than the existing 90cm
diameter pipe is provided as detailed on drawings.

2. Slab Culvert at 1+220

The second drainage structure is located at Km1.22 and of type slab

culvert. The upstream side is completely closed cannot be inspected
properly but the downstream side is clear from any obstruction.

Location 1+220
Type of super-structure Slab Culvert
Type of sub-structure Masonry Abutment
Clear Span 4.20m
Clear height 3.50m

The substructure shows some defects of losing jointing mortar that may
result in dislodgment of masonry units. Like the first culvert, this culvert

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has an opening at the median of the road but covered with metal sheet.
The condition of the superstructure is good except there some damages
on the edge beams.

During widening stage, the nearby compound at upstream side and

removal of water supply pipes at downstream side shall be put into
consideration first.

Another observation made at this location is new retaining wall

constructed by downstream inhabitants to enhance the access road
parallel to the downstream river course. This retaining wall is provided
only on one side of the river bank which results in erosion of the other
bank of the river.

Figure 4: Retaining wall at downstream.

Figure 3: Downstream side of the culvert.

3. T-Girder Bridge at 2+500

The third drainage structure or the first major structure comes at Km2.5.
This bridge composed of two skew bridges separated at the median of the
road to accommodate the water supply pipe of diameter 90cm supported
on steel structure.

Location 2+500
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Type of super-structure RC T-Girder

Type of sub-structure Masonry Abutment & wing wall
Clear Span 18.00m
Average Clear height 7.00m

The superstructure is found to be intact and also the substructure. The

substructure is placed on rock foundation that is in a good condition but
there is scoured foundation bed of Tor-Hailoch side abutment. At the
upstream side of this abutment there are some overtopping signs but
carful capacity check has proved that the opening is just sufficient.

Figure 5: Upstream of the river Figure 6: Top of Bridge

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4. RC Arch Bridge at 3+700

The second major structure is located at Km3.70 and it’s of type arch
bridge.

Location 3+700
Type of super-structure RC Arch Bridge with Masonry
Type of sub-structure Masonry wing wall
Clear Span (at bottom) 16.40m
Average Clear height 6.00m

This bridge is observed to be in good condition in all aspects. The river

flow shows meandering at the upstream side of the bridge but at
downstream the water flows more smoothly and evenly dispersed.
Therefore, scour protection structures shall be provided at upstream
Megenagna side bank of the river.

The upstream course of this river extends parallel to the project road until
around Meskel Square some 250 of 300 meters away to the right and at
the back of Gion Hotel. So, the side drainages at around Meskel Square
can be discharged through it.

Figure 7: Upstream meandering river flow and Arch Figure 8: Water Supply pipe at median covered with
Bridge inlet. concrete protection.
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5. Slab Culvert at 6+300

The next structure comes after traveling about 3Kms from the previous
cross drainage which is at Km6.30 around Police Force Hospital. The
upstream inlet of this structure is located in the compound of Police Force
Hospital.

Location 6+300
Type of super-structure Slab Culvert
Type of sub-structure Masonry abutment
Clear Span 6.50m
Average Clear height 2.00m

During the visit, it was observed that the culvert is skew and its inlet is
located in Police Station compound and is completely inaccessible due to
vegetation and fences. The capacity of the culvert was checked and found
to be sufficient to accommodate incoming flood.

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6. RC T-Girder at 7+500

The final drainage structure is located at Km7.50. This structure is

constructed and opened for traffic very recently and it fulfills the design
width of the road, 40m.

Location 7+500
Type of super-structure RC T-Girder
Type of sub-structure Masonry abutment & wing wall
Clear Span 19.50m

Figure 11: Upstream side of the Bridge. Figure 12: Top of Bridge showing its wide median.

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Side Drainage Structure

It is observed that in most section of the road, the side drainage is not
fully functional. Most of the stretch is clogged and out-of-order manholes
are observed. The size of the pipe is found to be 90cm as it is assessed
on different opened manholes. Capacity of manholes and pipes shall be
revised during detail design.

As it’s mentioned above, there is no cross drainage structure after 3+700

Arch Bridge up to 6+300 Slab Bridge and the only possible way to
discharge water from side drainage of the design road is drainages of
junction roads like La-gare and Mexico-Kera junctions.

Figure 13: Completely out-of-order side drainage Figure 14: one of clogged manhole observed in the
around La-gare. road.

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2.3 Terrain Classification

AACRA DM misses out terrain classification. Overseas Road Note 6 (ORN 6)
terrain classification is adopted here.

A simple classification of "level", "rolling" and "mountainous" has been

adopted and is defined by both subjective description and by the average
ground slope. The average ground slope is measured as the number of 5
meter contour lines crossed per kilometer on a straight line linking the
two ends of the road section. (The slope may be interpolated using other
contour intervals on a proportional basis).
Level (0-10 five meter ground contours per kilometer), Level or gently
rolling terrain with largely unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment.
Minimum values of alignment will rarely be necessary. Roads will, for the
most part, follow the ground contours and amounts of cut and fill will be
very small.
Rolling (11-25 five meter ground contours per kilometer), Rolling terrain
with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall with some
restrictions on vertical alignment. Whilst low standard roads will be able
to follow the ground contours with small amounts of cut and fill, the
higher standards will require more substantial amounts.

Mountainous (Greater than 25 five meter ground contours per

kilometer), Rugged, hilly and mountainous with substantial restrictions in
both horizontal and vertical alignment. Higher standard roads will
generally require large amounts of cut and fill.

The project road mainly falls in flat terrain with intermittent rolling
sections. However, there will be heavy earthwork operations so as to
fulfill the geometrical requirements at intersections.

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2.4 Geology and Geological Setting

The project area is located in Addis Ababa city, which is found on the
highlands of the Ethiopian plateau. The Addis Ababa area is covered with
different types of volcanic rocks. Based on the Geological map of Ethiopia
1996 edition the project area is composed of three geologic formations.

1. Nazareth series (Nn), includes ignimbrites, unwelded tuff, ash

flows, rhyolitic flows, domes and trachites. This formation covers the
entire part of project road area

2. Alagae formation (PNa), composed of transitional and sub alkaline

basalts with minor rhyolite and trachyte eruptives. This formation
covers part of the project area around the beginning of the project
area, Megenagna.

3. Bishoftu formation (NQtb), which incorporates alkaline basalt and

trachite. This formation is found as scattered along the project area as
pocket formation.

2.5 Meteorology

2.5.1 Climate

The project area is located on the higher part of the city, having altitude
of 2350 – 2405m above the mean sea level, which is considered as Dega.
The effective temperature is lower than 25 0c, which is good and most of
the time comfortable.

2.5.2 Rainfall

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Since the project area is located in Addis Ababa area, the rainfall of the
city is considered for the project area. Accordingly the mean annual
rainfall of the project area varies in the range of 918mm - 1567mm, and
the rainy period is between June through September, although occasional
shower is expected in the months of March, April, May, October and
November.

The mean monthly rainfall is maximum during the months of July and
August i.e. 250mm and 280mm and it is minimum during the months of
November and December i.e. 8mm and 9mm respectively.

Table 2.1 Mean Monthly Rainfall of the Addis Ababa Area

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Rainfall 17.6 39.7 68.5 91.3 77.3 119.2 253.6 279.6 172.9 39.2 8.1 9.2
(mm)

2.5.3 Temperature

For Addis Ababa area, the monthly temperature is maximum during the
months of March through May, about 27.5 0C, and it is minimum in the
months of November through January, 4.70C.

Table 2.2 Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature for AA Area

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Max.
25.1 26.0 27.0 27.2 2709 24.4 22.3 21.3 23.1 24.4 24.7 24.4
(0C)

Min.
4.7 5.5 8.7 9.4 9.7 8.9 9.1 9.3 8.7 6.5 4.7 4.7
(0C)

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2.6 Land use and Land cover

In general, the main land right and left of the corridor is covered with
houses mainly constructed for business purposes. There are also some
residential buildings which are mostly found behind the business
buildings. Although most of multi story buildings are not affected by the
widening of the road, plenty of old and shanty houses are required to be
demolished.

2.7 Soil Extension Survey

The soil extension survey was conducted to identify and delineate

homogenous material stretches. The homogeneity of the materials was
assessed based on their physical properties (texture, color, size, shape);
state of occurrence (soil, hard rock, rippable/dozable rock) and
observable indicators of engineering properties.

Based on the soil extension survey, the subgrade materials are

predominantly composed of clays of various colors and composition.

The sub grade soil extension along the project length is presented in the
following table.

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Table 3.1 Soil extension along the project stretch

Station
Subgrade Material Description
From To
E-479049
0+000 N-996796 0+800 Dark gray silty clay
E-477211
0+800 N-996569 1+100 Dark brown sandy silty clay
E-476886
1+100 N-996478 1+900 Dark gray silty sandy clay
E-476158
1+900 N-996323 2+200 Dark gray clay
E-475888
2+200 N-996252 2+400 Dark gray silty clay
E-475656
2+400 N-996128 2+700 Dark brown clay
E-475412
2+700 N-996014 3+200 Light brown sandy clay
E-474921
3+200 N-995783 3+600 Dark brown sandy clay
E-474458
3+600 N-995814 4+000 Light brown silty clay
E-474141
4+000 N-995848 4+200 Dark brown silty sandy clay
E-473943
4+200 N-995871 5+900 Dark gray clay
E-472286
5+900 N-995897 7+090 Dark gray sandy clay
E-471098
7+090 N-995892 8+090 Dark gray sandy clay
E-470403
8+090 N-995967 8+390 Light brown silty clay
E-469838
8+390 N-995933 8+590 Brown silty clay
8+590 E-469570 8+990 Black clay

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3.0 FINAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

3.1 Design Standards
Design standards include the geometric design standards and other
technical standards. Geometric design standards relate to the functional
classification of highways, types of users, traffic density and character,
design speed, capacity, safety, terrain, and land use.

Design of the overall highway was done to a consistent standard.

Evaluate the route between major termini to maintain a uniform approach
to the major design features of an overall route that may be improved in
stages on a project-by-project basis. Identification of contextual features
and qualitative aspects of each design parameters was done during the
design process, by the time design standards are selected, and
considered them throughout the design process.

3.2 Topographic Survey

The Topographic survey of the project was totally carried out with Total
Station which directly records the alignment, profile and cross section
data on a memory stick. This system of data collection will render a
coherent approach to the design chain.

A control traverse is established using GPS coordinate, and these points

are referenced in the field in the permanent concrete post and are also
shown in the Plan Profile.
The Sub tasks carried in the topographic survey of the project are:-

 Identification of National Grids

Two points are found to be the nearest EMA triangulation points for
this particular project. These points are used to tie to National Grid
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system; the first one is at Estifanos Church compound in front of

National Park Hotel & is found to be best as it is located at the
center of the project and the second one is found at African
Diaspora Square which found 200m away from the beginning of
the project.
 Establishment of Geodetic control point using Global
positioning System (GPS)
Six couples of Inter visible control points were established along
the project road Megenagna-Torhailoch with spacing of maximum
1.2km (GPS Station)

 Setting up a permanent beacons to serve as a reference

system during road construction
 Development of control traverse-line and geometric level-
line
 Detailed field surveying using total station and GPS with
digital levels

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The general procedures followed during topographic survey is shown in

chart below

GPS Geodetic Control Survey

Post processing
software (to tie to
National Grid
System)

Bench Mark Setup

Post processing
software (to tie to
GPS CONTROL
Leveling POINT)

Random points, road features,

different utilities, minor and
major drainage channels, houses,
Detailed Field Survey
tukuls, electric poles, telephone
poles, etc

Data Processing and CADD

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3.3 Geometric Design

Geometric design is the development of the surface dimensions of a
highway such that its form will meet the functional and operational
characteristics of drivers, vehicles, pedestrians and other users. The
geometric design includes the facility’s location, alignment, profile, cross
section, intersections and shape of the roadside. The geometric form and
dimensions should reflect the user’s desires and expectations for safety,
mobility, comfort, convenience and aesthetic quality. It should do so with
compatibility and sensitivity to the terrain, land use, roadside and
community development, natural and cultural environment, and with
consideration for cost and economic efficiency. A consistent approach to
geometric design matches and reinforces expectations of the user, which
is important to guide the full range of drivers and conditions including
drivers that are unfamiliar, older, inexperienced, distracted, inattentive,
tired or impaired. A consistent approach also addresses the safety and
other needs of pedestrians, and their interactions with motor vehicles.

3.3.1 Design Controls

Basic design controls serve as the foundation for establishing the physical
form, safety and functionality of the facility. Some design controls are
inherent characteristics of the facility (e.g. its context and the
transportation demands placed upon it). Other basic design controls are
selected or determined in order to address a project’s purpose and need.
Selecting appropriate values or characteristics for these basic design
controls is essential to achieve a safe, effective, context sensitive
solution. Evaluate the following design controls to understand the factors

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influencing the design and to determine the applicable criteria for

establishing the standards for the project:
● Contextual factors and environmental constraints,
● Functional classification,
● Topography within the corridor,
● Location (i.e. rural or urban),
● Existing and expected traffic volumes and composition (e.g. ADT),
● Level of service and mobility,
● Level of access and management,
● Cross section type and level of multi-modal accommodation,
● Existing and expected users and their characteristics,
● Superelevation rate,
● Existing and expected speed characteristics,
● Appropriate design speed,
● Existing and expected safety performance, and
● Other technical factors (geotechnical, hydraulic, pavement, structural,
etc.).
The principal technical standards governing road geometry are contained
mostly in the AASHTO - Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004
and in the AACRA Design Manuals; most of the Geometric Design
schemes has been progressed with AASHTO Design Manual.
Roads are designed based on functional classification of road and traffic.
The function of the road is determined by the character and anticipated
level of service that the road would render.
The most common functional classes are Principal arterial, minor/sub
arterial, collector and local streets. AACRA road classification is given as
follow:
 Controlled access arterial roads including freeways (traffic
movement function);

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 Sub-arterial roads (largely traffic movement function);

 Feeder roads (traffic, transition and access function);
 Local Roads (largely property access function).

Table 2.1: Road Network Classification

Cross Section Width
Arterial Street type Road Class Remark
(m)

Sub Arterial Street SAS-1 25

Sub Arterial Street SAS-2 20

Principal Arterial Street PAS-1 60

Principal Arterial Street PAS-2 50

Principal Arterial Street PAS-3 40

Principal Arterial Street PAS-4 30

Therefore according to the road Network classification the road from

Megenagna to Torhailoch is classified as PAS-3 with cross-sectional width
of 40m.
Design Speed is crucial control element in the road design process. The
assumed design speed should be a logical one with respect to
topography, anticipated operating speed, the adjacent land use, the
presence of bicycle and pedestrian accommodations, and the functional
classification of the highway. Once the design speed is selected, all of the
pertinent features of the highway should be related to it to obtain a
balanced design. Above minimum design values should be used, where
practical. Some design features, such as curvature, super elevation, and
sight distance are directly related to and vary appreciably with design
speed. Other features, such as widths of lanes and shoulders, and
clearances to walls and rails, are not directly related to design speed, but
they affect vehicle speeds. Therefore, wider lanes, shoulders, and

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clearances should be considered for higher design speeds. Thus, when a

change is made in design speed, many elements of the highway design
will change accordingly.
The following minimum design speeds are adopted from AACRA GM, Table
2.6 below.

Table 2.6: Minimum Design Speed

minimum design speed for

road type
CARS (km/h)
Arterial Road Controlled 80
Access
Arterial and Sub-Arterial
70
Road with frontage Access

However, AASHTO recommends a design speed in the range from 50 to

100km/h for urban arterials generally. A maximum design speed of 100
km/h is to be adopted. Drivers under normal conditions don’t drive at
operating speed higher than 80km/h. Design speeds are selected on the
basis of 10km/h incremental.

3.3.2 Horizontal Alignment

In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to establish the proper
relationship between design speed, curvature and super elevation.
Horizontal alignment must afford at least the minimum stopping sight
distance for the design speed at all points on the roadway. The major
considerations in horizontal alignment design are: safety, grade, type of
facility, design speed, topography and construction cost. In design, safety
is always considered, either directly or indirectly. Topography controls
both curve radius and design speed to a large extent. The design speed,

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in turn, controls sight distance, but sight distance must be considered

concurrently with topography because it often demands a larger radius
than the design speed. All these factors must be balanced to produce an
alignment that is safe, economical, in harmony with the existing land use
and, at the same time, adequate for the design classification of the
roadway or highway.

Super elevation
When a vehicle travels on a horizontal curve, it is forced radially outward
by centrifugal force. This effect becomes more pronounced as the radius
of the curve is shortened. This is counterbalanced by providing roadway
super elevation and by the side friction between the vehicle tires and the
surfacing. Safe travel at different speeds depends upon the radius of
curvature, the side friction, and the rate of super elevation. When the
standard super elevation for a horizontal curve cannot be met, a design
exception will be required. However, the highest practical super elevation
should be selected for the horizontal curve design.

A 6 percent maximum super elevation rate shall be used on rural

highways and rural or urban freeways (see Figure 4-B). A 4 percent
maximum super elevation rate may be used on high speed urban
highways to minimize conflicts with adjacent development and
intersecting streets.
Refer to Annex-2 for Horizontal Alignment Data’s of Megenagna-
Torhailoch Road Project

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3.3.3 Vertical Alignment

General
The profile line is a reference line by which the elevation of the pavement
and other features of the highway are established. It is controlled mainly
by topography, type of highway, horizontal alignment, safety, sight
distance, construction costs, cultural development, drainage and pleasing
appearance. The performance of heavy vehicles on a grade must also be
considered.
Gradient
In flat terrain, the elevation of the profile line is often controlled by
drainage considerations. In rolling terrain, some undulation in the profile
line is often advantageous, both from the standpoint of truck operation
and construction economy.

AASHTO’s recommendation of maximum grades for urban arterials as

shown in Exhibit 7-10 is used for the project at hand.

Metric US Customary

Maximum Grade (%) for specified Maximum grade (%) for specified design
Type of terrain
design speed (Km/h) speed (mph)

50 60 70 80 90 100 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Level 8 7 6 6 5 5 8 7 7 6 6 5 5

Rolling 9 8 7 7 6 6 9 8 8 7 7 6 6

Mountainous 11 10 9 9 8 8 11 10 10 9 9 8 8

Exhibit 7-10. Maximum Grades for Urban Arterials.

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3.3.3 Vertical Curves

Properly designed vertical curves should provide adequate sight distance,
safety, comfortable driving, good drainage, and pleasing appearance.
Design controls for crest vertical curves shall be based on stopping sight
distance. It is impractical to design crest vertical curves for passing sight
distance because of high cost where crest cuts/fills are involved and the
difficulty of fitting the resulting long vertical curves to the terrain and
hence access problems. Exhibit 3-76 from AASHTO’s Green Book was
used for the design of crest vertical curves.

Four different criteria- (1) headlight sight distance, (2) passenger

comfort, (3) drainage control, and (4) general appearance - are used for
establishing lengths of sag vertical curves. Exhibit 3-79 from the Green
Book is used for the design of sag vertical curves.

Refer to Annex-3 for Vertical Alignment Data’s of Megenagna-Torhailoch

Road Project

Metric US customary

Design Stopping Rate of vertical

Rate of vertical curvature, ka Design
speed sight Stopping sight curvature, ka
speed
(km/h) distance distance (ft)
(mph)
(m) Calculated Design Calculated Design

30 35 1.9 2 20 115 6.1 7

40 50 3.8 4 25 155 11.1 12
50 65 6.4 7 30 200 18.5 19
60 85 11.0 11 35 250 29.0 29
70 105 16.8 17 40 305 43.1 44
80 130 25.7 26 45 360 60.1 61
90 160 38.9 39 50 425 83.7 84
100 185 52.0 52 55 495 113.5 114
110 220 73.6 74 60 570 150.6 151
120 250 95.0 95 65 645 192.8 193
130 285 123.4 124 70 730 246.9 247
75 820 311.6 312
a
Rate of vertical curvature, k, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting
grades (A), K=L/A

Exhibit 3-76. Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance and for Crest Vertical Curves.
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Metric US customary
Design Stopping Stopping
Design
speed sight sight
speed
(km/h) distance Calculated Design distance Calculated Design
(mph)
(m) (ft)

30 35 5.1 6 20 115 16.5 17

40 50 8.5 9 25 155 25.5 26
50 65 12.2 13 30 200 36.4 37
60 85 17.3 18 35 250 49.0 49
70 105 22.6 23 40 305 63.4 64
80 130 29.4 30 45 360 78.1 79
90 160 37.6 38 50 425 95.7 96
100 185 44.6 45 55 495 114.9 115
110 220 54.4 55 60 570 135.7 136
120 250 62.8 63 65 645 156.5 157
130 285 72.7 73 70 730 180.3 181
75 820 205.6 206
80 910 231.0 231
a
Rate of vertical curvature, k, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in
Exhibit 3-79. Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves

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3.3.4 Intersections
The route from Megenagna-Torhailoch contains 13 Major Intersections
namely Megenagna, Lemhotel, 22Mazoria, WehaLimat, Getahun Besha,
Urael, Bambis, Maskel Square, Legehar, Mexico, Lideta, Cocacola and
Torhailoch. The use of Intersection at Grade almost on all Major
Intersections was impossible due to the implication of traffic analysis and
mainly due to the existence of LRT line with recurrence Interval of 6
minute which is going to be improved to 2 minutes on the East west
route.

From the Major Intersections only Maskel Square, Getahun Besha,

Bambis and Legehar are designed as Intersection at grade and the rest
are designed as Grade Separated Intersections.

3.3.5 Intersection at Grade

3.3.5.1 Introduction

Megenagna-Torhailoch road contains various intersections at Grade. To

minimize the resulting conflicts and to provide adequately for the
anticipated crossings and turning movements, the geometric design of
the intersection at grade must be given careful consideration.

Although intersections have many common factors, they are not subject
to a set treatment, and must be looked upon on a case by case basis. In
varying degrees, four basic factors enter into the design of an
intersection. These factors are traffic, physical, economic, and human.

1.0 Traffic factors to be considered include:

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 Possible and practical capacities

 Turning movements
 Size and operating characteristics of vehicles
 Control of movements at points of intersection
 Vehicle speeds
 Pedestrian Activity and movements
 Transit operations
 Crash experience
2.0 Physical factors which control intersection design and
application of channelization are:
 Topography
 Abutting land use
 Geometric features of the intersecting roadways
 Traffic control devices
 Safety features
3.0 Economic factors, which are important and often controlling,
include:
 Cost of improvements
 Effect on abutting businesses where channelization restricts or
prohibits certain
 vehicular movements within the intersection area
4.0 Human factors such as:
 Driving and pedestrian habits
 Ability of drivers and pedestrians to make decisions
 Effect of surprise events
 Decision and reaction times
 Natural paths of movements must be considered
 Types of pedestrians

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An intersection may be extremely simple, or highly developed depending

on the proper evaluation of the foregoing factors. In the redesign of an
existing intersection, standards sometimes must be compromised due to
the high cost of existing development or to the necessity of meeting rigid
physical controls. In the design of a new intersection, however, such
controls frequently can be avoided by a shift in line or grade of one or
both of the intersecting highways. In the design of Intersection
“AASHTO– A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets” is
strictly followed.

3.3.5.2 General Design Considerations

Capacity Analysis
Capacity analysis is one of the most important considerations in the
design of intersections. This is especially true in the design of at-grade
intersections on urban streets and highways. Optimum capacities can be
obtained when intersections include auxiliary lanes, proper use of
channelization, and traffic control devices. Where these techniques are
under consideration, it is necessary to consider pedestrians Safety and
level of service.
Spacing
The spacing of intersections on major arterials is important to the
capacity and safety of the roadway. In urban areas, the capacity of the
arterial is determined by the capacity of the signalized intersections along
the roadway. Ideally, signalized intersections should be located no closer
than 400m apart.
Alignment and Profile
Intersections are points of conflict between motor traffics and
pedestrians. The alignment and grade of the intersecting roads should

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permit drivers to discern and perform readily the maneuvers necessary to

pass through the intersection safely and with minimum interference
between vehicles. To these ends, the horizontal alignment should be as
straight as possible and gradient as flat as practical. The sight distance
should be equal to or greater than the minimum values for the specific
intersection conditions. Sight distance is discussed later in this section.

1. Alignment
Regardless of the type of intersection, intersecting highways should meet
at or nearly at right angles. Roads intersecting at acute angles require
extensive turning roadway areas. Intersection angles less than 60
degrees normally warrant realignment closer to 90 degrees. Intersections
on sharp curves should be avoided wherever possible because the super
elevation and widening of pavements on curves complicate the
intersection design. Furthermore, since traffic stripes are not normally
carried through the intersection, there is no visual reference for the
guidance of the driver through the intersection curve during adverse
weather and visibility conditions.
2. Profile
Combinations of profile lines that make vehicle control difficult should be
avoided. Substantial grade changes should be avoided at intersections,
although it is not always feasible to do so. Adequate sight distance should
be provided along both highways and across corners, even where one or
both intersecting highways are on vertical curves.
The grades of intersecting highways should be as flat as practical on
those sections that are to be used for storage space for stopped vehicles.
A minimum storage space for 2 vehicles, approximately 15m, should be
provided for minor streets where stop sign control is employed and the

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approach grade is up towards the intersection. Such slopes should

desirably be less than one percent and no more than 3 percent.
The profile lines and cross sections on the intersection legs should be
adjusted for a distance back from the intersection proper to provide a
smooth junction and proper drainage. Normally, the profile line of the
major highway should be carried through the intersection, and that of the
cross road adjusted to it. Intersections with a minor road crossing a
multi-lane divided highway with narrow median and super elevated curve
should be avoided whenever possible because of the difficulty in adjusting
grades to provide a suitable crossing. Profile lines of separate turning
roadways should be designed to fit the cross slopes and longitudinal
grades of the intersection legs.
As a rule, the horizontal and vertical alignments are subject to greater
restrictions at or near intersecting roads than on the open road. Their
combination at or near the intersection must produce traffic lanes that
are clearly visible to the motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians at all times
and definitely understandable for any desired direction of travel, free
from sudden appearance of potential hazards, and consistent with the
portions of the highway just traveled.
Cross Section
The cross section of the pavement surface within an intersection should
be reviewed on a case-by-case basis. The development of the centerline
profiles and edge of pavement profiles should flow smoothly through the
intersection.
Sight Distance
General
There must be unobstructed sight along both roads at an intersection and
across their included corner for distances sufficient to allow the operators
of vehicles approaching the intersection or stopped at the intersection to

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observe pedestrians and cyclists and carry out whatever maneuvers may
be required to negotiate the intersection. It is of equal importance that
pedestrians be able to view and react to potential conflicts with vehicles.
Any object within the sight triangle high enough above the elevation of
the adjacent roadways to constitute a sight obstruction should be
removed or lowered. Such objects include but are not limited to cut
slopes, hedges, bushes, tall crops, signs, buildings, parked vehicles, etc.
Also check the vertical curve on the highway to see if it obscures the line
of sight from the driver's eye (1.06m above the road) to the approaching
vehicle (1.06m above the road) as per the sight distance determined in
the next sections.
Stop Control on Cross Street
Intersection designs should provide sufficient sight distances to avoid
potential conflicts between vehicles turning onto or crossing a highway
from a stopped position and vehicles on the through highway operating at
the design speed.
As a minimum stopping sight distance must be provided. However, to
enhance traffic operations, the recommended sight distance along the
major roadway from the Figure shown below for various design vehicles
to turn left, right or cross should be provided.

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Yield Control
When an intersection is controlled by a yield sign, the sight triangle is
governed by the design speed on the main highway and that of the
approach highway or ramp.
Suggested approach speeds on the yield controlled approach are 30km/hr
for urban conditions. Where two major highways intersect and one leg is
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controlled by a yield sign, the design speed on both highways should be

used in determining the minimum sight triangle.
Figure below illustrates the method for establishing the recommended
sight triangle for yield controlled intersections.

Sight Distance at Signalized Intersections

Intersections controlled by traffic signals presumably do not require sight
distance between intersecting traffic flows because the flows move at
separate times.
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However, drivers should be provided with some view of the intersecting

approaches in case a crossing vehicle, bicycle or pedestrian violates the
signal indication.
In addition, sight distance requirements for vehicles permitted to turn
right on red signal indications must be considered. Line-of-sight should
consider the effect of parked vehicles. As a minimum, stopping sight
distance should be provided.
Vehicular Turning Movements
General
One of the primary concerns of intersection design is to provide
adequately for left and right turning movements. The pavement and
roadway widths of turning roadways at intersections are governed by the
volumes of turning traffic and the types of vehicles to be accommodated.
Design Vehicles
The overall dimensions of the design vehicles considered in geometric
design are discussed in the previous section, General Design Criteria. The
minimum turning radii of design vehicles could be obtained from
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO. The next Figure
provides general design guidelines.
The AASHTO figures should be used as guides in determining the turning
radii at intersections and the widths of turning roadways. The principal
dimensions affecting design are the minimum turning radius and those
affecting the path of the inner rear tire, tread width and wheel base. The
paths shown for the several design vehicles are established by the outer
trace of the front overhang and the path of the inner rear wheel.

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Turning Radii at Unchannelized Intersections

Where it is necessary to provide for turning vehicles within minimum
space and slow speeds (less than 20km/hr), as at un channelized
intersections, the minimum turning paths of the design vehicles apply.
Large turning radii allow vehicles to turn at higher speeds and increase
the pedestrian crossing distance. Both factors affect pedestrian safety and
comfort. Large radii consume space that could be used by waiting
pedestrians, may make pedestrians less visible to drivers, and make
vehicles more difficult for pedestrians to see. However, curbs that
protrude into the turning path of vehicles may result in larger vehicles
damaging the curb and other street infrastructure, and endanger
pedestrians standing at the curb. The design must balance these complex
issues.
Turning radii design should be based on the “effective” turning radius of
the design vehicle, rather than the actual corner radius see Figure below.
Where the travel lane abuts the curb, the effective and actual radius will
be similar. Where there are parking lanes, or a shoulder, the effective
turning radius should be measured from the edge of the travel lane. For
most simple intersections with angle of turn of 90 degrees or less, a
single circular arc joining the tangent edges of pavement provides an
adequate design. Generally, an effective radius of 8 to 12m is adequate
for passenger vehicles. Effective radii of 13m should be provided to allow
an occasional truck or bus to turn without much encroachment. Larger
effective radii should be provided where large truck combinations and
buses turn frequently. When provisions must be made for the larger truck
units and the angle of turn exceeds 90 degrees, a 3-centered compound
curve may be used in lieu of a single circular arc with a large radius.
The Figure below indicates the minimum treatment at un-channelized
intersections.

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3.3.5.3 Channelization
General
Where the inner edges of pavement for right turns at intersections are
designed to accommodate semi-trailer combinations, or where the design
permits passenger vehicles to turn at speeds of 30km/hr or more, the
pavement area at the intersection may become excessively large for

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proper control of traffic. To avoid this condition, a corner island, curbed or

painted, should be provided to form a separate turning roadway.
At-grade intersections having large paved areas, such as those with large
corner radii and those at oblique angle crossings, permit and encourage
undesirable vehicle movements, require long pedestrian crossings, and
have unused pavement areas. Even at a simple intersection, appreciable
areas may exist on which some vehicles can wander from natural and
expected paths. Conflicts may be reduced in extent and intensity by a
layout designed to include islands. For the design of 3-centered curves for
right angle turns with corner islands and oblique angle turns with corner
islands, shown below from “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, AASHTO”, Exhibit 9-41 and Exhibit 9-42 respectively.

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3.3.5.4 Auxiliary Lanes

Auxiliary lanes at intersections serve a wide range of purposes including
space for deceleration and acceleration, bus stops, increased capacity
through an intersection, and storage for turning vehicles. The width of the
auxiliary lanes should not be less than 3m.

Deceleration lanes are always advantageous, particularly on high speed

roads, because the driver of a vehicle leaving the highway has no choice
but to slow down on the through-traffic lane if a deceleration lane is not
provided. On the other hand, acceleration lanes are not always necessary
at stop controlled intersections where entering drivers can wait for an
opportunity to merge without disrupting through traffic. Acceleration
lanes are advantageous on roads with yield control and on all high
volume roads even with stop control where openings between vehicles in
the peak-hour traffic streams are infrequent and short.
When practical, an acceleration or deceleration lane should be of
sufficient width and length to enable a driver to maneuver a vehicle onto
it properly and once onto it, to make the necessary change between the
speed of operation on the highway or street and the lower speed on the
turning roadway. See Figure 6-H for desirable lengths of acceleration and
deceleration lanes.
The capacity of a signalized intersection may be increased by adding an
auxiliary lane to accommodate through traffic. The introduction of the
auxiliary lane can usually be accomplished easily since it is effectively
metered into the auxiliary lane. The merging of traffic from the auxiliary
lane back into the through lane beyond the signal requires the auxiliary
lane to be carried a distance beyond the stop line at the traffic signal to a
point where the merging taper is introduced. The minimum length of the
auxiliary lane in advance of and beyond the intersection including tapers

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shall be in accordance with the figure shown below. The Engineering must
approve the addition of an auxiliary lane to improve capacity at signalized
intersections.
Auxiliary Lane Addition at Signalized Intersection

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3.3.6 Interchange Design

3.3.6.1 Introduction

A traffic interchange is a combination of ramps and grade separations at

the junction of two or more highways for the purpose of reducing or
eliminating traffic conflicts, to improve safety, and increase traffic
capacity. Crossing conflicts are eliminated by grade separations. Turning
conflicts are either eliminated or minimized, depending upon the type of
interchange design.
Data for Interchange Design

Data relative to community service, traffic, physical and economic factors,

and potential area development which may materially affect design, are
taken in to consideration prior to the Interchange design specifically, the
following information was covered:

(a) The location and standards of existing and proposed local streets
including types of traffic control.

(b) Existing and proposed land use including such developments as

shopping centers, recreational facilities, housing developments,
schools, and other institutions.

(c) A traffic flow diagram showing average daily traffic and design
hourly volumes, as well as time of day (a.m. or p.m.), anticipated
on the freeway ramps and affected local streets or roads.

(d) The relationship with adjacent interchanges.

(e) The location of major utilities, LRT Line, or airport

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3.3.6.2 Interchange Design Element

Geometric design for all interchange roadways should follow the design
guides covered in the above section "Basic Geometric Design Elements."

Spacing

In areas of concentrated urban development proper spacing is difficult to

attain because of traffic demand for frequent access. The minimum
spacing of interchanges for proper signing on the main road should be at
least be 1.5 km in urban crossroads according to AASHTO Geometric
Design Manual. However closely spaced interchanges has been used due
to the existence of the LRT Line and the traffic demand as the road
network is not fully developed.

Sight Distance

Sight distance along the through roadways and all ramps should be at
least equal to the minimum safe stopping sight distance and preferably
longer for the applicable design speed.

Alignment, Profile and Cross Section

Traffic passing through an interchange should be provided the same

degree of utility and safety as on the approaching highways. The
standards for design speed, alignment, profile and cross section for the
main lanes through the interchange area should be as high as on the
approach legs. Desirably, the alignment and profile of the through
highways at an interchange should be relatively flat with high visibility.
The full roadway cross section should be continued through the
interchange area and adequate clearances provided at structures.

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3.3.6.3 Underpass versus Overpass Roadways

General Design Consideration

Initial concepts for an overcrossing and an under crossing were shared

with different stake holders at repetitive meetings. In response to
comments from that meeting an alternatives screening was conducted to
determine if a grade separation of the tracks could be achieved in another
location with less impact to the community.

The screening evaluated and detailed study is made at each proposed

highway grade separation to determine whether the main road should be
carried over or under cross road. This decision is made considering
elements such as topography, highway classification, and drainage, social
& economic impact. Several nearly completed preliminary layout plan and
profile was made before a decision was made.

A design that best fits the existing topography is the most pleasing and
economical to construct and maintain and this factor becomes the first
consideration in the design

Underpass Roadways

The design of underpass roadway is consistent to above discussed basic

geometric design. However, several possible limitations can occur

1. Limited right off way width lead to reduced lane width

2. Structural Limitations such as structural depth for vertical clearance,
Pier location etc.
3. Drainage Limitations

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Lateral Clearance

Minimum Lateral clearance at underpass is stated in the AASHTO

Geometric Design Manual Exhibit 10-6, however all structural elements
such as abutments, retaining walls and piers should be shielded

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Vertical Clearance

Minimum Vertical Clearance of 5.40m has been used although AASHTO

recommends 4.9m vertical clearance including future resurfacing.

The Intersections Selected for underpass in Megenagna-Torhailoch

project are Megenagna(Major road) , Urae(Major road)l, 22Mazoria(Major
road), Mexico(East-west Line), and Lideta(Minor road)

Megenagna Interchange
The topography and the Drainage path of Megenagna Interchange allows
for the through traffic to be underpass and the other crossings at grade
with Roundabout. The Interchange is designed to have a minimal effect
on the Right off way.

Width
Length of Width Width Round
Intersectio of Rwall & Total
Type Grade of Outer of Walk about
n Under/ Drainage width(m)
Separation(m) Lane(m) way(m) Diameter(m)
Over(m)

Megenagna Under 520 25 14 11 1.8 51.8 80

22 Mazoria Interchange

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This Junction is one of the narrowest sections along the design route;
large buildings exist on both side of the road.
A shift of Master Plan Centerline towards Right from Megenagna is made
to protect large buildings. The LRT width of 11.0m is reduced to 9.50m
and a Lane & walkway width of 3.0m is also used. To obtain the minimum
Vertical clearance 5.40m and keep the longitudinal grade to a minimum
of 0.50% for drainage, the existing road (minor roads) require grade raising from 2 to
3m.

Width
Width
Length of Width Width Round of
Intersectio of Rwall & Total
Type Grade of Outer of Walk about Round
n Under/ Drainage width(m)
Separation(m) Lane(m) way(m) Diameter(m) About
Over(m)
(m)
22-Mazoria Under 730 21.5 12 8 1.8 41.3 50 14

URAEL INTERCHANGE
The topography of Urael allows for the major road to be underpass

Width
Width
Length of Width Width Round of
Intersectio of Rwall & Total
Type Grade of Outer of Walk about Round
n Under/ Drainage width(m)
Separation(m) Lane(m) way(m) Diameter(m) About
Over(m)
(m)
Urael Under 700 25 14 8 1.8 48.8 30/40 14

MEXICO INTERCHANGE
The East-West Line of Mexico is separated from the rest of traffic through underpass

Width
Width
Length of Width Width Round of
Intersectio of Rwall & Total
Type Grade of Outer of Walk about Round
n Under/ Drainage width(m)
Separation(m) Lane(m) way(m) Diameter(m) About
Over(m)
(m)

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Mexico Under 900 19.6 14 8 1.8 43.4 Existing Existing

FIRDBET INTERSECTION
Minor Crossing road at Firdbet designed as Underpass

Width
Length of Width Width Rwall, Round
Intersectio of Total
Type Grade of Outer of Walk Med& about
n Under/ width(m)
Separation(m) Lane(m) way(m) Drainage Diameter(m)
Over(m)

FirdBet Under 380 14 14 8 3.80 39.80 35

OVERPASS ROADWAYS
The road way dimension design of an overpass bridge should be the same
as that of the basic road way

Longitudinal distance required for adequate design of grade separation

depends on design speed, the roadway gradient and the amount of rise or
fall needed to achieve the separation.

The distance needed to achieve grade separation can be found from

AASHTO Geometric design manual Exhibit 10-8 for gradient ranging from
2 to 7% and design speed ranging from 50 to 110km/hr as shown below

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Intersecting roads at Lemhotel and WehaLimat are designed as an

overpass bridge with 4 Lanes each with 3.00m width and two ways. An
outer Lane at grade with 2 Lane for each way is also provided at the two
sites.

Inner Inner Outer

Walkway- Outer Walkway- Retainin Total
Intersection Lane- Lane- Lane-
Left Lane-Left Right g walls Width
Left Right Right
Lemhotel
(Rt from Meg) 4 6 6 6 6 4 1.2 33.2
Lemhotel
(Lt from Meg) 4 6 6 6 6 4 1.2 33.2
WehaLimat 3 6 6 6 6 4 1.2 33.2

3.3.6.4 Roundabouts

The treatment of the intersections between frontage roads, ramps and

other crossing roads may be complex. Roundabouts may be provided to
control Multi-Leg Intersections in some cases signalized Intersection may
be feasible. Roundabouts has been used in Megenagna, 22Mazoria, Urael,
Mexico and Lideta(Minor) roads for traffic management of the at Grade
intersection in the system of the Interchanges.

AACRA Geometric design manual Table 14.4.3.B give preliminary

roundabout sizes along with circulating Lane widths.

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The main constraint to use larger diameter of roundabout is right off way
limitation however it is tried to use medium size roundabouts that would
accommodate the traffic & has less right off way effect.

In addition Elliptical roundabouts were preferred at urael due to the

Skewness of the Intersecting road and to avoid sharpness at abutments
that will accommodate the road & LRT width formation at underpass.

The Major axes of the elliptical roundabouts were aligned along with the
crossing roads and this will favor traffic along them as the through traffic
is at underpass.

The following Minimum Diameter of roundabouts has been used in the following Intersections

Interchange Diameter Circulating Entrance & Exit

Lane width Lane width
22 Mazoria 50 10.30 4.00
Urael 40/30 10.00 4.00
FirdBet 35 10.00 4.00

No. Intersection Type Applied On

1 Megenagna Under Major Road
2 Lemhotel Over Minor Road
3 22-Mazoria Under Major Road
4 WehaLimat Over Minor Road
5 Urael Under Major Road
6 Mexico Under East-West
7 Lideta(minor) Under Minor Road

3.3.6.5. Summary of Intersections

Outer Inner Inner Outer

Walkway- Drainage- LRT Drainage- Walkway- Retaining Total
No. Intersection Lane- Lane- Lane- Lane-
Left Left Width Right Right walls/Med Width
Left Left Right Right

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1 Megenagna 5.5 7 7 0.5 11 7 0.5 7 5.5 0.8 51.8*

Lemhotel
2 (Upper) 4 6 6 - - 6 - 6 4 1.2 33.2
Lemhotel
2 (Lower) 4 6 6 - - 6 - 6 4 1.2 33.2
3 22-Mazoria 4 6 6 0.5 9.5 6 0.5 6 4 0.8 43.3
4 WehaLimat 4 6 6 - - 6 - 6 4 1.2 33.2
5 Urael 4 7 7 0.5 11 7 0.5 7 4 0.8 48.8
6 Mexico 4 7 7 0.5 2.6+3 7 0.5 7 4 0.8 43.4
7 Lideta(minor) 4 7 7 0.5 - 7 0.5 7 4 2.8 39.80
* Additional width required for existing pier protection varying from 0 to 11.60m
Refer to Annex-4 for general width requirements at junctions & tangents

Refer to Annex-5 for Junction details of Megenagna Tor Hailoch Road Project

3.3.7 Design Road Cross-Sections

Except at Interchanges with their transition & on Sections with right off
way limitation the cross section used is according to the AACRA’S road
net work PAS-3 with total cross sectional width 40.0m.

A. Normal Sections

   
              
                
      
                               
       
       

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B. Typical Section on Interchanges (LRT & through traffic at

under pass)

   
     
     
     
     
   
            
         

              
       

              
       

Figure: Typical section at Urael

Refer to Annex 6 for typical sections used on Megenagna

Torhailoch Road project

3.3.7.1 Design Cross Section and existing Right off way

The design cross sections described above have critical effect on the
following major buildings

Menged Transport Building

The Building is located at Underpass for through traffic from Megenagna,

greater width is required to accommodate the two frontage roads, the
Building will be affected by 9.13m from the existing edge.

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Buildings at Lemhotel Junction

To protect buildings right side from megenagna, Master plan center line
shifted 1.31m towards left from megenagna

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Picture :-Matias Building, Bisrat Building & Other G+1 Buildings

However, on the North -South direction where over Pass bridge Proposed
Matyas Building is in the design right off way by 1.91m as shown in the
drawing

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Picture :- Matias Building on the Junction

NEW BUILDING AT STATION 0+820

The building is located in the Right off way at Junction

Picture:-Building Under Construction in the ROW

Golagol Building

Built within Master Plan Right off way about 1.92m

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Picture:- Golagol Building in the MP-ROW

AXUM HOTEL

The hotel is built inside the right off way limit of the master plan with
width ranging from 4.5m to 5.72m and is found critical in the project.

Around the area minimum widths has been used i.e. Lane width (3.0m),
and LRT width of 9.50m.

Part of the hotel inside the Right off way

Picture:- Axum Hotel

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Fig:- Plan around Axum Hotel

Haile Alem Building

The Building is located at Interchange where additional width is required

for the two frontage roads and retaining walls.

The Building falls within the design walkway, for length about 20m

Picture:-Haile Alem Building

BAMBIS BUILDING

The building is located inside the limit of Master Plan, to protect this
building and the new building near bambis a slight shift of Mp-Center Line
towards Right from Megenagna was made. However LRT designers

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demanded more shifting to the north side due to technical reasons. As a

result of this major shift, most of the compound area of Ministry of Justice
and an adjacent building was used while a wide free area is created in
front of Bambis.

Length from
Bulding
No. Station Rt off
Name
way/Design
8+400
Menged From
1 Transport Ayat 9.1m
North-
Derartu South
2 Bldg Direction 0.4m
1.91m (North-
3 Matias Bldg 0+320 South)
Centeral
4 Shoa Hotel 0+730 0.38m
Bldg Under
Constr St 1.83m (North-
5 800 0+820 South)
Golagol 0.82m (on East-
6 Bldg 1+300 West)

7 Debredamo 1+500 1.49m (max)

8 Bata Bldg 1+525 1.75m

Rebeka
9 Bldg 1+540 0.82m

10 Axum Hotel 1+610 4.10m (Avergae)

North-
Zerihun South
11 Bldg Direction 0.92m

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Bulding Length from Rt

No. Station
Name off way/Design

North-
South
12 Lex Plaza Direction 1.61m
Haile Alem
13 Bldg 2+860 1.93m
14 Bambis 3+050 -
New Bldg
near
15 Bambis 3+100 -

Zequala
Bldg (Abay
16 Bank) 3+520 1.77m
Bldg
17 Betezata 4+920 2.13m

Sport
18 Commission 5+080 6.75m

12.50m at Junction
& 4.31m at
19 Ayrese Bldg 5+110 Tangent
Tegbared
20 Bldg 6+220 0.50m

21 Balcha Bldg 6+780 1.30m

Helu Coffee
22 Bldg 7+200 3.46m

Refer to Annex-5 for Detail of buildings that are affected by the design

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3.4 Pavement Design

3.4.1 Introduction
The main function of a pavement is to provide a structural and economical
combination of materials to carry traffic in a given climate over the existing
soil conditions for a specified time interval (design period). In light of this,
analysis of the traffic characteristics of the project area was carried out so as
to determine the design traffic. And relevant data regarding the soil foundation
was collected to determine the design CBR. This helps to develop the most
economical combination of pavement layers (in relation to both thickness and
type of materials) that suit the underlying subgrade materials and the
cumulative traffic to be carried during the design life of the road.

The properties of the soil formations along the project route were also
assessed as they affect pavement structural design and performance. This
was carried out by conducting laboratory tests on soil samples collected at an
interval of 300m along the route alignment. Therefore, the design CBR for
homogeneous road sections was computed from the results of laboratory
CBR tests conducted on the collected soil samples.

This pavement design report has five chapters and three annexes. The first
part is the introduction which gives a brief highlight of the project. The second
chapter describes the subgrade soils along the alignment. The third chapter
discusses about the traffic survey and the analysis of these data. The fourth
chapter deals with the pavement design as per ERA manual. The last chapter
summarizes the whole topics covered in the conclusions and
recommendations part. The annexes contain the raw data collected for this
project. This includes the Traffic Count data, the Axle Load data and the
Origin – Destination Survey data.

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3.4.2 Sub grade Soils along the Alignment

Introduction

The subgrade soils are of the upmost importance in the pavement design as
they carry the entire pavement structure and hence the total load. The
subgrade soils were first collected from the project site at 300m interval by
digging test pits of 1m depth. The samples were then logged, tagged,
sampled and transported to the head office for the test.
In order to determine the homogenous sections of the road soil extension
survey was conducted. This was presented in the Soils and Materials report.

Expansive Soils in the Project Area

Almost all of the project area is underlain by expansive soils. Majority of the
soils along the section have distinct features of low CBR values and high
Swell Indices.

Method of Treatment of Expansive Soils

The method of treatment of the expansive soil stretch is to remove the

expansive material to a depth of 1m and filling this section with a good
embankment material or rockfill material. This method of treatment is not the
only option but it is the most efficient and least costly one.

Determination of the design CBR

Since the majority of the soil along the stretch has expansive nature, it shall
be removed and replaced by improved subgrade material having a minimum
CBR value of 8% and swell index less than 2% or rockfill material. As a result,
the design CBR value was taken to be 8%. Accordingly, the subgrade
strength class of the soil becomes S4.

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3.4.3 Traffic Survey and Analysis

The pattern and characteristics of traffic flow of the project area were
assessed so as to estimate the volume and damaging effect of the traffic that
will use the road within the design period. Thus, traffic surveys including traffic
count and origin – destination survey were conducted on the all major
intersections and crossings. The data collected from the study were compiled
and analyzed along with previous data so as to determine the design traffic.

Traffic Count

Manual classified traffic count was conducted for seven consecutive days at
14 counting stations divided in three phases. The traffic count data conducted
for seven days include a two days 24 hours traffic count, two days 16 hours
traffic count and a three days 12 hours count data.
The first phase of the count was from the 12th of December 2011 to 18th of
December 2011. The count stations include Legar, Kera Junction around
EEPCO, Higher Court and Coca Mazoria.
The second phase of the traffic count was from the 19th of December to the
25th of December 2011. The stations for this phase include: Bambis, Ureal,
Wuha Limat, Getahun Beshah, 22 Mazoria and Lem Hotel.
The third and final phase of the traffic count was conducted from the 26th of
December 2011 to the 1st of January 2012. The stations included in this final
count were: Megenagna, Estifanos, Stadium and Mexico Squares.

In carrying out the traffic surveys, the vehicle classification system of ERA
with slight modifications was used as shown in Table 2.1 below.

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Table 3-1 Vehicle Classification

Vehicle classification Description

1. Passenger vehicles

1.1. Cars Small automobiles

1.2. Land Rovers 4WD and utility vehicles

1.3. Small Bus Buses up to 25 passenger seats

1.4. Medium Bus Buses with 25 up to 45 passenger seats

1.5. Large Bus Buses with over 45 passenger seats.

2. Freight vehicles

2.1. Small Truck Trucks of capacity up to 3.5 tons load.

2.2. Medium Truck Trucks of capacity 3.5 up to 7.5 tons load.

2.3. Heavy Truck Trucks of capacity over 7.5 tons load.

Articulated Trucks and tanker trailers of capacity over

2.4. Truck and Trailer 12 tons load.

These are two wheel locomotives like bicycles and

3. Miscellaneous motor cycles.

The traffic count raw data is presented in Annex I.

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Determination of Annual Average Daily Traffic

The annual average daily traffic (AADT) of the project road was determined
based on the traffic count data from the counting stations by considering the
seasonal adjustment factors in to consideration. The counted weekday’s
traffic and the night count data were converted to Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
and then summed together.

The ADT is then multiplied by a seasonal adjustment factor of 1 to get the

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT).

It should be noted that the vehicles presented here are those that cause
considerable damage to the pavement.

The AADT along the street segments are presented below.

Table 3-2 AADT along the street segment

M/Bu H. Truck
Station S/Bus s L/Bus M. Truck Truck Trailer Total

Lem Hotel

Lem Hotel to
Megenegna 3438 613 267 130 25 14 4487

Megenegan to Lem
Hotel 3434 448 227 43 6 2 4161

22 to Lem Hotel 4961 456 310 97 53 5 5881

Lem Hotel to 22 5173 434 368 65 32 9 6081

                   

22 Mazoria

22 to Lem Hotel 6733 667 495 69 24 6 7994

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Lem Hotel to 22 5468 1209 708 80 41 12 7517

22 to G. Beshah 3121 315 393 141 43 17 4030

G.Beshah to 22 3662 533 391 173 71 8 4838

                   

Getahun Beshah

G.Beshah to 22 5459 488 437 171 87 9 6651

22 to G. Beshah 5044 367 391 109 76 2 5989

G.Beshah to Wuhalimat 4293 306 353 113 48 3 5116

Wuhalimat to G.Beshah 2958 439 273 136 14 4 3823

                   

Wuhalimat

Wuhalimat to G.Beshah 3572 540 357 131 64 5 4670

G.Beshah to Wuhalimat 4855 362 319 132 52 13 5732

Wuhalimat to Ureal 4649 441 385 131 41 9 5657

Ureal to Wuhalimat 5053 511 415 147 51 13 6190

                   

Ureal

Ureal to Bambis 4055 392 296 58 210 51 5061

Bambis to Ureal 3410 777 344 57 207 84 4878

                   

Estifanos

Estifanos to Bambis 2860 486 397 277 48 6 4074

Bambis to Estifanos 3020 377 308 181 71 4 3961

                   

Legar

Legar to Stadium 8837 1335 694 351 68 31 11316

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Stadium to Legar 7064 871 546 214 76 24 8794

Legar to Kera Junction 6937 849 232 274 76 28 8396

Kera Junction to Legar 5793 682 179 239 78 18 6989

                   

Kera Junction

Kera Junction to Legar 3473 535 129 69 19 3 4228

Legar to Kera Junction 3619 419 144 88 20 9 4298

Kera Junction to Mexico 5116 442 181 66 24 8 5837

Mexico to Kera Junction 4296 647 172 42 15 7 5180

                   

Lideta

Lideta to Mexico 3444 298 283 130 155 8 4317

Mexico to Lideta 3947 754 429 172 172 9 5482

Lideta to Coca 2482 523 331 243 220 16 3815

Coca to Lideta 2745 453 372 387 296 86 4339

                   

Coca

Coca to Lideta 2688 382 311 422 250 35 4088

Lideta to Coca 2086 387 247 168 142 19 3048

Coca to Torhyloch 3969 781 365 472 315 28 5930

Torhyloch to Coca 5506 1123 542 719 560 37 8487

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The refined AADT values are shown below

Table 3-3 Final Refined AADT on Torhyloch to Megenegna lane (West to East)
Direction One: Torhyloch to Megenegna (West to East)

Lem Hotel to Megenegna 3438 613 267 130 25 14 4487

22 to Lem Hotel 5847 561 402 83 38 6 6938

G.Beshah to 22 4560 511 414 172 79 8 5744

Wuhalimat to G.Beshah 3265 489 315 133 39 5 4247

Ureal to Wuhalimat 5053 511 415 147 51 13 6190

Bambis to Ureal 3410 777 344 57 207 84 4878

Estifanos to Bambis 2860 486 397 277 48 6 4074

Legar to Stadium 8837 1335 694 351 68 31 11316

Kera Junction to Legar 4633 608 154 154 49 11 5608

Mexico to Kera Junction 4296 647 172 42 15 7 5180

Lideta to Mexico 3444 298 283 130 155 8 4317

Coca to Lideta 2717 418 341 405 273 60 4213

Torhyloch to Coca 5506 1123 542 719 560 37 8487

Table 3-4 Final refined AADT on Megenegna to Torhyloch lane (East to West)
Direction Two: Megenegna to Torhyloch (East to West)

Megenegan to Lem Hotel 3434 448 227 43 6 2 4161

Lem Hotel to 22 5320 822 538 73 36 10 6799

22 to G. Beshah 4082 341 392 125 59 10 5010

G.Beshah to Wuhalimat 4574 334 336 122 50 8 5424

Wuhalimat to Ureal 4649 441 385 131 41 9 5657

Ureal to Bambis 4055 392 296 58 210 51 5061

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Bambis to Estifanos 3020 377 308 181 71 4 3961

Stadium to Legar 7064 871 546 214 76 24 8794

Legar to Kera Junction 5278 634 188 181 48 18 6347

Kera Junction to Mexico 5116 442 181 66 24 8 5837

Mexico to Lideta 3947 754 429 172 172 9 5482

Lideta to Coca 2284 455 289 205 181 18 3431

Coca to Torhyloch 3969 781 365 472 315 28 5930

From the traffic data the average vehicle composition indicates that more than 75%
of the vehicles are small busses and truck trailers are less than 1%.

Table 3-5 Average traffic composition on the project road

Vehicle Type S/Bus M/Bus L/Bus Medium Heavy TT Total

% Composition 77.7 10.5 6.2 3.3 2.0 0.3 100.0

Traffic Forecasting
As the road to be constructed in very important road and located within the
city hub, the pavement structure was designed for 20 years design period. It
was anticipated that the road will be opened for traffic in 2016. The factors,
used for traffic forecasting, were detailed below.

Traffic Growth Rates

The following traffic growth rates were determined by the traffic engineer
based on demand elasticity and GDP growth rate.

Table 3.7 Traffic Growth Rates

Passenger Traffic Freight Traffic
Period
Cars/4W S/Bus M&L S/Truc L&M Truck &
D Bus k Truck Trailer

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2011 - 2015 8.4 7.7 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.8

2016 – 7.8 7.2 6.5 7.2 7.8 9.1

2020

2021 - 2035 7.2 6.6 6.0 6.0 6.6 7.8

Baseline AADT Computation

The baseline AADT is computed by converting the current normal 2011/2012

AADT to 2016 by using the appropriate traffic growth factors.

AADTb = AADT2012 (1+r) n

where AADTb = Baseline AADT (AADT2017)

AADT2012= AADT at the time of traffic count conducting
r = growth rate (fraction)
n=period between the 2012 and opening date, 2016, which is equal to 4

Table 3-6 Baseline AADT

M. H.
S/Bus M/Bus L/Bus Truck Truck T-T Total

AADT2012 8,473 1,208 703 338 190 31 10,943

AADT2015 10,585 1,480 861 431 252 39 13,648

AADT2016 11,347 1,576 917 465 272 43 14,620

Traffic Projection

The annual average daily traffic anticipated within the design period i.e. 2016
– 2036 is projected by using the following relation (using year – to – year
growth rates):

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AADTn = AADTb (1+r) n

where AADTn = Projected AADT on the nth year

AADTb = Baseline AADT (AADT2014)
r = growth rate (fraction)
n=period between the base year, 2016, and the nth year

The projected AADTs over the design period are presented in the table below.

Table 3-7 Projected AADT

AADT S/Bus M/Bus L/Bus M. Truck H. Truck T-T Total

2016 11,347 1,576 917 465 272 43 14,620

2017 12,164 1,678 977 501 293 47 15,660

2018 13,040 1,787 1,041 540 316 51 16,775

2019 13,979 1,903 1,109 582 341 56 17,970

2020 14,985 2,027 1,181 627 368 61 19,249

2021 15,974 2,149 1,252 668 392 66 20,501

2022 17,028 2,278 1,327 712 418 71 21,834

2023 18,152 2,415 1,407 759 446 77 23,256

2024 19,350 2,560 1,491 809 475 83 24,768

2025 20,627 2,714 1,580 862 506 89 26,378

2026 21,988 2,877 1,675 919 539 96 28,094

2027 23,439 3,050 1,776 980 575 103 29,923

2028 24,986 3,233 1,883 1,045 613 111 31,871

2029 26,635 3,427 1,996 1,114 653 120 33,945

2030 28,393 3,633 2,116 1,188 696 129 36,155

2031 30,267 3,851 2,243 1,266 742 139 38,508

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2032 32,265 4,082 2,378 1,350 791 150 41,016

2033 34,394 4,327 2,521 1,439 843 162 43,686

2034 36,664 4,587 2,672 1,534 899 175 46,531

2035 39,084 4,862 2,832 1,635 958 189 49,560

2036 41,664 5,154 3,002 1,743 1,021 204 52,788

3.4.4 Axle Load and OD Survey

Axle Load Survey

A twelve hour axle load survey was conducted from 27th of February to 1st of March
2012 on two survey stations. The equipment used for the axle load survey was
INTERCOMP LP600 portable weighbridge obtained through the courtesy of ERA,
along with the operators.

As many as 436 vehicles were weighed on the first survey stations and 247
vehicles on the second survey station, covering all categories of buses (small,
medium and large) and trucks (small, heavy and truck – trailer) on both lanes.
Data from the axle load survey raw data is attached in Annex II of this report.

Determination of Truck Factors

The truck factor of each vehicle class is determined by summing the

equivalence factor of each axle of the vehicle. The equivalence factor of the
axle is determined using the following relations,
4 .5
 AxleLoad (kg ) 
EF   
 8160 

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n
TF   EF
i 1

where, EF = Equivalence Factor

AL = Axle Load

TF = Truck Factor

n = the number of axles of the vehicle.

For the subject project axle load analysis was made on directional basis, i.e.
the truck factor of each commercial vehicle class was determined on each
direction and the maximum value for each vehicle type was taken. The truck
factors determined from the axle load survey data of the project road are
presented in the following table.

Table 3-8 Calculated TF values

Vehicle Type SB MB LB MT HT TT

TF based on measured data 0.008 0.121 4.439 0.512 5.062 5.759

Recommended TF 0.008 0.121 4.439 0.512 5.062 7.000

The truck factor of the truck and trailer is very small to represent the
damaging effect of articulated truck. Hence referring to the survey data of
other projects, truck factor of 7 was adopted to truck and trailer.

3.4.5 Design Traffic

With the truck factors and the forecasted year – by – year AADT known, the
cumulative number of equivalent standard axles expected over the design life
of the road on the design lane is computed using the following formula:

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2029
CESA  365 *  AADTi * TF * D * L
i2016

where CESA = Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

TF= Equivalence Factor
AADTi = Annual average daily traffic on the ith year
D = Directional Split Factor
L = Lane Distribution Factor

The directional split factor and lane distribution factor were taken to be 0.5
and 0.6 referring to the actual condition and AASHTO design guide
recommendation.
The cumulative equivalent standard axles on the design lane are presented in
the tables below.

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Table 3-9 Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

AADT S/Bus ESA M/Bus ESA L/Bus ESA M. Truck ESA H. Truck ESA T-T ESA Total CESA

2016 11,347 9,940 1,576 20,881 917 445,727 465 26,070 272 150,767 43 32,960 14,620 686,344

2017 12,164 10,656 1,678 22,233 977 474,891 501 28,088 293 162,407 47 36,026 15,660 734,299

2018 13,040 11,423 1,787 23,677 1,041 505,999 540 30,275 316 175,155 51 39,092 16,775 785,621

2019 13,979 12,246 1,903 25,214 1,109 539,052 582 32,629 341 189,013 56 42,924 17,970 841,077

2020 14,985 13,127 2,027 26,857 1,181 574,049 627 35,152 368 203,978 61 46,757 19,249 899,920

2021 15,974 13,993 2,149 28,473 1,252 608,560 668 37,451 392 217,281 66 50,589 20,501 956,348

2022 17,028 14,917 2,278 30,182 1,327 645,016 712 39,918 418 231,693 71 54,422 21,834 1,016,146

2023 18,152 15,901 2,415 31,998 1,407 683,901 759 42,553 446 247,213 77 59,021 23,256 1,080,586

2024 19,350 16,951 2,560 33,919 1,491 724,731 809 45,356 475 263,287 83 63,620 24,768 1,147,863

2025 20,627 18,069 2,714 35,959 1,580 767,991 862 48,327 506 280,470 89 68,219 26,378 1,219,036

2026 21,988 19,261 2,877 38,119 1,675 814,168 919 51,523 539 298,762 96 73,584 28,094 1,295,417

2027 23,439 20,533 3,050 40,411 1,776 863,261 980 54,943 575 318,716 103 78,950 29,923 1,376,813

2028 24,986 21,888 3,233 42,836 1,883 915,271 1,045 58,587 613 339,779 111 85,082 31,871 1,463,442

2029 26,635 23,332 3,427 45,406 1,996 970,197 1,114 62,455 653 361,951 120 91,980 33,945 1,555,321

2030 28,393 24,872 3,633 48,135 2,116 1,028,525 1,188 66,604 696 385,785 129 98,879 36,155 1,652,801

2031 30,267 26,514 3,851 51,024 2,243 1,090,256 1,266 70,977 742 411,282 139 106,544 38,508 1,756,597

2032 32,265 28,264 4,082 54,084 2,378 1,155,876 1,350 75,686 791 438,443 150 114,975 41,016 1,867,328

2033 34,394 30,129 4,327 57,331 2,521 1,225,384 1,439 80,676 843 467,266 162 124,173 43,686 1,984,958

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2034 36,664 32,118 4,587 60,775 2,672 1,298,780 1,534 86,002 899 498,306 175 134,138 46,531 2,110,119

2035 39,084 34,238 4,862 64,419 2,832 1,376,552 1,635 91,665 958 531,009 189 144,869 49,560 2,242,750

2036 41,664 36,498 5,154 68,288 3,002 1,459,184 1,743 97,720 1,021 565,929 204 156,366 52,788 2,383,984

∑ 496,425 434,868 64,170 850,220 37,376 18,167,371 20,738 1,162,655 12,157 6,738,491 2,222 1,703,163 633,088 29,056,769

Accordingly, the design traffic value is 29,056,769, which falls in T8 traffic class Design of Pavement Structure

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The pavement structure is designed using ERA Pavement Design manual

2002. The pavement was also designed according to AASHTO design guide
1993. Comparing the two structures, the pavement designed by ERA design
manual was found to be economical and hence feasible.

3.4.6 Pavement Structure

For S4 subgrade class and T8 traffic class, there are the following two
alternative structures in ERA structural catalogue, chart 5 and chart 7.

Table 4-1 Alternative Pavement Structure from Chart 5 and 7

Chart 5
150mm bituminous
surface
250mm granular road
base

175mm granular sub-

base

Chart 7
50mm bituminous surface
200mm bituminous road
base

200mm granular road base

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3.4.7 Cost Comparison between Alternative Pavement Structures

Cost comparison was conducted to select the economical pavement structure.

Latest unit rates, shown in the following table, were utilized for comparison of
the structures.

Table 4-10 Unit Price for Construction Materials

Material Unit Rate

AC m3 4225.00

DBM m3 3436.40

GRB m3 429.84

GSB m3 103.00

The costs of the two structures per square meter in cubic meter were given in
the following table.

Table 4-11 Price Comparison between Alternative Pavement Structures

Chart 5 Chart 7
Unit Quantity Quantity
Material
Rate per sq.m Cost per sq.m Cost
[m3] [m3]

Asphalt Concrete 4225.00 0.150 633.75 0.050 211.25

Bituminous road
3436.40 0.000 0.00 0.200 687.28
base

Granular road base 429.84 0.250 107.46 0.275 85.97

Granular Sub-base 103.00 0.175 18.03 0.000 0.00

Total 759.24   984.50

The cost comparison indicated that the pavement structure with 150mm Asphalt
Concrete, 250mm Granular Road base, and 275mm Granular Sub-base is more

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economical than the other pavement structure. Therefore, the recommended
pavement structure is shown below.

Figure 4-2 Recommended Pavement Structure

Chart 5
150mm bituminous
surface
250mm granular road
base
3.4.8 Design of Walkways
175mm granular sub-
The foundation of the walkway shall
be shaped and base compacted to a
firm, even surface. Unsuitable
material shall be excavated to a
depth of 1m and removed, and replaced with approved materials.

The surface of the walkway shall be patterned concrete tiles with the following
structural components.

Table 12 Shoulder Structure

50mm Concrete tiles

50mm Sand leveling course

200mm Granular sub base

1000mm (optional) Improved subgrade (on unsuitable soil stretches)

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3.4.9 Construction Materials Specification

Borrow Material
The material requirements are taken from ERA’s Pavement Design Manual, Volume
1, Flexible Pavements and Gravel Roads, 2002 and ERA’s Standard Technical
Specification Manual, 2002.

 The material shall have a minimum soaked CBR value of 8% at

95% of maximum dry density as determined by AASHTO - T-180.

 The material shall have a maximum swell of 2%

 The material shall have a maximum plasticity index and liquid limit
of 25 and 55, respectively.

Sub-base Material

- Sub – base material shall have a plasticity index of not more than 12 and the
plasticity product should not be greater than 75.

- The minimum soaked CBR of the sub-base materials shall be 30% when
determined in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T-193. The CBR
shall be determined at a density of 95% of the maximum dry density when
determined in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T-180 method D.

- The minimum in-situ dry density of the sub-base material shall be 97% of the
modified AASHTO density.

- The material shall have a Los Angeles Abrasion value of not more than 51% when
determined in accordance with the requirement of AASHTO T-96.

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- Gradation requirements as shown in the table below.

Table 5-13 Gradation Requirement for Sub –base Material

Sieve Size Mass Percent Passing

(mm)
Grading A

63.0 100

50.0 90-100

25.0 51-80

4.75 35-70

0.075 5-15

If crushed stone is utilized for sub base course construction, it shall fulfill the
requirements specified in clause 5105 of ERA Standard Technical Specification.

Table 5.2 Grading Requirement for Crushed Stone Sub-base Material

Percentage Passing by Weight

Sieve Size (mm) A

Nominal Size 37.5mm

50.0 100

37.5 95 – 100

28 -

19 60 – 80

9.5 40 – 60

4.75 25 – 40

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2.36 15 – 30

0.425 7 – 19

0.075 5 - 12

The grading of the crushed stone sub base shall comply with the grading limit-A of
Table 5105/1 of ERA Standard Technical Specification.

Graded Crushed Stone Base Course

- The basecourse materials shall comply with the requirements of ERA

Standard Technical Specification 2002.

- The gradation of the base course material shall be smooth continuous curve
within the following envelop.

Table 5-14 Gradation Requirement for Crushed Stone Base Course Material
Percentage by mass of total
aggregate passing test sieve

Test Sieve (mm) Nominal maximum particle

size

37.5mm

50 100

37.5 95 – 100

19 60 – 80

9.5 40 – 60

4.75 25 – 40

2.36 15 – 30

0.425 7 – 19

0.075 5 – 12

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Crushed Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes

a. Bitumen: Penetration Grade bitumen 80/100 complying with the requirements

of AASHTO M 20 shall be used.

b. Coarse aggregate: The coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed rock,

crushed gravel or other hard material retained on the 2.36mm sieve. They
shall be clean, hard, durable, of cubical shape, free from dust and soft or
friable matter, organic or other deleterious substances.

Where crushed gravel is proposed for use as aggregate, not less than 90% by
weight of the crushed material retained on the 4.75mm sieve shall have at
least two fractured faces.

The coarse aggregates shall satisfy the physical requirements specified in the
following table.

Table 5-15 Physical Requirement for Course Aggregate [Asphalt]

Property Test Test Method Specification

Max. 5% passing
Cleanliness Grain size analysis BS 812, Part 103
0.075mm sieve

Particle shape Flakiness index BS 812, Part 105 Max. 45%

Aggregate Crushing
BS 812, Part 110 Max. 25%
Value

Strength ASTM C 131 & C

Los Angeles Abrasion Max. 30%
535

Aggregate Impact Value BS 812, Part 110 Max. 25%

Sodium Sulphate ASTM C 88 Max. 12%

Durability
Magnesium Sulphate ASTM C 88 Max. 18%

Water
Water Absorption ASTM C 127 Max. 2%
Absorption

Bitumen Affinity Coating & Stripping AASHTO T-182 Min. retained

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Property Test Test Method Specification

coating 95%

c. Fine Aggregates: Fine aggregates shall consist of crushed or naturally

occurring mineral material or a combination of the two, passing the 2.36mm
sieve and retained on the 0.075mm sieve. They shall be clean, hard, durable,
dry and free from dust, and soft or friable matter, organic and other
deleterious matter.

The plasticity index of the fraction passing the 0.425mm sieve shall not
exceed 4 when tested in accordance with AASHTO T-90.

The fine aggregates shall satisfy the physical requirements specified in the
following table.

Table 5-16 Physical Requirement for Fine Aggregate [Asphalt]

Property Test Test Method Specification

Max. 17% passing 0.075mm

Grain size analysis BS 812, Part 103
sieve
Cleanliness
Sand Equivalent AASHTO T 176 Min. 40%

Plasticity index AASHTO T 90 Max. 4%

Sodium Sulphate ASTM C 88 Max. 15%

Durability
Magnesium Sulphate ASTM C 88 Max. 20%

d. Filler: Filler (if required) shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock
dust, hydrated lime or cement approved by the Engineer.

The filler shall be free from organic impurities and have a plasticity index not
greater than 4. The plasticity index shall not apply if the filler is cement or lime.

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The filler shall be graded within the limits indicated in the table below.

Table 5-17 Grading Requirement for Mineral Filler

Sieve Size Cumulative percent passing by
(mm) weight of total aggregate

0.6 100
0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100

e. Aggregate grading
When tested by wet sieving method, the combined grading of the coarse and fine
aggregates and added filler for the particular mixture shall fall within the limits
shown in the table below.

Table 5-18 Gradation Requirement for Asphaltic Concrete

Surfacing

Percentage by Mass of Total Aggregate

Test sieve (mm)
Passing Test Sieve

Wearing Course, WC Binder Course,

28 - 100
20 100 80 – 100
14 80 – 100 60 – 80
5 54 – 72 36 – 56
2.36 42 – 58 28 – 44
1.18 34 – 48 20 – 34
0.6 26 – 38 15 – 27
0.3 18 – 28 10 – 20
0.15 12 – 20 5 – 13
0.075 6 - 12 2-6
Bitumen Content 5.0 – 7.0 4.8 – 6.1
(%wt total mix)

The combined aggregate grading shall not vary from the low limit on one sieve to
the high limit on the adjacent sieve.

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The optimum bitumen content shall be determined by the Marshall Method
described in Asphalt Institute Manual, MS – 2.

Fine Aggregate (Sand) for Concrete Works

Sand for mortar and concrete works shall fulfill the following requirements:

- 7 days Mortar strength (AASHTO T – 71) : Min 95%

- Soundness Loss by Sodium Sulfate (AASHTO T-104): Max 10%
- Clay lumps and friable particles (AASHTO T-112) : Max 3%
- Material finer than 0.075mm sieve (AASHTO T – 11) : Max 3%
- Sand Equivalent (AASHTO T – 176) : Max 75
- Organic impurities (AASHTO T – 21) : Color plate No. 1 or 2
- Grading requirements as shown in the table below

Percentage
Sieve Size (mm)
Passing by mass (%)

Table 10 100 5-19 Grading

Requirement of Fine
4.76 95 – 100 Aggregate [Concrete]

2.38 68 – 86

1.19 47 – 65

0.59 27 – 42

0.3 9 – 20

0.15
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3.4.10 Conclusion and Recommendation

Traffic

The existing road from Megenegan to Torhyloch is a major arterial road with a lot
of traffic. In order to know the exact traffic, traffic count was carried on 14 stations
for 7days each. Also to understand the amount of diverted traffic Origin –
Destination Survey was conducted on 7 major traffic stations. These data was
analyzed and from this the value for the existing traffic was determined.

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Subgrade Soils

The subgrade soils along the alignment are predominantly characterized by

expansive nature. The materials with low CBR value have also exhibited high
Swell Indices and thus the consultant recommends the replacement of these
materials with a good embankment material of CBR at least 8% and swell index
less than 2% or with rock fill material.

Pavement Structure

The pavement structure was determined as per the ERA design manual by taking
the subgrade strength class and the traffic category and matching this two in the
structural catalogue.

The traffic was analyzed and forecasted for a period of 20 years. In order to
determine the damaging effect of the vehicles axle load survey was conducted
and from this the appropriate truck factors were taken.

For the subgrade strength, test pits were dug at 300m interval and samples were
collected and the strength calculated.

By using this two values, the traffic class of T8 and subgrade strength of S4, the
recommended pavement structure has a 150mm Asphalt Concrete, 250mm
Granular Base Course and 175mm Granular Sub – Base.

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3.5 HYDROLOGY HYDRAULICS and STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION
General

The life of roads and utilities depend on the drainage system installed in the area. Roads
surface which are poorly drain can have higher maintenance and operation cost. In addition
to this water can stay on the pavement surface and easily splashed on vehicles and
pedestrian, which can reduce visibility and increase road accident.

Water entering to the pavement structure can cause different distress and decrease ride
ability and also may result in higher maintenance and operation cost of roads.

If the drainage systems are not well designed to suit the specific site condition, the drainage
system can easily stop proper function.

Absence of proper drainage system can be the main cause for health hazard. Therefore,
during the design of the drainage system the life of the road with the utilities and the
environmental aspect were considered in detail.

The hydrological study was undertaken in order to compute and evaluate peak discharges
for all watercourses crossing the project road. Calculation of these peak discharge values
then enabled the determination of the hydraulic opening sizes and types of waterway
required for the roads projects.

Peak discharge is the maximum discharge in cubic meters per second of the watercourse at
its crossing of the project road during design peak flood.

The hydrological analysis was undertaken using available maps and aerial photographs
together with available data from Meteorological Services Agency. Additional hydrological
and geological information has been gathered from site visits to the area.

From the studies undertaken, it was found that there are some 34 catchments along the
three road projects. Of these, two of themare major stream crossings, whilst the remainder
is small streams and local flows.

All of the streams / rivers are un-gauged. For the evaluation of the flood discharge of the
watercourses crossing the road, available rainfall data and high flood marks have been
utilized

Storm sewers should be designed to avoid surcharging, i.e. the situation where flow is under
pressure and water is pushed up through inlets and other facilities. The Consultant has

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designed the sewers to surcharge with a maximum tolerated frequency (return period).
Some of the typical decisions that were made in the design of the drainage are:

 Dimension of pipes
 Spacing of inlets
 Slope of pipes

The road project is situated in developed area of the city and for this reason it is treated
with the principle of urban hydrology.

Objective of the Study

This report consist three parts Hydrology, Hydraulics and Structures study. The objective of
the hydrological study is to compute peak discharges for all drainage system related to the
roads projects.

In regard to the hydraulics the objective is to first carryout condition survey of the existing
drainage systems and to compute the opening requirement, which aims meeting the two
major objectives in the design of drainage of the road:

 The speedy removal of surface water to provide safety and minimum

nuisance for the motorist, and
 Provision of effective sub-surface drainage to maximize longevity of the
pavement and its associated earthworks

3.5.2 GENERAL INFORMATION

Topography and Land Use

The terrain classification is made based on the specification, which is commonly used by
most manuals in the country, i.e. 0 - 10% for flat to rolling terrain, 10% - 20% for hilly terrain
and > 21% for mountainous terrain.

Based on the above terrain classification criteria, the project roadis classified into flat and
rolling terrains.

Land Use
The land use of most of the catchments in the road project is as follows:

 All the minor crossings have urban catchments with mixed commercial and residential.
 The land use of the major crossings are shown in the table below:

Table 1-20: Land use of major catchments

No Catchment Id Station Land use in percent

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Urban Farming and grazing

1 C1 0+080 70 30

2 C3 2+420 40 60

3 C5 3+640 60 40

4 C7 6+650 80 20

 Longitudinally there is overland flow, which needs to be collected away from the road.
The land use along the road is commercial and business area

Climate
The project area is located on the highlands of the Ethiopian plateau, i.e. having altitude
over 2000. Therefore, the project area is considered Dega. The effective temperature is
lower than 250c, which is good and most of the time comfortable.

The project area gets mean annual rainfall in the range of 918 - 1567mm, and the rainy
period is between June through September, although occasional shower is expected in the
months of March, April, May, October and November.

The mean monthly rainfall is maximum during the months of July and August i.e. 250mm
and 280mm and it is minimum during the months of November and December i.e. 8mm and
9mm respectively.

Table 1-21: Mean Monthly rainfall (mm) of the Addis Ababa area
Mont Ja Feb Mar Apr Ma June July Aug Sept Oct No De
h n y v c

Rainfall 17.6 39.7 68.5 91.3 77.3 119. 253. 279. 172. 39.2 8.1 9.2
(mm) 2 6 6 9

For the Addis Ababa area, the monthly temperature is maximum during the months of
March through May, about 27.50c, and it is minimum in the months of November through
January, 4.70c.

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0
Table 1-22: Monthly maximum and minimum temperature ( C) for AA area
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Max. 25.1 26.0 27.0 27.2 27.9 24.4 22.3 21.3 23.1 24.4 24.7 24.4

Min. 4.7 5.5 8.7 9.4 9.7 8.9 9.1 9.3 8.7 6.5 4.7 4.7

Reference and Publications Used

The following reference and publications are used for hydrology and hydraulics study,
analysis and design:

 AACRA’s Drainage Design Manual

 ERA’s Drainage Design Manual (2002)
 Highway Drainage Design Manual, Revision 41, (June 6, 2003)
 MDOT Drainage Manual, Road Storm Drainage Systems, Revised June 2004.
 ERA/ TCDE Design Manual Standard Design Data(compiled May 1993)
 Applied Hydrology by VenTe Chow;
 Guide to Bridge Hydraulics (University of Toronto for Roads and
Transportation Association of Canada);

Maps and Aerial Photographs

Arial Photographs and digital elevation model (DEM) of 30m are used for delineating
catchments for pick flood computations.These photographs were interpreted using a
stereoscope and used to define all catchment’s areas that could not be delineated from the
available topographic maps.

For the big catchments delineation topographic maps of scale 1:50,000 as well as DEM of
3om are used.

Also Nortech maps of Addis Ababa are used in addition to the above maps listed.

Available Rainfall and temperature Data

For determination of maximum flood discharge at the points of stream crossings and for
longitudinal intercepted points, available rainfall data for the project area are collected from
Ethiopian Metrological Agency. The following rainfall data, minimum and maximum
temperature data was collected:

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 10, 20, 30, 60 minutes Rainfall data for the year 1971 – 1982. The rainfall
data after 1982 was not available.
 24hour rainfall data covering for the year 1975 – 2010.
 Monthly minimum and Maximum temperature for the year 1984 - 2010

Watersheds or Basins
The catchment area of the watershed upstream of the crossing point is an important
parameter in determining the peak discharge. Along the road project, there are some 7
catchments. Of these, 4 accommodate major stream crossings, whilst the remainders are
small streams. These catchments, showing the limits of the watersheds (or basins) were
delineated from the available topographic maps, aerial photos and digital elevation models
are presented in figure. All catchmentsdrain from North to south and finally toAwash River.

Figure 1-3: Watershed areas of the project

Soil Type of the watershed Area

Soil type is one of the dominant factors for rainfall-runoff process however for urbanized
catchments it is mainly depends of the land cover/surface type.

The soil types of the watershed areas are examined in this section to classify the soil with
respect to infiltration and runoff i.e. to determine the runoff coefficient or curve number of

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catchments areas. The soil types of the catchments area are determined from site visit as
well as extracted from national geomorphology and soil maps of the country. Soil type of
the drainage areas have different rate of infiltration. Based on infiltration rates, the soil
conservation service (SCS) has divided soil into four hydrologic soil groups. Based on the
map and field observation the soil types for each sub-catchment area are determined
according to the hydrologic soil group. The dominate soil type of the watershed are chromic
vertisols and eutricnitisols which have low infiltration rate. Moreover the contribution of
urban land use for this particular project is significant as result it produce high runoff. The
soil maps of major watershed area are presented in figure 2-3.

Figure 1-4: Soil Map of the project area

Field Surveys
Field surveys were carried out to gather hydrological and hydraulic data related to the
road’s drainage system. The following important data and information was gathered during
these visits.

 Existing drainage systems

 Land cover and land use of the catchments;
 Soil types of the catchments;
 Topography of the catchments and stream lines;
 Stream / river channel characteristics;

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 Intercepted ground water

3.5.3 DATA ANALYSIS

General Considerations
The aim of the hydrological and hydraulic analysis was to derive the maximum discharge for
a given waterway crossing of the road alignment at the design return period. Since
overtopping is a potential danger for large watercourses, longer return periods are
considered for such crossings. In addition flooding of carriageway is another problem which
leads to faster deterioration of roads in addition to accessibility problems encountered.

Factors affecting the maximum discharge of a waterway are catchment area, slope, soil type
and vegetation (land cover and land use), intensity of rainfall and duration of storm. Various
methods of determining the peak or maximum discharge have been deployed; some being
more appropriate for larger catchments and others for smaller catchments. Therefore, in
the study of this particular project, the most appropriate method for each waterway
crossing has been applied.

Rainfall Analysis

In Section 1.3.2.1 probabilistic extrapolation is described of the available annual rainfall and
in Section 1.3.2.2 relationships determination is described between rainfall in mm and
rainfall duration in hours.

In order to apply the available rainfall data for the computation of discharges, the readily
available and collected rainfall data should be analyzed and processed.

PROBABILISTIC EXTRAPOLATION OF MAXIMUM ANNUAL RAINFALL

The analysis and processing will be aimed at determination of appropriate intensity duration
relationship applicable for the project road. Using the short period data to be obtained for
the project will be used to establish intensity-duration curve. From rainfall data with
duration of 0.17, 0.33, 0.50, and 24 hours collected from the NMSA by developing the trend
line of the intensity-duration curve, the trend equation applicable for project is developed.

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By undertaking statistical analysis by using of Gumbel’s distribution Frequency Factor,

rainfall depth for different return periods of 100, 50, 25, 10, 5 years is determined for all the
rain gauge stations.

The rainfall depth computation for the specified return period of the respective rain gauge
stations is carried out using the following relationship:

hT  X avg  KT * 

Where hT = Rainfall depth at return period T years

Xavg = Mean value of rainfall data (hourly or daily)

 = Standard deviation

KT = Gumbel’s distribution frequency factor (from readily available

table, see table in Annex B)

1 in
And X   Xi
n i 1
1
 1
  
 Xi  X  2 2

n 1 

Where Xi =hydrological data rainfall depths)

n = total number of individual data

RAINFALL-DURATION RELATIONSHIP

For rainfall intensity duration curve computation, rainfall data of Bole MetrologicalStation is
used, which is closer to the project areas.

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Using Gumbel probabilistic methods of analysis the value h and I for different return
periods, which are rainfall in mm and rainfall intensity (mm/hr), are given for different
duration as shown in tables 1.1 and 1.2.

Table 1-23: Rainfall depth for different duration and different return period
Rainfall depth, h [mm]

Duration Return period

5 year 10 year 25 year 50 year 100 year

10.0 minute 14.9 17.0 19.6 21.6 23.5

20.0 minute 22.0 23.8 26.1 27.8 29.4

30.0 minute 27.6 30.2 33.4 35.9 38.3

60.0 minute 35.3 40.1 46.1 50.5 54.9

Table 1-24: Rainfall intensity for different duration and different return period
Rainfall depth, h [mm]

Duration Return period

5 year 10 year 25 year 50 year 100 year

10.0 minute 89.7 102.1 117.7 129.3 140.9

20.0 minute 66.0 71.4 78.2 83.3 88.3

30.0 minute 55.1 60.3 66.9 71.8 76.6

60.0 minute 35.3 40.1 46.1 50.5 54.9

Taking into account the values for the project area, the following relationships between
rainfall h (in mm) and duration T (in minutes) were determined for different return periods
(see figure Annex-1.5):

h50 = 6.891*T0.4827

h25 = 6.3581*T0.4829

h10 = 5.6354*T0.4834

h5 = 5.0591*T0.4839

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The following relationships between rainfall intensity I (in mm/hour) and duration T (in
minutes) correspond to those above indicated (see figure Annex-1.4):

I100 = 445.15*T – 0.5175

I50 = 413.11*T – 0.5170

I25 = 380.71*T-0.5164

I10 = 338.05*T-0.5165

I5 = 304.24*T-0.5168

HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY

Return Periods for Peak Design Floods

As per the AACRA Drainage Design Manual (2003) for computation of pick flood of minor
structures the return period shown in table 4.1 is recommended to be used for the roads
projects:

Table 1-25: Return period used for design of pick flood (AACRA’S Drainage Design
Manual)
Roadway Classification Exeedance Return Period
Probability

Urban Principal Arterian Road 4% - 2% 25 – 50-year

Urban Minor Arterian Road 4% 25-year

Urban Collector Street System 10% 10-year

Urban Local Street System 20% - 10 % 5 – 10-year

Source: AACRA Drainage Design Manual (HDS2 1996)

The stream crossings are generally designed to pass peak floods with up to 50 or 100 return
periods. However table 4.1 does not specifically give return period for different drainage
structures. For comparison ERA’s Drainage Design Manual (2002) is presented in table 4.2
for road class equivalent to the road projects (DS1/DS2).

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For design of these road projects a combination of table 4.1 and 4.2 is used.

Table 1-7: Return period used for design of pick flood(ERA’S Drainage Design Manual)
Type of drainage structure Return period to be used

Gutters and Inlets 10/5

Culverts (span <2m) 25

Culverts (2m<span <6m) 50

Short span Bridge (6m<span<15m 50

Medium span Bridge (15m<span<50m) 100

Long span Bridges (span>50m) 100

Methods of Maximum Flood Computations

In the flood computation when the catchments area is less than 0.8km 2 as per AACRA
Drainage Design Manual, 2003, the Rational Formula will be used and if the catchments
areas are greater than 0.8 km2 SCS method will be used.

i) Rational Formula

This relationship is believed to provide adequate results for catchments less than 80ha as
per AACRA Drainage Design Manual, 2003. The main assumption in this formula is that the
maximum rate of flow results from a uniform rainfall intensity over the entire drainage area
where the rainfall has duration equal to the time of concentration.

The principal requirement for determining the time of concentration is to select the average
rainfall intensity for a selected frequency of recurrence.

QT  0.00278 CIA

Where: QT=Peak discharge (m3/sec) for return period T years

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C=Runoff coefficient

A= catchment’s area (ha)

I =Average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of

concentration, for a selected return period, mm/hr

The rational equation given above is applicable for return periods 5 to 10 years. For less
frequent flood computation the rational equation should be multiplied by 1.1, 1.2, and 1.25
for return periods 25, 50 and 100 years recurrence interval respectively.

Time of Concentration:

a) Sheet-flow Travel Time Method

This method is used basically for overland flow with uniform slope and short distance not
exceeding 100m. The time of concentration can be computed using the following equation.

0.8
5.476  nL 
tc  0.5  
P2  S 

Where tc = time of concentration (minutes)

N = Manning’s roughness coefficient

S = slope of the surface (m/m)

L = flow length (upper limit of 91m)

P2 = 2-year, 24-hour rainfall depth (mm)

b) Kirpich formula Method

The concentration time TC in hours is calculated with the help of Kirpich formula.
0.77
 L   1 
TC  0.0195 
0 .5   
  H / L    60 

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Where TC = concentration time (hrs)
L = main stream length (m) in the basin from its source to the
crossing point with the road alignment
H =maximum difference in level (m) of the main stream from its
source to the crossing point with the road alignment

b) Velocity Method

This method is applicable to sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, pipe flow, or channel
flow.

L
TC 
3600 * V

Where TC = Time of concentration [hrs]

L = Distance from remote point to the point of crossing [m]

V = Average velocity [m/sec]

Taking in to account the terrain type, land use and soil condition of the project area, suitable
runoff coefficients will be determined. The dominate factor in the selection of rational
formula is land use/ percentage of area paved.

ii) Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Unit Hydrograph Method

The US Soil Conservation Service developed this method, which is applicable for urban
environment. The inputs for peak discharge estimation includes variables reflect the size of
the contributing areas, the amount of rainfall, the potential watershed storage, and the
time-area distribution of the watershed.

The SCS runoff equation is a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm
rainfall. The equation is:

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PC 
 P  0.2 S  2

P  0.8 S

Where PC = direct runoff (mm)

P = design rainfall (mm)

S = potential infiltration or potential maximum soil water

retention

The potential maximum soil water retention, S, is related to hydrologic soil properties, land
cover and management conditions as well as, the soil moisture status of the catchment’s
prior to rainfall event and expressed by a dimensionless response index termed the
catchment’s curve number (CN).

The CN and S are related as follows:

25400
S  254
CN

The CN number is selected according to the soil, moisture and the land cover of the
watershed area.

The SCS Unit Hydrograph method peak rate of flow is computed using the following
equation:

0.2083 A PC 0.2083 A PC
Q 0.5

0.5 TC  0.6 TC tp

Where tp = time to peak (hrs)

= 0.5 TC0.5 + 0.6 TC

Qp = peak discharge (m3/sec)

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2
A = catchment’s area (km )

PC = storm flow depth or direct runoff (mm)

TC = concentration time (hrs)

The computed peak flood for the crossing streams are shown in Annex-2

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3.5.4 HYDRAULICS
INTRODUCTION

In part I the pick flood for the waterway openings was calculated based on the Hydrology
characteristics of the catchments. In this Part (Part II) the design related to the hydraulics is
determined

Opening sizes were computed using hydraulic analysis of the computed discharges for the
corresponding discharges.

Safe opening is determined to safeguard against scour due to constriction and general
scour. In the hydraulic computations, important local hydrological and geomorphological
characteristics have been taken into consideration.

Stage discharge curve was developed for each major stream to determine the maximum
flood level.

Along the road to avoid spread of water gutter is designed on both side of the road. The
gutter is connected to curve inlet at a minimum spacing of 25m at grading section and 20m
at sag vertical curve and the inlets are connected to longitudinal drainage pipes (storm
sewers).

Existing Drainage Conditions

The size, location, type, and structural condition of existing structures on the stream under
study can be a valuable indicator when selecting the size and type for any new structure.
Therefore, the hydraulic capacity and structural conditions of the facilities has been
extensively surveyed.

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During the site visit, no side ditch is observed and most of side drainage manholes are seen
clogged with mud and detritus. In most stretches, the side drainage manholes are found to
be dysfunctional.

The most challenging problem in urban drainage design is lack of well established drainage
master plan and as built drawing for utilities.

The longitudinal drainage designed from station 5+560 to 4+540 requires intensive follow
up and site adaption during construction, because it is very difficult to get detailed
information regarding junction road drainage conditions. Hence the design couldn’t consider
the connectivity of drainage pipes with the existing junctions’ longitudinal pipes.

Table 2-26: Existing Cross-drainage structures

No Station Structure Status/Remark

Type Span Depth

During the site visit it was

observed that there is sign of
1 0+080 Slab Culvert 3 3.2
overtopping hence it requires to
provide additional opening.

In good condition and no sign of

2 1+060 Slab Culvert 4.2 3.5
overtopping

In good condition and no sign of

3 2+420 T-Girder Bridge 18 7
overtopping

In good condition and no sign of

4 3+000 Slab Culvert 2 2
overtopping

In good condition and no sign of

5 3+640 RC Arch Bridge 16.4 6
overtopping

During the site visit it was

observed that there is sign of
overtopping and it was confirmed
6 6+620 Slab Culvert 6.5 2
by the local people hence it
requires to provide additional
opening.

In good condition and no sign of

7 6+650 Slab Culvert 2 1
overtopping

End/not part of the project as well

8 7+960 RC T-Girder 19.5
as Constructed most recently

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Hydraulic Design of Structures

Hydraulic Design of major Structures

OPENING REQUIREMENTS
In determining the opening sizes a detailed hydraulic analysis has been carried out. A stage-
discharge curve has been generated based on the river geometry, roughness coefficient and
the slope of the riverbed. After obtaining the stage-discharge curve, an appropriate stage
has been read from the graph that corresponds to the design discharge. A 100 year return
period was taken in the hydrological computation with the assumption that all the major
structures will be bridge with span greater than 15m.

Safe opening is determined/cheeked with existing size to safeguard against scour due to
constriction and general scour. In the hydraulic computation, important local hydrologic
and geomorphologic characteristics have been taken into consideration.

The recommended minimum flood size is shown in Annex-3.

SCOUR CHECKS
A Manning formula has been used to compute the stage discharge of the river channel at
the crossings and determine the scouring velocity for all major bridges.

Maximum local scour depth under abutments and piers was determined using the method
derived from Laursen 1960 equation and prepared by Joseph H. Bradely, U.S. Department of
Transportation, for alluvial and incised rivers.

Since all of River bridge crossings have bed rock foundation, scouring is not serious problem.
To avoid localized scouring in the joint of the rock constriction of channel is avoided.

Hydraulic Design of Culverts

SIZE SELECTION
After computing the design discharge corresponding to the return period of the structure
using the available meteorological and topographic data, culvert size selection has been
carried out according to the Manning’s Formula based on the design discharge, roughness
coefficient, slope of the stream and geometrical data of the cross section.

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Roughness coefficient for manning is taken 0.015. A minimum efficiency factor of 200% for
pipe culvert and 150% for slab/box culvert in accommodating the available discharge is
used. The depth of water in pipe culverts for design is taken to be 2/3 full. Hence hydraulic
radius of pipe culvert is taken at depth of water 2/3 full. Outlet velocities for pipe culvert
are computed by iteration using the following two equations:

Q = 1/n * R2/3 *S1/2 * A

Where:

n = manning roughness coefficient. 0.015 for reinforced concrete

pipe culvert

R = hydraulic radius or hydraulic mean depth [m]

= A/P

A = cross-sectional flow area [m2]

P = wetted perimeter [m]

S = longitudinal slope expressed in decimal

Q=V*A

Velocity is computed by iteration where Q, n, S, and diameter of pipe/width of culvert are

taken fixed and V and A are calculated using both equations until the design discharge are
attained. After computing the design discharge corresponding to the return period of the
structure using the available meteorological and topographic data, culvert size selection has
been carried out according to the Manning’s Formula based on the design discharge,
roughness coefficient, and slope of the stream and geometrical data of the cross section.

PROPOSED MINOR STRUCTURES

Concrete culverts (pipes and slabs/box) have been envisaged for minor watercourse
crossings.

Slab culverts are used up to 6-meter span. The minimum size of pipe culverts is 760 mm
(30 inch) diameter and 1500mm diameter has been taken as the largest size. When a single
1500 pipe culvert is insufficient for the design flow, box/slab culverts or multiple cell culverts
will be utilized.

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Design of Storm Sewers (Longitudinal drainage)

The storm sewer system that receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some
point where it is then discharged into a channel, water body, or piped system.Storm sewers
should be designed to avoid surcharging, i.e the situation where flow is under pressure and
water is pushed up through inlets and other facilities. The Consultant has designed the
sewers to surcharge with a maximum tolerated frequency (return period).

Some of the typical decisions that are made in the design of the drainage are:

 Dimension of pipes
 Spacing of inlets
 Slope of pipes

During the study stage the major crossings were observed consisting of urban catchment’s
and natural catchment’s. The area of the natural catchments is expected to reduce with
time as urban area expands, which will result in increase of impervious area. In the pick
discharge computation this is taken into consideration.

Side ditches/longitudinal pipes are an important part of the drainage system especially in
town sections and in cut areas. The major purpose of roadside channels/pipes is to collect
surface runoff from the road and adjacent areas which drain to the right of way and convey
the accumulated runoff to acceptable outlet points.

The longitudinal pipe design will be based on the Manning’s formula, given by:
Q = 1/nAR2/3S1/2

Where,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
A = Cross sectional area of the ditch/pipe
R = Hydraulic Radius
S = Longitudinal slope of the channel/pipe
Q = the design discharge

The design discharge will be determined by the rational formula. The discharge will be based
on the rainfall intensity 10 years return period for DS1. The rainfall duration will be based on
the time of concentration. The rainfall intensity will be derived from the IDF curve. The
Manning’s roughness coefficient for lined and unlined channels will be obtained from
standard tables of drainage design manuals.

The required longitudinal pipes and manhole are shown in Annex-4

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Hydraulic Design of Gutter, Inlets, Manholes and longitudinal pipes

GUTTER
Gutter flow calculations are necessary to establish the capacity of the gutter within the
spread and puddle depth criteria. Gutter capacity is determined based on a modified form
of Manning’s equation, the Izzard formulae, modified for triangular sections having a single
cross fall cross slope (AACRA Drainage Design Manual 2003).

Q   0.375 F  d 8 / 3 S o Z / n
0.5

Where, Q = the total flow (m3/s)

F = flow correction factor (0.9 for simple triangular sections and 0.8 for gutter
sections having different slope from the cross slope of roadway

n =Manning’s roughness coefficient (for asphalt pavement of rough texture n is

taken 0.016)

T = width of flow or spread in the gutter [m]

d = the greatest gutter depth (m)

So = the longitudinal slope (m/m)

Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5%. Minimum pavement cross slope
should not be less than 2% for new construction/re-construction.

INLET

Types of Inlets:

Inlets are placed to intercept the concentrated flow of storm water. Three types of gulley
pit inlets are considered: Kerb or side entery openings, Grated opening and Combination
kerb opening and grate. Kerb or side entery opening type of inlet is selected due to the
suitability for Addis Ababa, where there is a lot of debris which can block the grate easily
and also the expected overlay might done negligently over the grate.

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Location of Inlets:

Inlets are located at the following critical locations of the road independent of hydraulic
calculations:

 Low points in road side drains

 Superelevation transitions
 In advance of pedestrian crossings
 In advance of pedestrian crossings
 In advance of intersections or other important access points; and
 At locations for maintenance purposes such as at changes in direction or
maximum spacing for cleaning purposes (100m maximum spacing)

In most drainage design manuals the minimum spacing of the inlets is 90m (300 feet). In
Addis Ababa city there is higher proportion of unpaved access roads connected to the
Arterial or collector roads which results in higher sediment transport to the paved road. As
well as unexpected flood could come from junction this will force us to keep the minimum
spacing of inlets to lower value. For this design minimum spacing of inlets is taken 25m.

In locations where significant ponding may occur, such as at underpasses or sag vertical
curves in depressed sections, it is recommended practice to place supplemental inlets on
each side of the inlet at low point in the sag.

Capacity of Inlets:

a) On grade:

Flow interception by slotted inlets is side weir and the flow is subjected to lateral
acceleration due to the cross slope of pavement. Thus the equation with a straight cross
slope is expressed by:

Sx

a
LT  KQ 0.42 S 0.3 1 / nS x 
0.6

For composite cross slopes, use Se for Sx,

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Se = Sx + S’wE; S’w = a/w

Where:

K = 0.817

LT = slotted inlet length required to intercept 100% of the gutter flow, m

S = longitudinal slope m/m

Sx = cross slope m/m

The efficiency of slotted inlets shorter than the length required for total interception is
expressed by:

E  1  1  L / LT 
1.8

Where: L = slotted inlet length, m

STORM DRAINS/LONGITUDINAL PIPES

Storm sewers should be designed such that velocities of flow will not be less than 0.91m/s
at design flow. For very flat grades, the general practice is to design components so that
flow velocities will increase progressively throughout the length of the pipe system. The
storm sewer system should be checked to be sure there is sufficient velocity in all of the
drains to deter settling of particles. Minimum slopes are given in table 2.2:

Table 2-27: Minimum Sewer Slopes

Pipe Size [mm] Pipe Size [inch] % Grade for self cleansing

760 30 0.15

915 36 0.12

1070 42 0.12

1220 48 0.10

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In general, as the road ways are all widened the existing side drains need to be replaced. In
designing the side drains care should be taken to protect from blockage by foreign materials
as garbage and solid wastes by inhabitants to create water pools or blockage of the drains.
Because of this closed conduits are recommended in cities and big towns for side drains to
collect the water from the surroundings and direct to the cross drainage structures or other
out let.

In order to determine the capacity/size of longitudinal pipes, the areas that are
contributing/draining to the road corridor/ as well as pavement area has to be considered.

MANHOLE

The following general design guidance for location and spacing of manholes to be used:

 For trunk sewers 36” (915mm) diameter and under, space approximately 100m
apart to facilitate maintenance.
 For trunk sewers 42” (1070mm) diameter and over, space approximately 100
pipe diameters apart.
 At angles in the main sewer
 At points where the size of the sewer changes
 At points where the grade of the sewer changes
 At the junction of sewer lines
 At street intersections or other points, such as connecting lines to catch basins
or inlets
 Access manholes for sewer inspection on large tunnel sewers shall be spaced at
approximately 360m centers
 At points where pipe material changes

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3.5.5 Structures
3.5.5.1 SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The possible types of construction materials required for the drainage and grade separation
bridges in the subject project are considered at the preliminary design stage. The use of
timber and similar construction materials is not feasible for bridges found in such a capital
city like Addis. Steel bridges and reinforced concrete bridges are two possible options of
which reinforced concrete is preferred as the most feasible option based on the following
reasons. The followings are some of the reasons considered while comparison is made
between steel bridges and reinforced concrete bridges.

 Steel Structures are usually preferred for bridges whose services are needed
very urgently as their construction is very fast.
 Steel bridges need continuous inspection and maintenance as damage or loss
of some members or bolts and nuts might result in collapse of the whole
structure.
 Maintenance frequency and cost of steel structures is very high compared to
that of reinforced concrete structures.
 The construction of reinforced concrete structures is more familiarized in the
country than that of steel structures. Steel may need to be imported.
 It is difficult to find steel bridges from manufacturers which exactly satisfy the
entire cross sectional requirements of the subject road standard. And hence
results in delay and additional cost.
 The required span of the bridge in this project is within the allowable range
for reinforced structures. (Table 4.1’Superstructure Type Selection Guide’ of
AACRA Bridge Design Manual.)

Based on the above reasons and other economic considerations, reinforced concrete is
preferred as the main construction material to be used in the design of superstructure and
substructure of the bridges. However, stone masonry shall also be used for retaining walls at
the edge of the road with lower heights.

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The engineering properties of reinforcement steel, concrete and stone masonry utilized
during detail design are summarized as follows.

Table 1-28: Cement Concrete

Grade of 28 day’s Comp. Strength Components of bridge to be designed using
Concrete (15cm cylinder) Mpa. the specified type of concrete

C15 11 Lean concrete under footings.

C30 24 Main sub and superstructure items

C35 28 Railings, RC pipes, and other slender or thin

sectioned drainage structures.

Table 1-29: Reinforcement steel

Grade of steel Minimum yield strength (Mpa) Diameter of bars (mm)

420 420 Diameter >= 20mm

300 300 Diameter < 20mm

The steel and iron factories of the country produce steel with yield strength of 300Mpa for
diameters less than 20mm, and 420Mpa for bars larger than or equal to 20mm diameter.
Therefore the consultant shall use these practical data during the detail design of the
bridges.

Table 1-30: Stone Masonry

Class of Maximum Inaccuracy Components of bridge to be designed using
Masonry (mm) the specified type of masonry

A 5 Piers and Abutments above 6m high.

B 20 Piers and Abutments below 6m high, minor

structures and retaining walls

Cement 40 Other less important structures.

Rubble
Masonry

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3.5.5.2 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE

The type of substructure and superstructure of the bridges are determined based on their
height and span respectively. Stone masonry abutment and wing walls will not be feasible or
stable beyond some height and reinforced concrete abutment and wing wall shall be used.
Likewise the suitable type of reinforced concrete superstructure is with its clear span. And
hence the following design decisions were made for the bridge at hand.

3.5.5.3 SELECTION OF SUBSTRUCTURE TYPE

All retaining walls and abutments of overpass bridges which are to be constructed closer to
the LRT line are designed using reinforced concrete structures considering impact and
fatigue load resulting from vibration due to operation of the LRT system. Retaining walls at
extreme side of the road corridor and Abutments of bridges for major drainage structures of
lower hight are designed using stone masonry.

As the height of abutment of drainage bridges are found to be very short it is recommended
to use stone masonry abutment and wing wall as construction material of the substructure
for the subjected bridge. The height of existing bridges at 2+500(18m RCDG) is 7m and at
3+700(16m concrete Arch) is 6m therefore there is no any requirement of using reinforced
concrete abutment hence stone masonry abutment and wing wall shall be provided.

3.5.5.4 SELECTION OF SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPE.

According to superstructure selection guide (Table 4.1) of AACRA bridge design manual the
type of recommendation type of superstructure is related with the span of the bridge.
Accordingly, reinforced concrete slab is recommended for span 6-12m, T-Girder for span 10-
20m and Box Girder 15-35m span.

Two options were available for the superstructure of the two drainage bridges. The first
option is extension of the existing 18m RCDG at 2+500 and 16m concrete arch bridge at
3+700 superstructure to meet the geometry requirement of the new road, while the second
option is provision of entirely new bridges. Considering conditions of these bridges the

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consultant recommended extending both existing bridge considering the traffic disturbance
and soundness of the structure.

3.5.5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINT AND CLEARANCES

All the grade separation structures are provided with a vertical clearance of about 5.5m for
under passing traffic and LRT line. There are no environmental and other constraints as well
as vertical and horizontal clearance requirements related to bridges to be constructed to
drainage facilities of the subjected project.

The only problem faced during the design of the subject project is the fact that the existing
bridge at 2+500 is dwarf becomes an obstacle to improve the vertical alignment of the road
as per the design requirement.

There were two option of solving the problem faced at this stage. The first option is to
utilize the existing bridge by widening to meet the new geometry requirement and improve
the approach through intensive earth work, while the second option is to abandon the
existing bridge and construct entirely a new bridge with raised finished level to solve the
vertical alignment problem. Therefore the consultant recommends using the existing
structure by extending to meet geometric width considering the difficulty of traffic
accommodation while demolishing the bridges and reconstruction activities. The consultant
may reconsider the options during construction stage if there are possible ways of traffic
accommodation.

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ANNEX – I (PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY
CONTROL POINTS)

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ANNEX – II
(HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT DATA)

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ANNEX – III
(VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT DATA)

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ANNEX – IV (SOIL
EXTENSION SURVEY)

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ANNEX – V (TEST PIT

LOG)

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ANNEX – VI
(HYDRAULIC
ANALYSIS SHEETS)

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ANNEX – VII
(SAMPLE OF
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS )

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