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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES .............................................................................................................. 5
TABLES ................................................................................................................ 6
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 8
1.1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................8
1.2 GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................9
1.3 PROJECT OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................................9
1.4 SCOPE OF SERVICES ....................................................................................................................................9
1.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT .................................................................................................................. 10
1.6 PROJECT LOCATION .................................................................................................................................. 10
1.7 PROJECT ROAD START AND END POINTS .................................................................................................. 12
1.8 CONTROL POINTS OF THE ROAD ............................................................................................................... 13
1.9 PROJECT INFLUENCE AREA ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.10 PURPOSE AND CONTENTS OF THIS REPORT........................................................................................... 14
1.11 PROJECT DATA ..................................................................................................................................... 15
1.12 OBJECTIVES OF THE SERVICES ............................................................................................................. 16
1.13 TEAM COMPOSITION ............................................................................................................................ 17
1.14 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE PROJECT ROAD ....................................................................................... 17
1.14.1 Topography ................................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 1. 5 Project Road Profile .................................................................................................................. 18
1.14.2 Geology of the Route Corridor .................................................................................................. 18
1.14.3 Land Use Pattern ....................................................................................................................... 20
1.14.4 Topography ................................................................................................................................ 20
1.14.5 Soil Characteristics.................................................................................................................... 20
1.14.6 Existing Drainage system .......................................................................................................... 21
1.14.7 Existing traffic system ................................................................................................................ 21
1.14.8 Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 21
1.15 TOWNS AND VILLAGES ........................................................................................................................ 23
1.16 RIVERS ................................................................................................................................................. 24
1.17 THE DATA COLLECTION SOURCES........................................................................................................ 24
2 INVENTORY OF ROAD AND STRUCTURES .............................................. 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 ROAD INVENTORY .................................................................................................................................... 26
2.2.1 Analysis of Road Inventory ............................................................................................................. 26
2.2.2 Road Condition Survey ................................................................................................................... 28
2.3 STRUCTURAL DISTRESSES......................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Rutting ............................................................................................................................................ 29
2.3.2 Pothole............................................................................................................................................ 29
2.4 SURFACE DEFECTS .................................................................................................................................... 29
2.5 INVENTORY OF EXISTING CROSS DRAINAGE STRUCTURES ........................................................................ 31
2.5.1 Bridges and Culvert Inventory Survey ............................................................................................ 31
2.5.2 Structures Condition Survey ........................................................................................................... 32
2.5.3 Analysis of Survey Data .................................................................................................................. 32
2.6 SUMMARY OF CONDITION SURVEY ........................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1 Detail about the Existing Major Structure ..................................................................................... 40

3 TOPOGRAPHY SURVEY ........................................................................... 40

3.1 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 41
3.2 TRIPOD GPS SURVEYING (FOR PRIMARY CONTROL STATIONS SURVEYING).............................................. 41

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3.3 TRAVERSE SURVEYING (FOR SECONDARY CONTROL SURVEYING) ............................................................ 42

3.4 ESTABLISHING MONUMENTS .................................................................................................................... 43
3.5 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY......................................................................................................................... 43
3.6 USE OF THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS .................................................................................................... 44
3.7 SURVEYING EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................... 45
3.8 ACCURACY OF SURVEY WORK .................................................................................................................. 45
3.8.1 The accuracy of x, y co-ordinates using GPS working in static mode: .......................................... 45
3.8.2 Accuracy of Z –co-ordinate using direct leveling 7instrument ....................................................... 46
3.9 DATA PROCESSING AND VALIDATION ....................................................................................................... 46

4 ROUTE LOCATION ................................................................................. 46

4.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................. 46
4.2 IMPORTANT OF ALIGNMENT SELECTION ................................................................................................... 47
4.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF ALIGNMENT ................................................................................................ 48
4.4 ANALYSIS OF THE ALIGNMENTS ............................................................................................................... 49
4.5 METHODOLOGIES OF SELECTING ROUTE .................................................................................................. 49
4.5.1 Proposed Alignment 1 .................................................................................................................... 50
4.5.2 Proposed Alignment 2 .................................................................................................................... 51
4.5.3 Proposed Alignment 3 .................................................................................................................... 52
4.5.4 Selection of Alignment .................................................................................................................... 54
4.5.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 54

5 SOILS AND MATERIALS INVESTIGATION .................................................. 55

5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 55
5.2 SUB-GRADE SOIL EXTENSION ................................................................................................................... 56
5.2.1 Subgrade Material File Investigation ............................................................................................. 56
5.2.2 Subgrade Soils Sampling ................................................................................................................ 59
5.2.3 Laboratory Investigation of Subgrade Soil ..................................................................................... 59
5.3 IN – SITU DENSITY TESTS ........................................................................................................................... 61
5.4 EXISTING PAVEMENT CONDITION ............................................................................................................. 62
5.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS INVESTIGATION ........................................................................................... 63
5.5.1 Borrow Material Sources for Embankment Construction .............................................................. 63
5.5.2 Natural Gravel Sources for Subbase and Backfill for Structures ................................................... 65
5.5.3 Rock Sources for Crushing and Masonry Works ............................................................................ 67
5.5.4 Natural Sand Sources for Mortar and Concrete Works ................................................................. 69
5.5.5 Water Sources for Compaction and Concrete Works ..................................................................... 70
5.6 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS IN LANDSLIDE PRONE AREA ............................................................................ 71
5.6.1 Leaning trees and disturbed vegetation, indicative of existing landslide ....................................... 72
5.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ................................................................................................... 73
5.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 73
5.7.2 Existing Pavement Condition ......................................................................................................... 75
5.7.3 Analysis of In – situ Density Test results ........................................................................................ 80
5.7.4 Analysis of Test Results of Roadbed materials ............................................................................... 81
5.7.5 Analysis of Test Results of Existing Wearing Gravel ...................................................................... 86
5.8 CUT SLOPE STABILITY .............................................................................................................................. 87
5.8.1 Shallow – seated Slope Failures ..................................................................................................... 87
5.8.2 Deep-seated Slope Failures ............................................................................................................ 87
5.9 SLOPE STABILITY OF THE PROJECT ROAD ................................................................................................. 88
5.9.1 Sign of the Existing Slope Instability .............................................................................................. 89
5.9.2 Material in Excavation Section ...................................................................................................... 91
5.9.3 Experience in nearby Projects ........................................................................................................ 91
5.10 RECOMMENDED SLOPE CONDITION FOR DIFFERENT MANUALS ........................................................... 94
5.11 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL................................................ 96
5.11.1 Existing pavement materials ...................................................................................................... 96

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5.11.2 Roadbed materials ..................................................................................................................... 96

5.11.3 Construction Materials .............................................................................................................. 97
5.11.4 Recommended Slope Conditions ................................................................................................ 98
5.11.5 Specifications for Construction Materials ................................................................................. 99

6 PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................... 107

6.1 TRAFFIC SURVEYS AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 108
6.1.1 general .......................................................................................................................................... 108
6.1.2 Classified Traffic Volume Count .................................................................................................. 109
6.1.3 Determination of Annual Average Daily Traffic ...................................................................... 111
6.1.4 Traffic Forecasting ....................................................................................................................... 114
6.1.5 Design Traffic ............................................................................................................................... 130
6.2 SUBGRADE .............................................................................................................................................. 133
6.2.1 Sub grade soil investigation.......................................................................................................... 134
6.2.2 grade strength category ................................................................................................................ 134
6.2.3 Design CBR and Design Subgrade Strength Class ....................................................................... 135
6.2.4 Problematic Soil Sections along the Project Route ...................................................................... 136
6.3 PAVEMENT DESIGN ................................................................................................................................. 136
6.3.1 Design Approach and Criteria ..................................................................................................... 136
6.4 SHOULDER DESIGN ................................................................................................................................. 139
7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ............................................................................... 141
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................................................ 141
7.2 INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN ................................................................................................. 141
7.3 TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 142
7.4 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROJECT ..................................................................................... 143
7.5 DESIGN VEHICLE .................................................................................................................................... 144
7.6 DESIGN SPEED ......................................................................................................................................... 144
7.7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ........................................................................................................... 144
7.8 EXISTING SCENARIO ................................................................................................................................ 146
7.9 NEW ROUTE SECTION ............................................................................................................................. 146
7.10 CREATION OF DTM ............................................................................................................................ 146
7.11 PROPOSED GEOMETRIC DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 147
7.11.1 Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................................................... 147
7.11.2 Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................................... 151
7.11.3 Design Road Cross - Section ................................................................................................... 154
7.11.4 Junctions design....................................................................................................................... 157
7.12 TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS ................................................................................................................. 157
7.12.1 Rural Cross sections ................................................................................................................ 157
7.12.2 Town cross sections ................................................................................................................. 157

8 HYDROLOGY & HYDRAULICS DESIGN .................................................... 158

8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................................................ 158
8.2 HYDROLOGY ........................................................................................................................................... 158
8.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 158
8.2.2 Hydrological Analysis .................................................................................................................. 159
8.2.3 Catchments characteristics ........................................................................................................... 161
8.2.4 Drainage (Watersheds or Basins) ................................................................................................ 162
8.2.5 Hydrological Study ....................................................................................................................... 163
8.2.6 Data Availability........................................................................................................................... 164
8.2.7 Hydrological Conditions .............................................................................................................. 165
8.2.8 Rainfall Data ................................................................................................................................ 165
8.2.9 Design floods Estimation .............................................................................................................. 171

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8.2.10 Run off Models ......................................................................................................................... 172

8.3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 175
8.4 HYDRAULIC DESIGNS OF OPEN CHANNELS ............................................................................................. 179
8.4.1 General ......................................................................................................................................... 179
8.4.2 Existing Drainage Conditions ...................................................................................................... 179
8.4.3 Determination of Capacity of Drainage Structures ...................................................................... 179
8.4.4 Drainage capacity analysis and sizing of new structures ............................................................. 183
9 STRUCTURES.......................................................................................... 184
9.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 184
9.2 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................... 185
9.3 EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES AND NEW RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 185
9.3.1 Existing Structures ........................................................................................................................ 185
9.1.1 Replacement of Structures ............................................................................................................ 185
9.1.2 Recommended Structure ............................................................................................................... 186
9.3.2 Recommended Strategy................................................................................................................. 186
9.4 DESIGN PROCEDURES OF STRUCTURES .................................................................................................. 191
9.4.1 Structural Design Standards......................................................................................................... 191
9.4.2 Minimum Dimensions ................................................................................................................... 191
9.4.3 Structure Type .............................................................................................................................. 192
9.4.4 Design Criteria and Loading ........................................................................................................ 192
9.4.5 Materials Properties ..................................................................................................................... 192
9.5 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES ................................................................................................................... 194
9.5.1 Superstructure Design .................................................................................................................. 194
9.5.2 Substructure design ...................................................................................................................... 196
9.5.3 Foundations .................................................................................................................................. 197
9.5.4 Bridge Ancillary Elements ............................................................................................................ 200
9.6 MASONRY ............................................................................................................................................... 200
9.6.1 Abutments and Wing walls............................................................................................................ 200
9.6.2 Piers.............................................................................................................................................. 201
9.7 RETAINING WALL ................................................................................................................................... 201
10 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKING ....................................................... 202
10.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 202
10.2 TRAFFIC SIGNS ................................................................................................................................... 202
10.2.1 Road Sign Details .................................................................................................................... 203
10.3 MARKER POSTS .................................................................................................................................. 205
10.3.1 Kilometer Posts ........................................................................................................................ 205
10.3.2 Guide posts .............................................................................................................................. 205
10.4 ROAD MARKINGS ............................................................................................................................... 206
10.4.1 Pavement Markings ................................................................................................................. 206

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FIGURES
FIGURE 1. 1 LOCATION MAP .................................................................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 1. 2 PROJECT AREA ................................................................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 1. 3 PHOTO OF THE PROJECT START JINKA TOWN ......................................................................... 12
FIGURE 1. 4 PHOTO OF PROJECT ENDING POINT - MENDER ...................................................................................... 13
FIGURE 1. 5 PROJECT ROAD PROFILE ...................................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 1. 6 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUTE CORRIDOR ............................................................................................... 20
FIGURE 1. 7 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM MONTHLY TEMPERATURE NEAR JINKA TOWN ............................................. 23
FIGURE 1. 8 PHOTO OF YETNEBERSHI VILLAGE ............................................................................................. 23

FIGURE 2. 1 PHOTO OF EXISTING ROAD .................................................................................................................. 27

FIGURE 2. 2 LONGITUDINAL EROSION GULLIES ...................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 2. 3 POSHITI RIVER EXISTING CULVERT. ................................................................................................. 35
FIGURE 2. 4 TOLTA RIVER EXISTING CULVERT. .................................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 2. 5 PHOTO OF FORD AT 5+704 ............................................................................................................ 36
FIGURE 2. 6 GOOD SLAB GIRDER BRIDGE AT 26+425 ............................................................................................ 37
FIGURE 2. 7 NERI RIVER EXISTING BRIDGE. ........................................................................................................ 38

FIGURE 4. 1 PROPOSED ROUTE 1 ............................................................................................................................. 50

FIGURE 4. 2 PROPOSED ROUTE 2 ............................................................................................................................. 52
FIGURE 4. 3 PROPOSED ROUTE 3 .............................................................................................................................. 53

FIGURE 7. 1 PROFILE OF THE ROAD ....................................................................................................................... 146

FIGURE 7. 2 TYPICAL X-SECTION FOR FLAT & ROLLING TERRAIN ....................................................................... 154
FIGURE 7. 3 TYPICAL X-SECTION FOR MOUNTAINOUS & ESCARPMENT TERRAIN ............................................... 154
FIGURE 7. 4 TYPICAL X-SECTION FOR ‘KEBELE’ SEAT ......................................................................................... 155

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TABLES
TABLE 1. 1 TERMINAL AND INTERMEDIATE CONTROL POINTS ................................................................................. 13
TABLE 1. 2 KEY PROJECT DATA ............................................................................................................................ 15
TABLE 1. 3 TEAM COMPOSITION ........................................................................................................................... 17
TABLE 1. 4 TERRAIN CLASSIFICATIONS (ALONG THE EXISTING ROAD)................................................................... 17
TABLE 1. 5 MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL AND MEAN MONTHLY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURE NEAR
JINKA ............................................................................................................................................................ 21
TABLE 1. 6 LIST OF TOWNS AND VILLAGES .......................................................................................................... 23
TABLE 1. 7 LIST OF EXISTING CROSSING STRUCTURES ..................................................................................... 24

TABLE 2. 1 DETAILS OF EXISTING STRUCTURES ................................................................................................. 33

TABLE 2. 2 DETAILS OF EXISTING PIPE CULVERTS .................................................................................................. 33
TABLE 2. 3 EXISTING RIVER STRUCTURES & NAMES .............................................................................................. 40

TABLE 3. 1 LIST OF FEATURE CODES .................................................................................................................... 44

TABLE 3. 2 LIST OF INSTRUMENTS........................................................................................................................ 45

TABLE 4. 1 EVALUATION OF PROPOSED ALIGNMENTS OF THE ROAD .............................................................. 54

TABLE 6. 1 VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION .................................................................................................................. 109

TABLE 6. 2 TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ............................................................................... 110
TABLE 6. 3 TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE.................................................................. 110
TABLE 6. 4 TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON BOTH LANES.............................................................................................. 110
TABLE 6. 5 ADJUSTED 24 HOURS TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ........................................... 112
TABLE 6. 6 ADJUSTED 24 HOURS TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE .............................. 112
TABLE 6. 7 ADJUSTED 24 HOURS TRAFFIC COUNT DATA ON BOTH LANES .......................................................... 112
TABLE 6. 8 PERCENTAGE TRAFFIC COMPOSITION ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ......................................................... 113
TABLE 6. 9 PERCENTAGE TRAFFIC COMPOSITION ON THE JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE ..................................... 113
TABLE 6. 10 AADT ON ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2015 .................................................................. 113
TABLE 6. 11 AADT ON THE JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2015.................................................... 113
TABLE 6. 12 AADT ON BOTH LANES ON THE YEAR 2015 ...................................................................................... 114
TABLE 6. 13 TABLE 5.2.15 GDP, POPULATION AND PER CAPITA INCOME DEVELOPMENT ................................ 115
TABLE 6. 14 EXPECTED GDP GROWTH IN ETHIOPIA .......................................................................................... 116
TABLE 6. 15 INCOME ELASTICITY OF DEMAND FOR TRANSPORT .......................................................................... 117
TABLE 6. 16 AVERAGE ANNUAL TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE – LOW SCENARIO ..................................................... 119
TABLE 6. 17 AVERAGE ANNUAL TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE – MEDIUM SCENARIO ............................................... 119
TABLE 6. 18 AVERAGE ANNUAL TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE – HIGH SCENARIO .................................................... 119
TABLE 6. 19 ESTIMATED ANNUAL TRAFFIC GROWTH RATES .............................................................................. 120
TABLE 6. 20 NORMAL & GENERATED TRAFFIC ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2019 ............................. 122
TABLE 6. 21 NORMAL & GENERATED TRAFFIC ON JINKA JUNCTION LANE ON THE YEAR 2019 ............................ 122
TABLE 6. 22 NORMAL & GENERATED TRAFFIC ON BOTH LANES ON THE YEAR 2019 ........................................... 123
TABLE 6. 23 ESTIMATED DIVERTED TRAFFIC ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2019 ................................. 124
TABLE 6. 24 ESTIMATED DIVERTED TRAFFIC ON THE JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2019 ............. 124
TABLE 6. 25 ESTIMATED DIVERTED TRAFFIC ON BOTH LANES ON THE YEAR 2019 ................................................ 124
TABLE 6. 26 ESTIMATED TRAFFIC ON MENDIR BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2019 ................................................. 125
TABLE 6. 27 ESTIMATED TRAFFIC ON JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE ON THE YEAR 2019...................................... 125
TABLE 6. 28 ESTIMATED TRAFFIC ON BOTH LANES ON THE YEAR 2019 ................................................................. 126
TABLE 6. 29 PROJECTED AADT ON MENDIR BOUND LANE .................................................................................. 126
TABLE 6. 30 PROJECTED AADT ON JINKA JUNCTION BOUND LANE ..................................................................... 127
TABLE 6. 31 PROJECTED AADT ON BOTH LANES OF THE ROAD........................................................................... 128
TABLE 6. 32 AVERAGE EQUIVALENCY FACTORS (ESAS) FOR DIFFERENT VEHICLE TYPES .............................. 131

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TABLE 6. 33 ESTIMATED EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLES ON THE DESIGN LANE ................................................. 131
TABLE 6. 34 TRAFFIC CLASSES FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN....................................................................... 132
TABLE 6. 35 DESIGN CBR .................................................................................................................................. 134
TABLE 6. 36 SUBGRADE STRENGTH CLASSES ....................................................................................................... 135
TABLE 6. 37ACTUAL SOIL & TRAFFIC CLASS FOR ROAD SECTIONS ................................................................... 137
TABLE 6. 38 PROPOSED PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR DESIGN TRAFFIC AND SUBGRADE CLASSES ........................... 138

TABLE 7. 1 ERA TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................................... 142

TABLE 7. 2 TERRAIN CLASSIFICATIONS (ALONG THE EXISTING ROAD) ................................................................. 142
TABLE 7. 3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN STANDARD DS4 (PAVED)................................... 145
TABLE 7. 4 WIDENING ON CURVES AND HIGH FILL ............................................................................................... 150
TABLE 7. 5 TERRAIN VERSUS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE GRADE FOR DS4............................................................................... 152
TABLE 7. 6 MINIMUM VALUES FOR CREST VERTICAL CURVES ............................................................................ 153
TABLE 7. 7 MINIMUM VALUES FOR SAG VERTICAL CURVES ................................................................................ 153

TABLE 10. 1 LOCATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNS ........................................................................................................ 204

TABLE 10. 2 SPACING OF GUIDE POSTS AT CURVESTABLE................................................................................ 206

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The development of our country economy depends on the growth of road network in the country.
Therefore to address the negative impact of the country growth caused by poor road condition and
restricted access besides owing to the importance of the road transport in supporting social and
economical growth and in meeting poverty reduction objectives, the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia has placed an increased emphasis on improving the quality and size of the road infrastructure.
The Government of Ethiopia formulated in 1996, a multiple years Road Sector Development
Programmes (RSDPs). To this end, the government has made a huge amount of investment towards
improvement of the road network. These investment outlays cover the rehabilitation or upgrading of the
Trunk, Link, Access and Rural roads and construction of new roads to expand the network.

As has been the case in the past, the government of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)
continues its commitment to give the road sectors the highest priority and is preparing more projects for
funding by donors and from the national budget. Individual road projects are selected for inclusion in the
RSDP on the basis of needs assessment and taking into account the level of traffic, road condition and
access problem etc.

The road project of Jinka-Hana Design and Build Road Project [Lot-1: Jinka-Mendir] is 44.11 kms and
the road project is entirely located in the Southern Nations Nationalities Peoples’ Regional State. The
Project road starts at Jinka town and ends at Mendir for Contract I. The referenced road links the
existing Sodo-Arbaminch-Jinka and Sodo-Sawla-Laska-Salayish-(Hana)-Omo Roads (under
construction). The Jinka - Hana road project ends at Hana town, which meets the Sodo-Sawla-Laska-
Salayish-(Hana) - Omo DST road Project at km 65, where Hana Town is 15km from Omo river where
Kuraz Sugar Factories located.

In accordance with the above and its overall road sector strategy, the FDRE, represented by Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA), has allocated sufficient budget to finance payments for the design and
construction works of Jinka-Hana (Contract I: Jinka-Mendir, Lot 1: – km 44.11) Road Project through
the Design and Built contract delivery strategy.

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The project involves selection of routes, designing and constructing of the road with DS4 Asphalt
Concrete Standard. The work includes demolishing and removal of substandard structures such as
Fords, Bridges, Culverts and vented causeways if any, and construction of new culverts and Bridges as
required from hydrology of the area and hydraulic designs.

This Engineering report has been prepared in accordance with the Design and Build Project
requirements. It encompasses surveys, analyses, interpretations and recommendations and conclusions
of studies undertaken to complete the detailed design of the existing project.

1.2 General
The report is intended to cover all features of detailed design carried out according to the ERA Design
Manuals 2002. International standards and practices are also referred to where applicable.

1.3 Project Objectives

Ethiopian Road Construction Corporation was assigned by the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) for the
services of Preparing Detailed Engineering Design and Project Cost Estimate for the Design and Build
contract delivery strategy of Hana – Mendir Road Project.

After discussion and general consensus was reached, ERA has verbally instructed ERCC to prepare
detail road design report and to estimate project construction cost so as to negotiate on the project cost
and award the project to ERCC. The instruction to commence the services was issued by ERA in
February 2015 after the feasibility study was finalized by Net Consulting. Then after, the ERCC’s design
team has started the road design works by reviewing the Net Consulting Feasibility Study report and
arranging multiple site visits to the project area.

1.4 Scope of Services

The general scope of work is to review the detailed engineering design of Jinka - Mendir road and to
carry out detailed design of the road for a length of 44.11 km. However, during the review process, it
was found that no topographic survey data was available and moreover, the work was not connected to
National Grid System. There are no permanent GPS beacons. Based on these observations, the ERCC

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worked out a detailed design of the road after doing topographic surveying of the proposed route based
on the route selection criteria of ERA Design Manual 2002 which could be accepted by ERA.
Accordingly, the Design Team of ERCC carried out detail design of the road after the entire project road
length was surveyed along the proposed existing route by crossing all rural towns and villages
appropriately.

Jinka - Mendir is about 48.1km. The starting point of the project is Jinka town center. The jinka town is
now considered as the starting point of the project Road.

The horizontal and vertical alignments between the Jinka to Mender town were originally made by Net
Consulting for the purpose of Feasibility Study Report. However, The ERCC Design Team has
somehow modified the design of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments at some points so as to match with
the newly created control points besides due to the creation of alternative routes along some segments
of the project road for securing easy gradients and desirable horizontal radius.

1.5 Description of the Project

The primary objective of the project is to connect Jinka and Mender towns. The alignment follows the
existing road and crossing multiple villages and rural cities which was constructed as lower standard
road by contractor previously.

1.6 Project Location

The project is located in Southern Nations Nationalities People’s Regional State. The project road Jinka-
Hana (Lot-1: Jinka-Mendir) Road Design and Build project starts at Jinka at coordinates (E= 230395m,
N= 640157m) and traverses to the north west direction for about 48.1kms and terminates at Mendir at
Coordinates (E= 661172m, N= 661172m). Jinka is located about 750kms from Addis Ababa and could
be reached by traveling along Addis Ababa – Modjo – Shashemene – Arbaminch – Jinka main road.

The project road is intended to connect around five rural villages. The project is geographically located
between 5°47'10.60"N Latitude and 36°33'55.89"E Longitude at Jinka town and 6° 3'23.26"N Latitude
and 36°32'1.87"E Longitude at Mindir village town. Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 below shows the locations
of the main towns and other landmarks within the project area.

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Figure 1. 1 Location Map

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Figure 1. 2 Project Area

1.7 Project Road Start and End Points

The project road starts at 0 km from Jinka town and stretches with a total length of 48.1kms and
terminates at Mender town.

Figure 1. 3 Photo of the project start Jinka Town

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Figure 1. 4 Photo of project ending point - Mender

1.8 Control Points of the Road

The following Wereda and Kebele seats of the rural towns along the project route are the main control
points of the project.
Table 1. 1 Terminal and intermediate control points

Station Coordinates Towns/Villages

No
From To From To
1 0+000 3+720 Jinka; Zonal Seat
230303 639954 228954 643097

2 7+530 8+950 Yetnebersh; Kebele

228227 646467 228818 647926 Seat

3 14+200 17+600 Gazer;Wereda Seat

231625 651069 231911 654441

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4 26+300 27+700 232051 661370 231221 661437 Mitsir;Kebele Seat

5 36+000 38+160 226018 659809 226302 661879 Tolta; Kebele Seat

6 43+800 44+111 222149 661090 221871 660925 Mindir; Kebele Seat

1.9 Project Influence Area

The project road is located in the Jinka Zone of the Southern Nations Nationalities People’s Regional
State. The project road connects Jinka woreda and a number of Kebele rural cities namely Yetnebersh,
Gazer, Mitsir, Tolta, and Mendir and constructing DS4 standard road significantly increase the growth of
the villages and increase their economy dramatically. Furthermore, the construction of the project road
impacts the livelihood of the population in the area and extends over the entire region.

1.10 Purpose and Contents of this Report

This Engineering Report summarizes design standards adopted and analysis carried out to arrive at a
Detailed Engineering Design, Final Drawings and Project Construction Cost Estimate for constructing
the road as Design and Build project.

The Detailed Engineering Design Report is divided into eleven chapters. The figures, tables which
supplement some of the chapters, are given as appendices to the main report. The description of the
various chapters is as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Inventory of Roads and Bridges
Chapter 3: Topographic Survey
Chapter 4: Route Location
Chapter 5: Traffic Studies
Chapter 6: Geometrical design

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Chapter 7: Soil and Material Investigation

Chapter 8: Hydrology/Hydraulic Studies
Chapter 9: Structures Study
Chapter 10: Pavement Design
Chapter 11: Road Furniture

In this Engineering Report, the first chapter includes details and description of the project road, the
second chapter provides information about road and structure inventories and condition surveys. The
third chapter discusses fixing of primary and secondary points and the methodology for carrying out of
detailed cross section surveys. The fourth chapter describes route location studies carried out. The fifth
chapter dwells upon the traffic studies and their analyses. The sixth chapter outlines geometric design
standards, critical evaluation of existing geometrical features and discusses proposed horizontal and
vertical alignments.

The seventh chapter gives details of locations and tests and results of material investigation. Chapter
eight summarizes the outcomes of hydrological and hydraulic studies.

Chapter nine presents the structures study while Chapter ten describes pavement design. The eleventh
chapter sets out providing the details of road furniture with additional innovative ideas related to
boundary stones and kilometer stones. The twelfth chapter estimates project costs.

1.11 Project data

Summary of the project information regarding its name, project length location and project cost are
described in the table below;

Table 1. 2 Key Project Data

Project Name Executing Detailed Engineering Design and Project Cost Estimate
for Jinka – Mendir Design and Build Road Project.
Client Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA).
Contractor Ethiopian Road Construction Corporation (ERCC).

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Type of Service Preparation of Detailed Engineering Design Report and Project

Cost Estimate for Jinka – Mendir Design and Build Road Project.
Length of Project Jinka – Mendir Road – 44.11 km.
Project Location Jinka – Mendir Road is located in the Jinka Zone of the Southern
Nations Nationalities People’s Regional State.
Funding Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

1.12 Objectives of the Services

ERRCC was assigned by ERA to carry out the detailed engineering design and the project cost estimate
for the concept design prepared by Net Consult and make all amendments and carry out additional
studies necessary for the construction of Jinka – Mendir Design and Build road project. The Contractor
will assume full responsibility for the soundness and sufficiency of the detailed engineering design and
the Project Cost Estimate. Therefore, ERCC is expected from the client (ERA) to accomplish the
following points for the construction works of Jinka – Mender Design and Build road Project.

To review the Feasibility Study Report worked out by Net Consulting.

To carry out the necessary field investigations and detailed engineering
design and
Project Cost Estimate.

packaging is an important aspect of procurement strategy since it will facilitate timely completion of the
project. The contract duration is largely dependent on estimated quantities, accessibility and the
available machinery output. The financial viability of individual contract should include contractor’s
utilization of machinery and probable rate of return of capital.

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1.13 Team Composition

Table 1. 3 Team Composition

Designation Name

Team leader Andinet Zeleke

Highway Engineer Elsabet Welde

Highway Engineer Endale Regasa

Contract Engineer Yodit Wubshet

Structural Engineer Hikma Abduletif

Material Engineer Yared Teketel

1.14 Physical Features of the Project Road

1.14.1 Topography
The route corridor is rolling terrain in some areas and mountainous & escarpment terrains in high land
areas. The minimum road elevation is 1429m at Mendir town and the maximum elevation is 1869m at
18.7 kms from Jinka town.

The project road’s terrain classifications are roughly as indicated hereunder.

Table 1. 4 Terrain Classifications (Along the existing road)

Station Design Speed

Length, Km Terrain Type km/hr
From To
0+000.00 3+720.00 3720 Urban 50
3+720.00 5+000.00 1280 Mountainous 60
5+000.00 7+530.00 2530 Rolling 70
7+530.00 8+950.00 1420 Urban 50
8+950.00 9+420.00 470 Rolling 70
9+420.00 11+080.00 1660 Mountainous 60
11+080.00 12+800.00 1720 Rolling 70
12+800.00 14+200.00 1400 Mountainous 60
14+200.00 17+600.00 3400 Urban 50

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17+600.00 23+000.00 5400 Escarpment 50

23+000.00 24+500.00 1500 Mountainous 60
24+500.00 26+300.00 1800 Rolling 70
26+300.00 27+700.00 1400 Urban 50
27+700.00 32+200.00 4500 Mountainous 60
32+200.00 33+100.00 900 Rolling 70
33+100.00 34+300.00 1200 Mountainous 60
34+300.00 36+000.00 1700 Rolling 70
36+000.00 38+160.00 2160 Urban 50
38+160.00 40+740.00 2580 Mountainous 50
40+740.00 41+670.00 930 Rolling 70
41+670.00 43+240.00 1570 Escarpment 50
43+240.00 43+800.00 560 Rolling 70
43+800.00 44+111.00 311 Urban 50

Figure 1. 5 Project Road Profile

1.14.2 Geology of the Route Corridor

Ethiopia has a complex geological history represented in three major geological terrains. Late
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental and marine sediments occur mainly in the eastern part

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of Ethiopia. Also Cenozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks occur, including those of the East African Rift
Valley transecting the country from south to north.

The major geology formations are encountered along the project route coridors. The following geologic
formations are mainly exists along the road:

Flood basalt with minor salic flows (pjb)

Rhyolite and trachyte flows and tuff with minor basalt (pjr).

1.14.2.1 Flood basalt with minor salic flows (pjb) Formation

This geologic formation exists at the beginning of the project around Jinka town and for some road
stretches of the project road corridor. This geologic formation is formed by rapid cooling of basaltic lava
exposed at or near the surface. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of lava basalt flows.

1.14.2.2 Rhyolite and trachyte flows and tuff with minor basalt (pjr).
This geologic formation exists at the end of the project around Mendir village and for some road
stretches of the project road corridor. The Tuff is an ignimbrite (welded tuff), a cooled deposit of a huge
rhyolitic pyroclastic flow formed from volcanic activities.

Apart from the field observation regarding the geology of the route corridor, the Geological Map of
Ethiopia, scale 1: 2,000,000.00 which was first published in 1973 and edited in 1996 was assessed as
shown in Figure 1-2.

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Figure 1. 6 Geology of the Route Corridor

1.14.3 Land Use Pattern

The land cover of the project area is dominated by five villages, shrub land, woodland, farmland and
grass lands with some mountains.

1.14.4 Topography
The topography of the road is predominantly rolling in the lowland areas, with a considerable
mountainous and escarpment sections. Elevation differences around some road stretches are very high
and require box cuts to me the road standard.

1.14.5 Soil Characteristics

Predominate soil types that are available along the project road corridor are weathered gravel soil, red to
brown silt soil, clay soil and silty-clay soil with poor potential for infiltration.

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1.14.6 Existing Drainage system

The project road forms a part of the Omo river basin. There are five river crossings cross the project
road. The existing road was not provided with an adequate number of cross drainage structures with
respect to hydrology of the area and hydraulic designs. Only one bridge out of the five existing bridges
are sufficient structurally and satisfies the Hydrology of its catchment area and hydraulic design
requirements. The four bridge crossing requires reconstruction with new ones based on their Hydrology
and hydraulics.

1.14.7 Existing traffic system

The existing traffic is estimated to be between 100 and 200 CVD (Commercial Vehicles per Day). At
present, there is low standard gravel road between the two woredas. Once the newly upgraded road is
constructed, the traffic is expected to increase dramatically. The areas are very fertile and conducive to
agricultural and cash crop development. The new road along with the newly constructed bridges on the
four river crossings will foster the overall development of the region which will in turn increase traffic
levels. Considering the future socio-economic development of the area the corresponding growth of
traffic is expected to be 400 CVD during the opening of the new road.

1.14.8 Climate
The climate of the project area is classified as “Weinadega” in the lowland areas and “Dega” in the
highland areas near Mendir. In the Jinka area the maximum daily temperature is generally around 30ºC
while the minimum temperature is 14ºC. Annual rainfall in the area is generally around 1345 mm and.
The area has a moisture index of above 0.5, which is classified as moderately humid. Detailed climate
data is given are the following Tables:

Table 1. 5 Mean Annual Rainfall and Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum
Temperature near Jinka

Temperature Rainfall
S.No Month
Minimum Maximum (mm)

1 January 14 30 47

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2 February 15 30 71

3 March 17 30 107

4 April 17 27 178

5 May 16 26 167

6 June 16 25 107

7 July 15 24 124

8 August 15 25 120

9 September 15 25 130

10 October 16 26 169

11 November 14 27 126

12 December 14 29 29

Annual Rainfall (mm) 1345

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Figure 1. 7 Minimum and maximum monthly temperature near Jinka town

1.15 Towns and Villages

The project area is one of the most sparsely populated areas of the country. However, there are some
settlement and agricultural activities in the highlands and around villages. The project road connects
Jinka town and Mendir towns which are ‘Wereda’ and ‘Kebele’ seats. The list of villages located along
the road corridor is given below:

table 1. 6 List of Towns and Villages

Town/Village
S.NO Latitude Longitude
Name

1 Jinka
5°47'10.60"N 36°33'55.89"E

2 Yetnebersh 5°50'23.33"N 36°32'44.17

3 Gazer
5°54'10.94"N
36°34'38.65"E

4 Mitsir 5°59'6.47"N 36°34'41.00"E

5 Tolta 6° 3'39.26"N 36°35'18.62"E

6 Mendir 6° 3'23.26"N 36°32'1.87"E

Figure 1. 8 Photo of Yetnebershi Village

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1.16 Rivers
The project road, in its route, crosses many rivers and rivulets. The list of rivers, their proposed structure
types and their total spans are given below in Table.

Table 1. 7 List of Existing Crossing Structures

Structure Existing
Proposed Proposed
S.No Crossing Structure Remarks
Span (m) Structure type
Type type

1 2 span T-Girder To be constructed

2+075 Steel Bridge 40 RC Bridge

2 RC Slab Bridge To be constructed

5+704 10
Ford

3 T-Girder RC Single Span T- The existing bridge

26+425 Bridge 16 Girder RC Bridge is adequate

4 Slab Culvert RC Slab Bridge To be constructed

28+424 10

5 Slab Culvert RC Slab Bridge To be constructed

33+440 8

1.17 The Data collection Sources

Information pertaining to different aspects of the road projects has been collected. The following data
and documents have been collected and reviewed by the project team.

1:50,000 Topographic Maps covering the entire route length.

National Grid and level Coordinates, from Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
National Atlas
Climatic Atlas

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Monthly rainfall data

Meteorological data, from National Meteorology Service Agency.
ERA Standard Specification, 2002
Geological map for the entire route length
Satellite Imageries pertaining to project area (Google Earth).

2 INVENTORY OF ROAD AND STRUCTURES

Many highway projects involve improvement to an existing road or construction of new facilities which
are an improvement in traffic conditions over the existing facility. In all these cases, the scope of the
improvement measures and the economic justification for them depends up on the condition of the
existing road. Therefore, it becomes necessary to prepare a road inventory and carry out condition
survey.

2.1 Introduction
Before designing a highway, it is necessary to assess the existing road and its components such as
bridges, and culverts. The outcome of such surveys is a major input to design, to address inherent
deficiencies and to enhance design features. The primary data collected from the site not only provide a
good picture of the site conditions, but also give us insights into the deficiencies and the scope for
improvements.

The various engineering surveys and investigations which have been carried out for the project are
listed below:

Road Inventory surveys,

Road Condition surveys,
Inventory of Cross Drainage Structures,
Condition Survey of Bridges.

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2.2 Road Inventory

An inventory of the project road was carried out through dimensional measurement and visual
inspection. Features like terrain and land-use, height of fill or depth of cut, width of road and shoulders,
important road junctions and geometric deficiencies were recorded.

2.2.1 Analysis of Road Inventory

The existing road with a length of 48 km was built previously. The work was as earth road. The road was
constructed as per DS6 standards with a carriage width of 6 m with 1m sloped shoulders.Existing
geometrical features largely conform to DS6 standards. The available width varies between 3m-4m thick
bushes and vegetation have encroached the remaining road.

Such assessment is aimed to evaluate the contribution of the existing pavement in the upgrading for use
as capping or sub base layer if the geometric standards (horizontal and vertical) of which are good
enough to maintain the existing alignment. Generally, on a preliminary basis, the whole project can be
classified into two homogenous sections depend on the surface condition and construction of the
pavement:

The project road is suitably divided into the following road sections:

2.2.1.1 Jinka (0+000) to Outskirt of Tolta town (km40)

As observed during the reconnaissance survey, the existing select material surfacing road in this section
is not designed by acceptable engineering practices and constructed with materials complying standard
specification. The surface and erosion gullies observation revealed that the selected gravel material was
placed directly over the prepared subgrade materials. Moreover, the thickness of the surface material is
found to be variable, and expected to be below 15cm over the whole stretch of the section. The width
ranges 5m to 8m.

Surface distresses such as erosion gully, corrugation, loss of crown slope, raveling and deep side
erosion are prevalent in the section. On top of these, the surfacing material contains oversized gravel
and in some parts cobbles that do not satisfy the grading requirement for subbase; mostly contaminated
with high plastic materials from the side and very difficult to drive on when getting wet. Attribute to these

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and since it traverses on stepper grade (particularly km 18-km30); the riding quality of the section is
poor.

Generally, on a preliminary basis, it has been concluded that the existing gravel surface is not potential
for use as subbase but can be considered for part of the capping layer.

Photo: the existing select material was placed directly on the subgrade and almost in the whole
stretch contaminated by plastic fine such that slipperiness is the main attribute. Some portion
was constructed with material containing excess gravel and cobbles which further hamper the
driving quality.

Figure 2. 1 Photo of Existing Road

2.2.1.2 Tolta town (km40) to Mender Village (end)

This section of the roadway mainly traverses through rolling and mountainous of the project, and
characterized by narrow road way width, lack of proper side drainage ditch, and thinner wearing course
materials, mostly less than 15cm. It was constructed under UURAP program.

Visual examination showed that the wearing material does not satisfy the requirement of subbase
materials. Revision of geometric elements is imminent in this section and hence the consideration for
use in capping layer is not also foreseen.

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Photo: Due to its improper geometric design and absence of side drainages, in most stretches
of the section, the road is suffered from longitudinal erosion gullies

Figure 2. 2 Longitudinal Erosion Gullies

In both sections of the road stretches, Considerable lengths of black cotton soil are observed. Expansive
soils pose perpetual problems in providing a sustainable pavement course. These soils are susceptible
to moisture contents and their change in volume is unpredictable. This will also affect surrounding soil
behavior. The embankment along the project road stretch is generally observed to be about 1 m height.

2.2.2 Road Condition Survey

There are various types of pavement distress and failures associated with gravel roads. They are
broadly classified into structural failures and surface defects.

2.3 Structural Distresses

The following are the major pavement distresses;

Rutting
Pothole

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2.3.1 Rutting
Rutting is a permanent deformation on wheel paths, which develops when the surface or roadbed
materials have inadequate shear strength under the traffic loading and prevailing moisture conditions.
Rutting is frequently associated with erosion, which further accelerates the phenomenon, particularly
along steeper grades.

2.3.2 Pothole
This is a wet weather deterioration formed under traffic action. Free water on the surface accumulates in
the depressions, and the passage of a vehicle tire stirs up the water causing fine materials to pass into
suspension. Water, with the suspended fine material, is also forced out of the depression. Under the
action of many wheel passages and sufficient water, this is a rapidly accelerating phenomenon. It is
aggravated by the presence of oversized stones that are often displaced by the traffic action, leaving
spots for potholes to form.

The severity of distresses is attributed to failure of sub-grade, that is, failure of pavements. The severity
and spread indicates extents of sub-grade failure.

2.4 Surface defects

Theses defects indicate failure of one or more layers and the condition of surface layers.

Surface Erosion
Longitudinal erosion, mostly along ruts ;
Transverse erosion
Deformation
Corrugation
Riding surface

The road condition survey reveals that heavy rutting, longitudinal erosion, corrugation are predominant
pavement failures. The absence of side drains and the blockage of cross drainage structure have
resulted in ponding of water which is likely to wash away the binder material. This has been aggravated

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by the absence of the camber. The road now consists of scattered stones, oversized boulders along the
wheel tracks. Thus, the road surface is very rough.

The present pavement condition survey, type and gravel thickness measured from the test pits proved
that there is not much re-usable amount of gravel in the proposed new pavement for the upgrading
works. It is observed that the surface material is mixed with plant roots and other undesirable materials,
rendering it unsuitable for re-use.

Photo of Trees and Vegetation Photo of Rutting and Bushes

Photo of Road Side View Photo of Material Site

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Photo of ROW Obstructions

2.5 Inventory of existing Cross Drainage structures

The study of bridges and culverts mainly includes:
Making an inventory of the existing structures and assessing their condition
Identifying the existing structures that have to be replaced and, that can be
retained with or without repairs
Identifying new structures.

2.5.1 Bridges and Culvert Inventory Survey

The condition of existing structures has been assessed using the criteria outlined below:
Geometrical Adequacy: The geometrical aspect of the drainage structure with
respect to horizontal and vertical alignments of the approach road as per ERA
standards.
Functional Adequacy: This deals with required carriage width, space provision
of crash barrier, footpath and railings.
Structural Adequacy: This has to deal with structural integrity of the existing
structures, (loading, distress, damage etc)
Hydrology/Hydraulics Adequacy: This has to deal with sufficiency of the existing
opening to allow the maximum design flood, scouring and any damage resulting
therefrom.

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The purpose of the inventory and condition survey of culvert and bridges is to assess the condition of
existing structures and their ability to withstand future loading amidst natural wear and tear. Inventory
data were collected on the following lines:

Location and name of the stream / river,

Structure type and span arrangement,
Structure dimensions such as length, clear width, overall width, clear span,
effective span, size of the vent, height from road level to existing bed level and
height of parapet and railing,
Type of construction materials used,
Alignment of structure viz. straight or skew,
Gradient of the bridge (both longitudinal and transverse), and
Type of the protection provided for embankment at the approaches and the bed.

2.5.2 Structures Condition Survey

The bridge condition survey was planned and carried out so that both qualitative and quantitative
aspects of the distresses/deficiencies could be examined. Condition of the following components of the
bridges was evaluated:
Condition of footpath and railing;
Drainage system and spouts;
Reinforced concrete deck with special reference to distresses such as
Cracking, leaching, spalling of soffit and edges;
Exposed reinforcement and corrosion;
Abutments, piers, wing walls and return walls.

2.5.3 Analysis of Survey Data

The inventory survey conducted on the corridor revealed that there are 31 structures on the project road.
Out of these, one is steel truss bridge, one box Girder Bridge, one Ford, two slab culverts and 26 are
pipe culverts. The summary of the structures inventory is given in the following tables.

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Table 2. 1 Details of Existing Structures

Structures Total

Pipe Culverts 26

Slab Culverts 2

Ford 1

Slab Bridge 0

Slab Girder Bridges 1

Steel Bridge 1

Total 31

2.5.3.1 Pipe Culverts

Most of the pipe culverts are structurally in good condition however their dimensions and capacities are
not sufficient. The inlet and outlet structure are heavily silted and thick vegetation has grown in vents.
Some culverts are partly or fully buried.

For some structures, due to the blockage of vents, the water on the road surface is forced to flow over
the existing road leading to traverse erosion. This has been aggravated by the absence of side drains.
There are a considerable number of pipe culverts which are found to be hydraulically inadequate.

Most of the minor drainage structures on the project road are covered with growing plants at their inlets
and outlets. These have created major obstruction for free flow of drainage water. The minimum internal
diameter of reinforced concrete pipe is recommended to be 900mm to minimize siltation problem, to
prevent debris and to facilitate cleaning.

Table 2. 2 Details of Existing Pipe culverts

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Structures Total

914mm 19

1067mm 7

1219 mm 0

Total 26

Photo of Silted Pipe Culverts Photo of Insufficient Pipe Structure

Photo of Poor quality structure Photo of Poor quality structure

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2.5.3.2 Slab Culverts

The condition of slab culverts at station 28+424 and 33+440 are good and no sign of distress is
observed for superstructures or substructures. However, their hydraulic capacities and widths are not
sufficient to accommodate the design discharge. Growth of vegetation is a prevalent phenomenon in all
slab culverts.

 Poshiti River
It is the fourth existing river located at km 28+424. The culvert crosses a perennial river called Poshiti
River. The existing culvert is a 6 m clear span. Single Span Slab deck is supported on two masonry
abutments with the following dimensions described in the table below.

Figure 2. 3 Poshiti river existing Culvert.

 Tolta River

It is the fifth existing river located at km 33+440. The culvert crosses a perennial river called tolta River
Bridge. The existing bridge is a 6.00m clear span Single Span deck is supported on two masonry
abutments with the following dimensions described in the table below.

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Figure 2. 4 Tolta river existing Culvert.

2.5.3.3 Major Structure (Bridge Condition Survey)

There are two bridge structures at stations 2+075, 26+425 and a Ford at station 5+704. Except the
bridge constructed at station 26+425, the others river crossings need reconstruction of new bridge
constructions due to inadequacy and alignment change.

Figure 2. 5 Photo of Ford at 5+704

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Figure 2. 6 Good Slab Girder Bridge at 26+425

Bridge at station 26+425 is the largest slab girder bridge in the project. Its structural condition is
excellent since it has been constructed recently. It has sufficient clear height and width compared with
its catchment hydrology data therefore overtopping is not expected in the design life. Special
investigations are under taken to estimate maximum flood discharge as result, the vent size under the
bridge is found enough to pass the design discharge resulting in high velocities.

 Neri River Bridge

It is the first existing bridge located at km 2+075. The bridge crosses a perennial river called Neri River.
The existing bridge is a 40.00m clear span Steel Bridge supported on two masonry abutments with the
following dimensions described in the table below.

2+075 Km along existing

Location
road alignment

Type of super structure Steel Bridge

Clear Span 40
Span Length Composition 40
Clear height of first abutment (m) 4.3
Clear height of second abutment (m) 4.3
Wing wall lengths of the first abut.(m) 7.2

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Wing wall lengths of second abut.(m) 7.2

Total width (carriage + walkway) of the bridge 7.3

Figure 2. 7 Neri river existing bridge.

 Baki River Bridge

It is the second t existing bridge located at km 5+704. The bridge crosses a perennial river called Baki
River. The existing bridge is a 10.00m clear span reinforced concrete Single Span Slab Bridge
supported on two masonry abutments with the following dimensions described in the table below.

5+704Km along
Location
existing road alignment
Type of super structure Single Span
Clear Span 10
Span Length Composition 10
Clear height of first abutment (m) 4.1
Clear height of second abutment (m) 4.1
Wing wall lengths of the first abut.(m) 7.5
Wing wall lengths of second abut.(m) 7.5
Total width (carriage + walkway) of the
bridge 7.3

 Maki River Bridge

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It is the third existing bridge located at km 26+425 . The bridge crosses a perennial river called Maki
River. The existing bridge is a 16.00m clear span reinforced concrete Single Span Slab Bridge
supported on two masonry abutments with the following dimensions described in the table below.

26+425Km along
Location existing road
alignment

Type of super structure Single Span

Clear Span 16
Span Length Composition 16
Clear height of first abutment (m) 5.1
Clear height of second abutment (m) 5.1
Wing wall lengths of the first abut.(m) 7.8
Wing wall lengths of second abut.(m) 7.8
Total width (carriage + walkway) of the bridge 7.3

2.6 Summary of Condition Survey

On the whole, the following remedial measures were suggested from the site investigation and
engineering evaluation.

The existing road has been deteriorated and couldn’t accommodate the
current traffic. Therefore, it is ideal to upgrade top paved road standard.
All the existing minor structures are not in good status and require
replacement. Therefore, replace all pipe culverts by constructing new ones
with better hydraulic capacities.
Both slab culverts are not sufficient hydraulically so replace all existing slab
culverts by slab bridges.
Replace hydraulically inadequate bridges by new ones.
Changing ford in to slab bridge based on the catchment area hydrology
and hydraulics.

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2.6.1 Detail about the Existing Major Structure

During the field visit period, the preliminary hydrology and hydraulic analysis were done. The total
drainage found in the project road were 5 major drainage crossings , 8 slab culverts and 106 pipe
culverts crossings were identified including relief drainage structures.

Table 2. 3 Existing River Structures & Names

Major Drainage Structures
Catchment
No Opening Sizes
Station Area
. Clear Number of Clear
(Km2)
Span Spans Height
1 2+075 131.14 40 1 4.3
2 5+704 12.02 10 1 4.1
3 26+425 48.76 16 1 5.1
4 28+424 15.36 10 1 4.8
5 33+440 8.8 8 1 3.5

3 TOPOGRAPHY SURVEY
The topographic survey includes installation of control points and taking topographical features like
coordinates and levels for the rendering of Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the project area which will be
used for the development of road design using computer software.

Detailed ground surveys along the length of the selected project alignment have been carried out using
the most up-to-date surveying equipment such as Total Stations and GPS to examine the road
alignment, cross sections and any bridge sites, drainage and channel sites that are considered
necessary to complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.

The main objectives of topographic survey are as follows:

Installation of primary control points, GPS points at 3km - 5 km interval of the

road.
Installation of secondary control points or benchmarks at 300m - 500 m
intervals.
Carrying out the topographical survey at 20m intervals and with a band width of
40m-50 m left and right of the center.

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Taking of river x-section

Making of Documentation of monuments
Surveying of road junctions
Gathering information for the Land acquisition studies.

3.1 Approach and Methodology

Highway Engineer and survey crew led by chief surveyor were mobilized to undertake route location and
detailed topographic surveying along the project existing route.

The topographical survey is the backbone of a detailed engineering design. Accuracy of the information
collected during this survey has a direct bearing on almost all the design activities involved in project
preparation. The following aspects are considered in this survey:

Establishment of Horizontal control points.

Establishment of Vertical control points.
Identification of National Grid points in the close vicinity to the project.
Establishment of geodetic control points using the most important technological
advanced in surveying that is the Global Positioning System (GPS)
Setting up of permanent beacons to serve as a reference system during road
construction
Development of control traverse-line and geometric level-line
Detailed field survey
Preparation of monograph for control points with triangulation, photographic and
other location description data has been prepared.

This work involves location of control points, construction and fixing of co-ordinates, taking of x-section
data and documentation of monuments.

3.2 Tripod GPS Surveying (for Primary control stations surveying)

In total there are twenty three (26) pairs of GPS points established from Jinka - Mender. The Global
Positioning System surveying was followed for establishing the horizontal position (X, Y, Z) of primarily

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control points of the project. The GPS beacons are established with hand GPS surveying method. The
pairs of GPS primary control points, which are connected to the NGS, are established at an approximate
interval of 3 to 5 km along the route. The GPS points are tied to the National Grid system.

The activities carried out to establish GPS points included:

Obtaining first order control points from EMA to which the whole system of the
GPS points is tied.
Identifying and checking the condition and accuracy of these EMA points;
Selecting appropriate sites (free of satellite obstruction) for locating GPS
points;
Setting up GPS receiver stations and recording observational data in Static
Mode Downloading observed data on field computers;
Establishing GPS points using concrete monuments
Post-processing the downloaded data in the field and in the office and
computing vectors, determining closure errors and finally adjusting the vectors;
and
Tying the adjusted GPS data to the EMA points
Computing scale factors, Mean sea level and Grid factors.

3.3 Traverse Surveying (for Secondary control surveying)

Secondary control points (bench marks) at suitable intervals are established for horizontal position (X, Y,
Z) using total station. Secondary (intermediate) control points in between the primary control points are
established at an approximate interval of maximum 500m.

Concrete beacons and fixed structures for benchmarks are established at specified intervals. These are
located outside the road limit of road reserve, but as close as possible.

The set of inter-visible secondary control points are established from first order control points (GPS) by
closed traverse and differential leveling surveying.

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3.4 Establishing Monuments

Control points are permanently constructed and demarcated. The points are constructed on concrete
blocks with a 12 mm nail embedded. The GPS points are established conspicuously close to ROW so
as not to be disturbed during construction.

3.5 Topographical Survey

Topographic surveys have been carried out for a road corridor of 30m to 50m on either side of the road
corridor of centre line of the existing carriageway. The detailed field surveys have been carried out using
Total Stations, high precision instruments, and noting various features in x, y, z co-ordinate. The
features include ROW, existing carriageway, and cross roads. Horizontal control points were provided
using Global Positioning systems (GPS). Leveling adjustments have also been made for horizontal as
well as vertical co-ordinates.

Detailed Topographical survey is being carried out by taking cross sections at 20 m intervals and closer
at curve and structure locations.

The survey included the determination of coordinates of points:

On the existing road centerline

Culverts and Bridges
Longitudinal section of rivers 100m either side in the case of minor bridges and
500m either in the case major bridges,
Cross section of rivers
Intersection and side roads upto a length of 75m
Buildings and Houses
Places of social or traditional importance

The feature codes used for topography surveying are summarized in Table below:

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Table 3. 1 List of Feature Codes

S.NO FEATURES FEATURE CODES

1 EXISTING CENTER LINE OF ROAD CL

2 EDGE OF HOUSES H
3 ELECTRIC POLES EP
4 TELEPHONE POLES TLP
5 BRIDGE CENTER POINTS CBR
6 BRIDGE EDGE POINTS BRE
7 WING WALL POINTS WW
8 NATURAL GORGE CENTER POINTS GRC
9 LEFT RIVER BANKS LBO
10 LEFT RIVER BANKS BTR
11 CENTER OF PIPE CULVERT CP
12 LEFT OF PIPE CULVERT LP
13 RIGHT OF PIPE CULVERT RP
14 SPOT HEIGHT SH
15 EDGE OF ABUTMENT TOP EAT
16 EDGE OF ABUTMENT BOTTOM EAB

3.6 Use of the Topographical Surveys

All the data provided by the topographical surveys have been used to render the Digital Terrain Model of
the road corridor using Eagle Point Road design software, for the horizontal and vertical road alignment
design. The data have also been used in the design of the following:

To provide Digital Terrain Model(DTM)

To design horizontal and vertical alignment,
To provide cross sections,
To fix drainage structures top levels,
To provide general layout for major bridges,
To design location of side drains,

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To accommodate proposed pavement structures,

To Provide of retaining walls,
To prepare Land acquisition plans.

3.7 Surveying Equipment

The following instruments and other equipment were employed in the surveying work:

Table 3. 2 List of Instruments

S.NO TYPE OF I NSTRUMENTS NO ACCURACY/ REMARKS

PRO MARK GPS RECEIVERS 0.001MM
WITH PRECISION GEODETIC &
1 ANTENNAS A ND ALL NECESSARY 1
ACCESSORIES

SOKKIA TOTAL STATION WITH ANGULAR=3’,

2 ACCESSORIES 2 LINEAR= 1:20,000

10 MM TIMES SQUARE ROOT OF

3 LEVELING INSTRUMENT 2 K;K-KILOMETER DISTANCE
BETWEEN POINTS
HAND HELD GPS 1M
4 2

LAPTOP COMPUTER
5 1 LATEST MODELS

SMALL VEHICLE (DOUBLE

6 GABIN PICKUP ) 1 4WD

3.8 Accuracy of Survey work

3.8.1 The accuracy of x, y co-ordinates using GPS working in static mode:

The accuracy of (X, Y) co-ordinates of control point observation is 10 mm +1ppm
Standard Deviation 10 mm + 1 ppm (parts per million)

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Distance 5 million mm
Error 10 + 1 x 5,000,000/1,000,000 = 15 mm

3.8.2 Accuracy of Z –co-ordinate using direct leveling 7instrument

The accuracy of level (Z) is 5 to 6 mm x square root of K (K being the distance in km between control
points).

3.9 Data Processing and Validation

All the data were down loaded from Total stations at the end of the days’ work to check data validity.
Data were processed on the field computer to ensure completeness. With the help of X, Y and Z co-
ordinations, Digital Terrain Model was generated and contours were also generated to check for any
data gaps or unintended errors in the ground profile. The finally processed survey data were then
handed over to the design team.

4 ROUTE LOCATION
4.1 General
Highway design in its broadest sense is composed of numerous processes and sub processes from the
planning stage up to the actual road construction. A general two step procedure is usually done in
developing highway geometry. Prior to the detailed engineering and design of the road preliminary
process of locating the road should be done. This normally called in most design agencies as
preliminary design a step where a lot of options are weighted evaluated and prioritized before extensive
effort is put into the final engineering design process.

Route selection a sub process of highway location plays a very critical part in the overall highway design
process since it is in this phase where the basic criteria should be met with the least possible negative
financial, social and environmental effects. The basic alignment alternatives are laid or drawn out on a
map in consideration of topography, land use aesthetics and environmental impact among many other
factors. From these schemes, the most suitable choice is selected which will be subjected to further
refinements during the detailed design phase.

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Route selection is basically a refinement or feasible alternatives. This usually include such items as
approximate construction costs, alignment and profile studies ,typical section development preliminary
designs for geometric layout ,drainage, right-of-way and utilities location of interchanges ,grades
separations and at grade intersections, preliminary bridge designs at critical locations channel work air
noise and water studies flood hazard evaluations and other supplemental studies and right of way
information’s.

The highway designer, in his effort to provide more accurate results and faster delivery of outputs
normally resorts to tools currently available and within his capacity to operate.

Jinka-Mendir project was contemplated to connect multiple villages with Jinka towns in the Southern
Nations Nationalities Peoples’ Regional State. The road project of Jinka-Hana Design and Build Road
Project [Lot-1: Jinka-Mendir] is 44.11 kms and is supposed to be constructed by ERCC under Design
Build Contract procedure. Lot-2 of Hana – Mindir Road is under construction by Chinese owned
contractor. The Jinka - Hana road project ends at Hana town, which meets Sodo-Sawla-Laska-Salayish-
(Hana) - Omo DST road Project at km 65, where Hana Town is 15km from Omo river where Kuraz
Sugar Factories located.

Net Consulting Engineers carried out the concept design of the project road in 2014. Route location and
identification was proposed linking the towns and villages along the road. Some of the villages linked by
the road construction projects are Jinka, Yetnebersh, Gazer, Mistir, Tolta and Mindir. There are steep
escarpment sections at some locations and there are high gradients on the existing roads which need to
be designed to make desirable gradients and smooth curves associated costs.

The ERCC’s Design Team understood the situation and located a suitable and desirable alternative
route during designing the Horizontal and Vertical alignments besides incorporating some of the input
from the Net Consult Concept design of the road.

4.2 Important of Alignment Selection

Economy in operating cost of transport vehicles is achieved by adopting easy gradients, minimizing rise
and fall and by following a direct line as far as possible between the control points. Although the shortest

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distance is an important factor, it may have to be sacrificed, at times, in order to obtain easy curvature
and gradients to avoid prohibitive cuts and fills and longer river crossings.

Topography is a major factor in determining the physical locations, alignment, gradients, sight distances,
cross sections and other design elements. In mountainous and escarpment terrain the route location
and certain design features may be entirely governed by the topography.

Activities are made to ascertain viable alternative route which will reduce not only initial construction but
also vehicle operating costs. Each option has been evaluated in terms of sound engineering principles,
positive environmental considerations, whole cycle cost implication.

Technically speaking, every proposed alignment could be feasible if and only if it satisfies the main
objects of the route stated above. However, the proposed route should be located with minimum
gradients and gentle curves. The primary objective of a road is to connect important towns, provide
reasonable mobility, maximum safety, environmentally amenable, socially acceptable at affordable
prices. The user perceives efficiency of facility in terms of costs. Once vehicle operating costs are less,
more and more vehicles use the facility which in turn provides quick accessibility and mobility.

4.3 Criteria for Selection of Alignment

The criteria for the assessment are stated below:
The relative lengths of the alternatives, Normally the shortest distance is
preferable but not always;
The average and mean gradients of the alternatives.
 Normally the least severely graded alternative is preferred. However,
the relation of minimum grade may be the inverse to the shortest
length route;
The type of terrain followed by the alternative.
 An alignment through, for instance, rolling terrain should be less costly
to construct, have lower vehicle operating costs and maintenance
costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a route through
mountainous terrain;

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The alternative that remains for a longer distance on the crest of the terrain or
ridge.
 Such an alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures and
minimizes earthworks.
The alignment which minimizes the need for land acquisition and demolition of
buildings and houses.
The total number of bridges required for each alternative and their aggregate
lengths.
 The route which requires least number of structure is preferred.
The route which results in the least environmental disturbance to the
surrounding area is preferable.

4.4 Analysis of the Alignments

This deals with the selection of the optimal route for a new road. It provides guidance on the appraisal of
factors affecting route selection including topography, engineering geology, hydrology, social and
environmental factors, and economic return on investment. It recommends a multi-criteria analysis for
the comparison of competing options, and the identification of the most favourable solution.

4.5 Methodologies of Selecting Route

The ERCC Design Team first carried out route location work by presenting three alternative options to
select a route passing through the control points. The proposed route generally follows the route
indicated in the NET’s concept design. The selected route would satisfy all stakeholders and are
accepted among all the local administrative units in the project area; The selected route has been
assumed approved by ERA and other users and the Design Team has proceeded to the detail
topographic surveying work. The ERCC Design Team facilitated the involvement of the stakeholders
during selecting the final route to avoid unnecessary delay during route selection and design of the
project road.
Three feasible routes of Connecting the beginning and end of the project have been selected and
evaluated with respect to topography, engineering geology, hydrology, social and environmental factors
and economic return on investment.

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4.5.1 Proposed Alignment 1

This alignment passes almost the existing center line of the project road. But to be compatible with the
design standard, it is modified a little bit.

4.5.1.1 Engineering Aspect

This alignment is designed keeping in view the minimum requirement of ERA standards on the vertical
curves. This is practically achieved as it goes down gradually following the natural slope of the ground.

Figure 4. 1 Proposed Route 1

4.5.1.2 Environmental Aspect

The alignment is also good from an environmental point of view as it generally follows the natural slope
of the ground with little damage to the natural slope of the topography.

 Advantages

It is within the project influence area.

Simple and safe to construct
More economical.
Safe regarding land sliding problem
Earth work activities are less.

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Enhances safety
ROW problem is less

 Disadvantages

The longer path compared with proposed alignment 3

Less construction working environment including site accessibility, space and ground condition.
Construction and vehicle operating costs are high.
Accessibility of water crossing is higher.
Earth work activities are less
Less attractive due to series of curves and unacceptable gradients
Unpleasant journey times,

4.5.2 Proposed Alignment 2

This alignment was initially proposed by Net Consulting during executing concept design. The proposed
route looks safe and more economical but it is a little bit longer.

4.5.2.1 Engineering Aspect

The horizontal alignment mostly traverses through Mountainous and escarpment terrain. Due to this
there are a number of constraints to fulfill the design standard parameters.

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Figure 4. 2 Proposed Route 2

4.5.2.2 Environmental Aspect

The alignment is also longest path and better from an environmental point of view as it generally follows
the natural slope of the ground with least damage to the natural slope of the topography.

 Advantages

It is within the project influence area.

Geometrical features conform to the standards.
Economical.
Enhances safety
Environmentally acceptable due to minimum gradients and lesser degrees of soil exposure
The route connects small villages.
ROW problem is less

 Disadvantage

The longest path.

Accessibility of water crossing is higher.
Earth work activities are less.
Construction and vehicle operating costs are highest.
Less attractive due to series of curves and unacceptable gradients.
Increase in vehicle operation cost.
Unpleasant journey times,

4.5.3 Proposed Alignment 3

This alignment is the shortest and comfortable route to reach Mendir from Jinka. But it overlooks the
Mitsir Village.

4.5.3.1 Engineering Aspect

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The alignment has fewest horizontal and vertical points and they fully satisfy the design standards of the
road but create huge excavation due to frequent box cuts.

Figure 4. 3 Proposed route 3

4.5.3.2 Environmental Aspect

The alignment is the shortest path due to the crossing of new routes other than the existing road. This
creates many excavation and instability of the existing forest area and subsequently damages the area
ecosystem.

 Advantages

Shortest route
Earth work activities are highest.
Geometrical features conform to the standards.
Construction and vehicle operating costs are least.
Reduced travel time and increased speed.
The need of Structure quantity is less than the other route.
ROW problem is less
Fewer water crossing
Pleasant journey times

 Disadvantages

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Very Expensive
Difficult to Construct
Environmentally unacceptable due to higher degrees of soil exposure
Less construction working environment including site accessibility, space and ground condition.
The route doesn’t connect all villages.
Environmental hazard due to high cutting and exposure of soil

4.5.4 Selection of Alignment

Generally, Multiple Criteria Analysis (MCA) is employed for rating of different alignments. In this method
four important and pertinent variables are considered, namely engineering parameters, cost parameters,
environmental aspects and social aspects. The weights are applied according to the importance of the
parameters.
Engineering Parameters 30

Cost Parameters 30

Environmental Aspects 20

Social Aspects 20

Table 4. 1 Evaluation of Proposed Alignments of the Road

Alignments Engineering Cost Environmental Social Total

Parameter Parameters Aspect Aspect Result

Alignment 1 20 25 20 20 85

Alignment 2 15 30 15 20 80

Alignment 3 30 10 5 5 50

4.5.5 Conclusion
Accordingly Three feasible routes of Connecting the beginning and end of the project have been
selected and evaluated with respect to topography, engineering geology, hydrology, social and
environmental factors and economic return on investment. According to the evaluation, the proposed

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Alignment one gets better result from the other two other options as shown in the above table.
Therefore, the Design Team has used the Proposed Alignment 1 during designing the road.

5 SOILS AND MATERIALS INVESTIGATION

Investigations for soil and other materials required for construction are carried out in respect of the likely
sources and the availability and sustainability of materials. Some other investigations, for instance, in
respect of landslide prone locations may also be conducted at this stage.

5.1 Introduction
This report presents the factual findings of the soils and materials investigation of Jinka – Mindir Design
and Build Road Project as part of the Detailed Engineering Design. In the report, the field investigation
works and the respective laboratory tests conducted and the conclusions and recommendations drawn
from the data analysis are discussed.

Team of engineers comprising material Engineers and highway engineers were mobilized to the project
to undertake the field investigation works. The field investigation included: sampling of the sub grade
materials with construction materials assessment. All the collected samples of sub-grade and
construction materials were submitted to one of ERCC Project Laboratory to undertake the relevant
laboratory tests. Furthermore, we have considered the Net Consulting laboratory test results.

The purpose of this report is to present factual findings regarding the overall soils and materials behavior
of the of the project area which is supported by respective laboratory test results. Discussion of test
results and implication of the results to the overall sub grade material property of the project is also
presented in the report. In addition recommendation is given based on the analysis and observation.
In particular soil and materials surveys are required :

To determine the nature and the physical characteristics of soil and soil profile
for design of embankment and pavement.
To determine the salt content in soil in areas known to have problems or where
the composition of the design crust requires such testing.
To determine the proper method of handling soils.

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To classify the earthwork involved into various catagories such as rock

excavation, earthwork in hard soil etc.
To gather general information involved in to various catagories such as rock
excavation, earthwork in hard soil etc.
To gather general information regarding sub-soil water level and flooding.
To locate sources for aggregate required for pavement and structures and to
ascertain their availability and suitability for use; and
To locate sources of good quality water suitable for use in different items and
work particularly the current work.

The following tasks were executed in the soils and materials investigation and testing phase:
Sub-grade soil extension
Existing pavement condition
Laboratory testing
Construction material investigation
Recommended material specification
Recommended sources for construction materials
Slope stability and soil erosion

5.2 Sub-grade Soil Extension

In order to assess the lateral extent and physical properties of the alignment soils and materials, soil
extension survey was conducted along with test pitting at the time of the field investigation. During the
investigation, due emphasis has been given to identify problematic soils such as black cotton soils and
rocky sections which may require blasting for further widening. Furthermore, land sliding and slope
stability have been given great attention due to the terrain and foundation soil characterstics of the area.

5.2.1 Subgrade Material File Investigation

Based on the field observations, the materials along the project road are generally categorized in to the
following two major groups:
Dark brown silty clay soil

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Dark clay soil

Light to white clay
Reddish brown clay
Light brown, silty clay
Decomposed rock
Basaltic Boulders mixed with soils
The Reddish brown silty clay and Reddish brown clay underline by decomposed gravel soil covers

around 80.8% of the project alignment. Brown slty clay and Brown sandy silt cover 9.3%. Light gray clay

soil and light brown silty clay soil cover 5.41%. Dark brown silty clay and clay soils cover 4.3% of the

road alignment.

Based on observations made during the field investigation and the laboratory test results, the materials

are summarized as follows.

Table 5. 1 Subgrade Soil Extension Survey along the Project Road Corridor

Stretch
S. Visual Soil Suitability as
From to Excavation
No. Description Roadbed
km km
Dark brown silt clay
occasionally dark
1 0+000 0+900 Mostly suitable Normal
clay on low drained
spots

Light grey to white

2 0+900 1+300 Unsuitable Normal
clay

Reddish brown clay

3 1+300 1+800 underlain by Suitable Normal
decomposed gravel
Dark brown to
4 1+800 3+000 reddish brown silty Suitable Normal
soil
Brown to light Suitable but
5 3+000 6+900 Normal
brown sandy silt soil erodible nature
Reddish brown silty
6 6+900 18+100 Suitable Normal
clay soil

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Stretch
S. Visual Soil Suitability as
From to Excavation
No. Description Roadbed
km km
Mostly suitable.
Reddish brown silty
But, unsuitable
clay alternate with
7 18+100 27+900 formation at low Normal
dark grey to black
drained area and
clay soil
between ridges
Light brown silty
8 27+900 30+100 Suitable Normal
clay
Reddish brown silty
9 30+100 45+000 Suitable Normal
clay soil
Reddish brown silty
Suitable,
clay soil underline
10 45+000 47+500 occasionally Normal
by highly weathered
unsuitable
gravel
Suitable but the
11 47+500 48+100 Brown silty clay soil last 40m Normal
unsuitable

All the classified soil properties could be considered as suitable foundation material except Light gray to
white clay soil located in the road stretch from 0+900 to 1+300.however, this poor material could be
used by mixing with other material which have higher CBR and lower PI. Therefore almost all of the road
bed materials could be used for embankment works besides suitable for road bed.

In the box cut area and high benched back slopes road segments, there are some rocky sections which
are weathered basaltic rock and fresh basaltic rock. It is not possible to describe the exact percentage of
the decomposed, weathered or fresh rock formations at the moment. However, they could be
investigation during the road construction period.

In high bench areas, special investigation may be required. Because, from the actual site condition of
the project area, significant stretches of the road are landslide prone areas. Based on observations
made during the field investigation and the Net Consulting Laboratory test results, the materials are
summarized as follows.

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5.2.2 Subgrade Soils Sampling

Field sampling of subgrade materials along the probable route was based on excavated test pits of
nominal 0.5m x 0.5m size to a depth 0.9 to 1.1m. In some locations it was also possible to use existing
erosion gullies, and creeks. All pits were referenced with handheld GPS.

Upon the completion of the test pit excavation, representative subgrade samples were collected from
vertical slices from the depth sufficient below the existing pavement material. Then, the vertical profiles
of the test pits were drawn up after careful measurement. Field description of the material was given
based on color, texture as well as visual assessment of their plasticity and content of fine and coarse
fraction. On cut section, samples were taken from the hillside. Sampling points were selected
systematically which best represent the section under consideration

5.2.3 Laboratory Investigation of Subgrade Soil

The samples were transported to the Consultant’s laboratory in Addis Ababa and the following test
parameters were analyzed.

Table 5. 2 Laboratory Tests on Subgrade Soils

TEST DESCRIPTION STANDARD

LIQUID LIMIT AASHTO T89

PLASTIC LIMIT AND P LASTICITY INDEX AASHTO T90

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ( WET SIEVING) AASHTO T88

COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS (STANDARD

COMPACTION) AASHTO T99

CBR ( AT 100% OF STANDARD ENERGY , 4 DAYS SOAKING

WITH 4.5KG SURCHARGE ) AASHTO T193

Table 5. 3 Summary of Laboratory Tests Results for Subgrade Soil

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Atterberge Standard
Grain-size Analysis CBR
Limits Compaction
AASHTO
AASHTO T Class AASHTO
S AASHTO T 88 AASHTO T 99
Station 89, T 90 T 193
No. AASHTO
M145 CB Swel
2 0.425 0.075 LL PI MDD OMC
R l
mm mm mm % % g/cm3 % % %
1 1+100 98 90 85 85 34 A-7-5(20) 1.29 33.0 6 4.3
2 6+500 98 72 58 53 17 A-7-5(9) 1.60 24.0 8 0.7
3 11+900 100 99 97 74 34 A-7-5(20) 1.35 35.5 8 0.5
4 17+100 91 91 90 86 37 A-7-5(20) 1.25 41.5 8 2.0
5 20+600 46 45 43 63 23 A-7-5(6) 1.38 32.5 10 1.7
6 24+300 95 84 68 59 18 A-7-5(14) 1.30 30.0 10 1.1
7 29+000 80 78 74 65 19 A-7-5(18) 1.34 34.0 6 1.9
8 34+200 97 93 88 69 18 A-7-5(20) 1.33 35.0 10 1.1
9 43+100 75 69 64 61 17 A-7-5(12) 1.43 29.0 13 0.7
10 46+800 99 98 90 58 26 A-7-5(20) 1.34 31.0 3 6.4

Figure 5. 1 Summary of the material composition along Jinka to Mindir

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5.3 In – situ density tests

In – situ density test was conducted at each layer (i.e. at the existing wearing surface and the sub grade)
to check the level of compaction of the existing deteriorated earth road and the underlying subgrade
material. The test was conducted at every 1km intervals on the subgrade and on the road pavement.

The method employed for the in – situ density test was sand replacement method that involves
excavating a hole in the ground, filling the hole with sand using the sand cone apparatus, and then
determining the volume of the hole based on the amount of sand required to fill the hole. Given the wet
mass of the soil/gravel removed from the hole divided by the volume of the hole, the wet density of the
material can be calculated. Finally, a sample of the soil/gravel recovered from the hole is taken to the
laboratory for moisture content determination and thus the field dry density can be computed as:

γ we t
γd r y 
1 ω
Where; γdry = dry unit weight (kg/m3)
γwet = wet unit weight (kg/m3)
ω = natural moisture content (fraction)
Finally, the level/degree of compaction is computed as the ratio of the field dry density (γdry) to the
laboratory maximum dry density (MDD), according to some specified standard test (in this case the
Modified Proctor test).

γdr y
mpaction
Degreeofco * 100
MDD [%]

Based on the visual investigation of the road with representative sampling and testing of the in-situ
density of the existing project road, it was concluded that the existing earth road pavement degree of
compaction was estimated in the range of 50% to 70% of the MDD of the road.

Therefore, the existing road has not consolidated or compacted for stability of the pavement. Hence it is
very susceptible to deterioration by rain and existing traffic. Besides, it could not be used as road bed
foundation and need to be scarified and re-compacted.

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5.4 Existing Pavement Condition

Detailed pavement condition survey has been conducted to determine the type and thickness of the
existing pavement materials and to assess the following:
To identify the type and severity & extent of the various pavement distresses
that may be caused by deficiencies in design, materials, construction or
maintenance.
To recommend the necessary remedial measures to be taken.
To decide on whether the existing gravel wearing course/capping layer be
incorporated in the new pavement structure.

The investigation of the existing pavement was carried out by visual recording of the extent and severity
of the distresses observed along with test pit excavation. The existing road is gravel surfaced having an
average carriageway width of 6m to 7m.

The main distresses encountered along the road are potholes, rutting, corrugation, loss of camber and
oversize materials. The extent and severity of the pavement distresses is pronounced throughout the
road stretches. Exposure of oversizes and potholes are the most frequently encountered pavement
distresses. The thickness of the pavement varies from 10cm to 40cm.

Thus, the majority of the road section has poor riding quality especially when we approach to the Minidir.

Typical status of the existing road pavement

Figure 5. 2 Typical Status of the Existing Road Pavement

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5.5 Construction Materials Investigation

Office works including referring previous works in the project area, study of the geological map and the
topographic map of the project area were conducted before commencing the field investigations.

The major geology formations are encountered along the project route corridors. The following geologic
formations are mainly exists along the road:

Flood basalt with minor salic flows (pjb)

Rhyolite and trachyte flows and tuff with minor basalt (pjr).

Basaltic rocks are excellent sources of rock for crushing and masonry when they are fresh. Weathered
and fractured basaltic formations are potential sources of natural gravel for sub base and capping layer
construction.
The highly weathered and decomposed rocks can be considered as sources of borrow material for
embankment construction. Fresh to slightly weathered rocks that can be considered as good sources for
crushed aggregate production and masonry stones are also available in the project route corridor.

During the field investigation and reviewing the study of Net Consulting Soil & Material Investigation
report, the Design Team has observed that there are 8 borrow material sources, 3 natural gravel and
sub-base sources, 5 rock sources, one sand source and 5 water sources. Therefore, there is no
construction materials scarcity for the construction of the project road.

The following assessments have been made for the construction materials regarding quantity and
quality during the field investigation and reviewing of the Net Consulting report. the type, quality and
quantity of materials, the overburden material and its use for the construction purpose, and their
accessibility have been worked out.

5.5.1 Borrow Material Sources for Embankment Construction

In road sections where the design requires new embankment fill and fill of undercut works are made
using Borrow material. It could be obtained from areas near the road alignment containing suitable fill
material according to the specification specified for the material. The proposed design CBR based on

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the subgrade strength is 6% and CBR in the range of 6% to 10% is common in the project road corridor
and suitable materials. This further means that materials that can be obtained from majority section of
the roadway excavation could be used as borrow material for embankment construction. In this respect,
undercut works and removal of unsuitable material activities during road bed preparation are
insignificant.

Materials suitable for use in general fill for embankment construction, improving unsuitable native
subgrade, and/or capping have been located during this review stage. Most of the sources are open and
composed of darkbrown silty clay materials with gravel, and with some overburden. Borrow sites have
been located at a reasonable hauling distance if the cut to fill material doesn’t satisfy the requirement for
embankment works.

During the field investigation and reviewing the study of Net Consulting Soil & Material Investigation
report, there are eight Indicative potential borrow material sources with their estimated quantities are
presented. The sources have been identified that are deemed suitable for embankment construction and
replacement of poor subgrade materials.

During assessment of borrow materials, Samples were collected from all the eight sources to assess
their suitability for the embankment construction and other fill works. The collected samples were tested
for the following laboratory tests:
Classification (Atterberg limits and sieve analysis)
Particle size distribution / gradation
Modified Proctor – 3pt CBR and swell
The borrow material sources in the area are summarized and presented in the table below.

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Table 5. 4 Possible Soil Borrow Sources

UTM
Over Vegetati
S. Station Easting Est. Qty.
Material Type Burden on Access
No. [km] Northin (m3)
[m]
g
Km5.5,
0228636 Light brown, Scattere By the existing
1 RHS 0-0.5 >10,000
0644461 sandy silt d trees road side
100m
Eucalypt
Km14.4,
0232172 Brown, highly us trees Need to be
2 RHS 0-0.5 >15,000
0650927 weathered rock on rear constructed
600m
side
Yellowish- Existing earth
Km16.2, 0231285
3 brown, clay Nil Grass road need >10,000
LHS 400m 0653158
with gravel reconstruction
Reddish
Km 20.9, 0232533 brown, clay Existing earth
4 0-0.5 Grass Ample
LHS 10m 0656682 with some road side
gravel
Reddish By the side of
Km27.1, 0232171 Scattere
5 brown, gravely 0-1.0 the existing >20,000
RHS 10m 0660861 d trees
clay road
Light grey,
By the side of
Km39.9, 0226230 Highly Eucalypt
6 0-1.0 the existing >20,000
LHS20m 0659591 weathered us tress
road
gravel
Scattere
Km42.5, 0225920 Brown, clayey d trees Existing earth
7 0-0.5 Ample
LHS 300m 0661352 gravel on rear road
side
Km47.9, 0223230 Light grey, Farm
8 0-1.0 By road side >20,000
RHS 20m 0662422 Clayey gravel land
Source: the Consultant

5.5.2 Natural Gravel Sources for Subbase and Backfill for Structures
The site geology doesn't favor in obtaining good quality natural gravel for subbase that readily comply
with the specification requirements. This was due to the fact that the materials forming the route corridor
are dominantly clay and silt formation. Even in the underlain sandy gravel formation in stretch ahead of
km 46 – km 49, the situation is the same because mostly they are highly weathered.

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Despite this fact, during the field investigation and reviewing the study of Net Consulting Soil & Material
Investigation report, there are three locations were identified and sampling was undertaken. The
following tests were carried out on the samples collected from the investigation of Natural Gravel
sources for subbase with their estimated quantities. The sources have been identified that are deemed
suitable for sub-base and backfill for structures.

Liquid Limit, AASHTO T89

Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index, AASHTO T90
Particle Size Distribution-wet sieving, AASHTO T311
Modified Compaction, AASHTO T 180
CBR (3 point, 4 days soak), AASHTO T193
Los Angeles Abrasion, AASHTO T 96

As can be seen from the table below, the laboratory test results confirm that two of the indicative
sources fulfill the requirements except grading on larger sieves. Since grading test on sample from test
pits may not represent the actual formation, it is not a decisive for acceptance or rejection at this stage.
However, one has to ensure while utilizing these sources or other sources that might be identified during
construction that the limits of plasticity and grading are adhered to. To that end it may be necessary, at
times, to screen and remix the materials to obtain the desired material quality.

Table 5. 5 Potential Natural Gravel Sources for Subbase

UTM
S. Over Est.
Station Easting Material Vegetation
No Burden Access Qty.
[km] Northin Type
. [m] (m3)
g
Km8.5, Mountain
Existing
LHS 0227559 forming, Partly farm
1 0-0.2 gravel Ample
3.5km 0649728 yellowish grey land
road
basaltic gravel
Km27.5, Ridge
Scattered Existing
RHS 0232113 forming, Light
2 Nil eucalyptus earth >20,000
20m 0661128 brown sandy
trees road side
gravel

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Ridge
Km46.0, forming, Light Scattered
RHS 0233934 grey, highly to eucalyptus By road
3 0-1.0 >20,000
10m 0662356 moderately trees and side
weathered coffee farm
gravel
Source: the Net Consultant

5.5.3 Rock Sources for Crushing and Masonry Works

During the field investigation, five potential rock quarries have been identified that could bear crushed
aggregate for minor & major structures masonry works, base course, asphalt surfacing and concrete
works.

Generally plenty of quarry sites which could be easily developed and utilized for masonry rocks and
crushing are not available in the project corridor. Available sources are basaltic rock boulders and
cobbles that may be obtained from soil mass. As such one cannot for sure and able to estimate the
amount that can be collected from the sources. For this reason, many locations were identified so that
the required quantity can be met. However, ample rock boulders and cobbles could be obtained on the
bed of Maki river(km28) and the adjoining bank area.

Moreover, abundant rock could be obtained from source at km8.5(2.5km LHS) but the problems at this
source are the need for construction of access road and the difficulty of obtaining open face for
developing. In all locations, the rocks are basaltic origin and expected to have good quality for all
purpose.

Having obtained an overview of materials within the route corridor, the most potential sites were
investigated fully and then sampling was made where there are clues to occurrence of useful materials
in relatively large quantity, and ease of development, i.e., source at km28. Table 2.7 and 2.8
summarizes the site and laboratory investigation results.

Representative samples were collected and the under-listed tests were conducted to assess the
suitability of the rock material. Most quality tests, which are a measurement for inherent properties of a

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rock, were carried out. Complete production control and laboratory schedule are recommended during
production in order to meet these requirements. The following tests were carried out:
Specific gravity and Water absorption as per AASHTO T 84/T85
Los Angles abrasion test as per AASHTO T96
Aggregate Crushing Value as per BS 812 Part 110
Ten Percent Fine Value as per BS 812 Part 111
Coating & Stripping value as per AASHTO T-182
Soundness test (loss with Sodium Sulphate 5 cycles) as per AASHTO T 104
Water absorption

The rock sources in the project area are summarized and presented in the table below.

Table 5. 6 Rock Sources

UTM Over
Station Vegetation Est. Qty.
Easting Material Type Burden Access
S. No. [km] (m3)
Northing [m]
Ridge forming, dark The top
gray, fine texture 2m in
Km1.0, The first
BASALT boulders Soil Difficult
LHS 8km 224736 6.5km is
1 and cobbles in soil mass, Farm land to
to Hanna 642304 gravel then
mass, very strong, below estimate
road earth road
slightly weathered to which
fresh massive
Mountain forming,
Km8.5, fine texture, Gray,
LHS Need to be
vertically and Scattered
2.5km 0229508 constructed
2 horizontally jointed, Nil bushes on Ample
0650739 for the last
BASALT, strong, rear side
400m
Slightly weathered to
fresh
Ridge forming, dark
gray, fine texture
Km 15.5, Existing
BASALT boulders Difficult
LHS 0231022 In soil Partly farm earth road
3 and cobbles in soil to
800m 0652245 mass land need to be
mass, very strong, estimate
resurfaced
slightly weathered to
fresh
Ridge forming, dark
gray, fine texture Difficult
Km27.3, 0232565 In soil Partly farm Need to be
4 BASALT boulders to
RHS 40m 0660965 mass land constructed
and cobbles in soil estimate
mass, very strong,

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UTM Over
Station Vegetation Est. Qty.
Easting Material Type Burden Access
S. No. [km] (m3)
Northing [m]
slightly weathered to
fresh
Km28,
LHS and In soil
By the Difficult
RHS 0231936 Basaltic rock boulders mass
5 - existing to
including 0661573 and cobbles and bed
road side estimate
Maki river of river
bed
Source: The Net Consultant

5.5.4 Natural Sand Sources for Mortar and Concrete Works

Natural sand for mortar and concrete works are available in the project area. Thus, sand for construction
works in the project area could be developed in the gorge of river streams.

Good quality sand is available at 8km from project beginning on Jinka - Konso road. The source has
been utilized in construction activities in Jinka town and Kuraz Sugar Factory project and considered as
good sand for construction purpose. Therefore, it is highly recommended to be used for this project after
verifying the following quality assurance tests for sand.

The following necessary tests for sand were carried out to verify the suitability of sand for construction
purposes.

Grading, AASHTO T 27
Material Finer 75µm sieve, AASHTO T 11
Clay Lumps and Friable particles, AASHTO T 112
Organic impurities, AASHTO T121
Sodium sulphate soundness, AASHTO T 104

The quality test results show that the source fulfills the quality requirements except grading on coarser
sieves. However, examining the grading against AASHTO M6 requirement shows that all sieves are

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satisfied in full. As such, the source can be taken as potential sand source since it is highly utilized by
locally available contractors.

Table 5. 7 Sand Source

UTM
Station, km Access Source Quantity Material Type Remark
Coord.
8km from By the side Owned by youth
Ample Light brown,
Jinka, on 0235954 of existing Kemeyis association so
and medium
Jinka-Konso 0633694 asphalt River called Kertib Sand
renewable grained sand
road road and Rock
Source: the Net Consultant

5.5.5 Water Sources for Compaction and Concrete Works

Information regarding water sources was gathered to know the availability of water near the project site.
According to the investigation works, water for construction is not a problem for the project construction
activities. The perennial rivers, streams and plenty of springs are found along the project route corridors.

During the field investigation and the assessment of the net Consulting Concept Design Report, five
water sources have been identified that are deemed suitable for embankment and concrete works.
Samples were collected from the two sources to assess their suitability for the intended works. The
collected samples were tested for the following laboratory tests:
pH
chloride content
sulphate content
total dissolved solids
The water sources in the project area are summarized and presented in the table below and the quality
should also be verified by taking the above quality assurance tests.

Table 5. 8 Lists of Water Sources

S.
STATION RIVER/STREAM SEASON-ABILITY
NO.
1 2+075 NERIA PERENNIAL
2 5+704 BAKI PERENNIAL
3 26+425 MAKIA PERENNIAL

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4 28+424 POSHTI PERENNIAL

5 33+440 TOLTA PERENNIAL
Source: the Net Consultant

5.6 Special Investigations in Landslide Prone Area

Information collected during preliminary survey would normally identify the landslide prone areas along
the alignment and every effort would have been made to avoid these while fixing the center line of the
road. However, in case where the same is not feasible, further investigation would be required to study
the extent of the problem and plan appropriate remedial measures. For this purpose, services of
geologist or soil specialist may be needed.

Depending on the geological configuration and drainage of the area, slides may take the form of rock or
soil fall (i.e., movement of detached rock or soil mass fragments at steep angles.), rock flows (i.e., soil or
rock mass suddenly losing strength and flowing like a liquid), or rotational slides that is slips could be
triggered under cutting, external load on upper parts of the slope, or water seepage.

Investigation has been made along the road corridor to see the site conditions and the type of slide
expected. The investigation has been involved collection of information about the existing slides,
sources of water in the area, substrata profile and other pertinent data which could facilitate inferences
being drawn as to the cause, mechanism, and potentially of slides.

The result from the field investigation shows that the project site is very wet and rainy season cover four
to six months. The substrata of the benching are badly weathered rock, stiff clay sand and boulders
mixed with soils which could be easily melted or triggered during excavation or benching works.
Therefore retaining walls could be recommended along the project road where potential land slides are
imminent.

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Figure 5. 3 Project typical escarpment area

5.6.1 Leaning trees and disturbed vegetation, indicative of existing landslide

Figure 5. 4 Wetted Back slope due to springs

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5.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation

5.7.1 Introduction
The data analysis and interpretation is carried out based on the laboratory test results and observations
made during the field investigation. In this regard, the variations of the various parameters that
determine the strength and plasticity characteristics of the subgrade materials along the project road and
the suitability of the locally available construction material sources are assessed. Besides, the quality of
the existing gravel wearing course for use in the new pavement structure is assessed.

The following test methods have been adopted in conducting the relevant laboratory tests on the
subgrade, gravel wearing course and construction material samples.

For the Subgrade soils

 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T 89 and T90)
 Grain size analysis (AASTO T88)
 Moisture - Density relations using a 4.54kg Rammer and a 457mm Drop
(AASHTO T180)
 CBR and swell (AASHTO T193)

For the existing gravel wearing course

 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T 89 and T90)
 Grain size analysis (AASTO T311)
 Moisture - Density relations using a 4.54kg Rammer and a 457mm Drop
(AASHTO T180)
 CBR and swell (AASHTO T193)

For Natural gravel materials

 Atterberg limits (AASHTO T89 and T90)
 Grain size analysis (AASHTO T311)

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 Moisture – Density relations using a 4.54kg Rammer and a 457mm Drop

(AASHTO T 180)
 CBR and swell (AASHTO T 193)
 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T96)

For Rock samples

 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T 96)
 Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812 Part 110)
 Soundness loss by magnesium sulfate solutions (AASHTO T104)
 Coating and stripping (AASHTO T182)
 Flakiness index (BS 812:105)
 Specific Gravity (AASHTO T84)
 Water absorption (AASHTO T85)

For the borrow materials

 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T 89 and T90)
 Grain size analysis (AASTO T88)
 Moisture - Density relations using a 4.54kg Rammer and a 457mm Drop
(AASHTO T180)
 CBR and swell (AASHTO T193)

For the water samples

 pH (AASHTO T26 )
 Chloride content (ASTM D512)
 Sulphate content (ASTM D516)
 Total dissolved solids (AASHTO T26)

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5.7.2 Existing Pavement Condition

Generally, from the field investigation analysis, it has been concluded that the existing gravel surface is
not potential for use as subbase but can be considered as part of the capping layer if the geometric
standards (horizontal and vertical) of which are good enough to maintain the existing alignment.

The field verification as well as indicative laboratory assessment revealed that most of the roadbed
materials are considered to conform to subgrade classes of S3 (CBR in excess of 5%). This means that
materials obtained from most parts of roadway excavations could be suitable for use in ordinary fill.

The condition survey results indicate that the existing gravel wearing course is affected by pavement
distresses like potholes, rutting, corrugation, and loss of camber and oversize materials. The pavement
distresses are pronounced along the project road and hence the road has poor riding quality. The
pavement condition and possible causes of the distresses are discussed below.

5.7.2.1 Corrugation
This distress is a series of ridges perpendicular to the centerline of the road and usually extends along
the whole width of the carriageway. The wave length is usually between 50 and 100 cm. Corrugation
crest lengths are measured as the distance between the troughs using steel tape or wedges by placing
a straight edge longitudinally along the wheel paths spanning the corrugation crest. The severity of
corrugation is the measured distance between crests. The extent of the distress is the length of the road
section affected by the distress as a %-age.

In the project route, corrugations are seen throughout the project length. It could be observed when the
vehicles travel faster with vibration.

The probable cause of this distress is one or combination of the following:

Traffic: displacement of less cohesive clay and sany-clay soils by moving traffic are one of the reasons
for the formation of corrugations. The frequency of vibration of the suspended mass of vehicles

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combined with their speed determines the spacing of the ridges. The damage is occasioned by and
continues to develop through existing irregularities in the surface.

Climate: normally the area is wet throughout the year and during the rainy season the ridge would also
develop in the gravel wearing course. The loss of coarse material from the pavement would create weak
spots leading to other damages. The damage develops during rainy seasons when the materials have
high plasticity and little cohesion. The dryness and wind provide favorable conditions for the loss of
fines.

5.7.2.2 Potholes
These are bowl shaped localized holes on the pavement surface caused by the loss of surfacing
materials. The extent of potholes are recorded as their number per the sub section considered while the
severity of this distress is the maximum depth of the potholes in the subsection. Potholes are
encountered on the majority of the project route.

The probable cause of potholes is one or combination of the following:

Traffic: potholes develop on areas where the subgrade is uneven or results from other damages
(corrugation, rutting, erosion gullies, weak spots, removal of oversized cobbles, etc). The traffic will
accelerate the development of potholes.

Climate: potholes start to develop in wet seasons; water remains in them and soak the surface material
making it vulnerable to further damage. Once developed, potholes will grow deeper and wider.
Materials: clayey soils prevent proper drainage of surface water and permit weak spots to develop in to
potholes. Moreover wearing gravels having oversized gravels and cobbles are prone to the formation of
potholes, i.e. when these materials are removed, pot holes develop.

Workmanship problem: if the subgrade is not compacted properly, weak spots will form small
depressions that will progress to formation of potholes.

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Removal of Oversized materials: When oversized materials are removed from the surface by different
reasons, the holes form small ponds during rainy seasons that may lead to formation of potholes.

Other defects: potholes may arise from other defects like corrugations, rutting or drainages related
problems. Corrugations and rutting may lead to development of series of potholes.

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5.7.2.3 Rutting:
This distress is a load associated deformation and will appear as a longitudinal depression in the wheel
paths. It is the result of non recoverable vertical strain in the pavement layers and in the underlying
subgrade. Rut depth is measured by placing a 2m straight edge across the road. The deepest part of the
rut is measured and recorded as the rut depth showing the severity of the distress while the percentage
of the sub section length is recorded as extent of the distress. For the project road, the occurrence of
ruts is limited on specific locations.

The probable cause of rut is one or a combination of the following:

Traffic: rut may result from wheel loads. It is strongly influenced by the traffic intensity, speed and
loading. The development of rut is accelerated by the traffic and channelized traffic. On the project route
the most rutted section is observed along the road as a result of loaded vehicles transporting various
agricultural products from the villages along the route.

Climate: Ruts are aggravated during the driest season of the year as there is lateral displacement of
non-cohesive materials. It is also facilitated on rainy seasons by liquefaction of surfacing materials or
loss of stability of the road embankment or underlying subgrade materials. The project area has rainy
seasons that may cause ruts.

5.7.2.4 Oversized selected materials

Segregation of fines and exposure of oversized materials has occurred because coarser gravels are
used as wearing gravel without selective screening. Besides, washing away of cohesive fines by water
and traffic induced displacement of these fines leads to disintegration and hence exposure of the
oversize.

The defect affects the ridablity of the road badly and leads to increased vehicle operation costs.

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5.7.2.5 Loss of camber

Loss of camber is distortion of the road cross section from the original transverse slope. The entire
section of the project road is affected by loss of camber. The absence of camber leads to accumulation
of water on the wearing gravel and latter it becomes the cause for most of the other pavement defects.

The probable cause of loss of camber is one or a combination of the following:

Wear by traffic: the traction forces of vehicles usually tend to cause the wear and tear of the gravel
surfacing and result in the loss of camber.

Movement of materials: the central part of the road receives repeated moisture to the disintegration of
the materials around the crown resulting in the loss of camber.

Channelized traffic flow: when one of the lanes of the road is defective, vehicles on both lanes of the
road will follow a channelized traffic and this leads to loss of camber.

The existing pavement condition is summarized and presented in the table and figure below.

Table 5. 9 Summary of existing pavement condition

Road section Observed distresses Pavement Recommended remedial

rating measures
0+000 – 48+100 Oversized materials, potholes, and Fair to Poor Scarify the top 15 – 20 cm,
loss of camber reshape and re-compact

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Pavement condition rating

Fair to Pure
100%

Figure 5. 5 Pavement condition rating

5.7.3 Analysis of In – situ Density Test results

In-situ density tests were conducted on the subgrade of existing road and on gravel wearing course
where the thickness is greater than 15cm every 1km. Comparing the results of field density with the
maximum dry density (MDD) determined in the laboratory, the level of compaction of subgrade and
gravel wearing course of existing road was computed.

Accordingly, the level of compaction of all of the subgrade materials was found to be below the minimum
specification requirement of 95% of the maximum dry density achieved by heavy compaction test.
Similarly the tests conducted on the gravel wearing course reveals that the level of compaction of the
entire gravel wearing course is found to be below the minimum specification requirement.

Based on the in-situ density tests results, it is recommended that the existing wearing gravel and the top
part of the subgrade material needs to be scarified, reshaped and re-compacted so that it may be
served as roadbed for the new pavement structure.

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5.7.4 Analysis of Test Results of Roadbed materials

To assess the suitability of the subgrade materials for use as roadbed material, a total of 10
representative samples were collected and tested for classification tests by Net Consulting for Atterberg
limits & sieve analysis, Modified Proctor and 3 – point CBR and swell tests.

The variation of the plasticity and strength characteristics of the subgrade materials along the route is
presented hereunder.

Table 5. 10 Summary of Laboratory Tests Results for Subgrade Soil

ATTERBERGE STANDARD
GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSIS CBR
LIMITS COMPACTION
AASHTO
AASHTO T 89, AASHTO T
S AASHTO T 88 CLASS AASHTO T 99
STATION T 90 193
NO. AASHTO
SWEL
2 0.425 0.075 LL PI M145 MDD OMC CBR
L
MM MM MM % % G/CM3 % % %
1 1+100 98 90 85 85 34 A-7-5(20) 1.29 33.0 6 4.3
2 6+500 98 72 58 53 17 A-7-5(9) 1.60 24.0 8 0.7
3 11+900 100 99 97 74 34 A-7-5(20) 1.35 35.5 8 0.5
4 17+100 91 91 90 86 37 A-7-5(20) 1.25 41.5 8 2.0
5 20+600 46 45 43 63 23 A-7-5(6) 1.38 32.5 10 1.7
6 24+300 95 84 68 59 18 A-7-5(14) 1.30 30.0 10 1.1
7 29+000 80 78 74 65 19 A-7-5(18) 1.34 34.0 6 1.9
8 34+200 97 93 88 69 18 A-7-5(20) 1.33 35.0 10 1.1
9 43+100 75 69 64 61 17 A-7-5(12) 1.43 29.0 13 0.7
10 46+800 99 98 90 58 26 A-7-5(20) 1.34 31.0 3 6.4

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5.7.4.1 Classification ~ Plasticity and particle size distribution

The Atterberg limits tests conducted on the subgrade samples reveal that the existing subgrade
materials along the project route corridor have liquid limit values ranging from 53 to 86 with 100% of
them having liquid limits less than 90%. The plasticity indices in this stretch range from 17 to 37 with 0%
having plasticity indices greater than 45. Besides, from the sieve analysis tests, 60% of the samples
percentage passing for 0.075mm sieve is greater than 75%.

As per the AASHTO soil classification system, 100% of the subgrade materials are classified as A-7-5.
Thus, based on the plasticity and grain size characteristics, the subgrade materials along the route
corridors are poor roadbed materials and needs to be mixed with courser material to be used as good
sub grade material.

The variation of the plasticity and particle size characteristics along the project road are presented
hereunder.

Liquid Limit Characteristics of the Subgrade soils

vs. Station
100

80

60
LL

40
LL
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Station [Km]

Figure 5. 6 Variation of liquid limit of subgrade soils with station

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Palsticity Characteristics of the Subgrade soils

40
35
30
25
20
PI

15 PI
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Station [Km]

Figure 5. 7 Variation of plasticity index of subgrade soils with station

Palsticity Characteristics of the Subgrade soils

120
LL, PI, % passing 0.075mm sieve

100

80

60 LL

40 PI
% passing of 0.075mm
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Station [Km]

Figure 5. 8 Variation of plasticity and grain size characteristics with station

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Composition of the alignment soils as

per AASHTO soil classification system

Fair to Pure
100%

Figure 5. 9 Percentage composition of alignment soils as per AASHTO soil classification

5.7.4.2 CBR and Swell

The CBR tests conducted to assess the strength and swell characteristics of the subgrade materials
reveal that the soils have CBR values ranging from 3 to 13 and swell values from 0.7 to 6.4. Out of these
more than 90% of the soils have CBR values greater than 6% and less than 20% have swell values
more than 3%. thus, the subgrade materials along the project road length are good roadbed materials
except short stretches that require special treatment.

The variation of the CBR and swell values along the project road are plotted in the figures below.

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CBR of the subgrade soils Vs Station

14
12
10
CBR [%]

8
6 CBR of the subgrade soils Vs
Station
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Station [Km]

Figure 5. 10 Variation of CBR value of subgrade soils with station

Swell of the subgrade soils Vs Station

7
6
5
Swell [%]

4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Station [Km]

Figure 5. 11 Variation of swell values of subgrade soils with station

The laboratory test results of the subgrade materials are summarized and presented in the table below.

Table 5. 11 Summary of the test results of subgrade materials

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% AASHTO
CBR AT
STATION PASSING SOIL SWELL
S E. NO LL PI 95%
(KM 0.075MM CLASSIFICATI %
MDD
SIEVE ON

1 1+100 85 85 34 A-7-5(20) 6 4.3

2 6+500 58 53 17 A-7-5(9) 8 0.7

3 11+900 97 74 34 A-7-5(20) 8 0.5

4 17+100 90 86 37 A-7-5(20) 8 2.0

5 20+600 43 63 23 A-7-5(6) 10 1.7

6 24+300 68 59 18 A-7-5(14) 10 1.1

7 29+000 74 65 19 A-7-5(18) 6 1.9

8 34+200 88 69 18 A-7-5(20) 10 1.1

9 43+100 64 61 17 A-7-5(12) 13 0.7

10 46+800 90 58 26 A-7-5(20) 3 6.4

To summarize, the subgrade materials along the majority of the project road are fair roadbed materials
having low plasicity indices, low swell and satisfactory CBR values with lower swell. However, almost all
road stretch materials are fine. We can effectively utilize the whole subgrade materials by mixing with
courser materials.

5.7.5 Analysis of Test Results of Existing Wearing Gravel

In order to assess the engineering properties of the existing wearing gravel, representative samples
were tried to be collected. However, there are not significant amount of wearing course are available on
the existing pavement road . because it has been detrorated and mixed with subgrade material.
Therefore, there is no need to investigate existing wearing gravel that is going to be used as gravel or
subase material during the construction of the project.

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5.8 Cut Slope Stability

Methods of analysing slope stability are usually based on measurements of the density, moisture
content and strength of the soil together with calculations of the stresses in the soil using classic slip-
circle analyses. This type of analysis assumes that the soil mass is uniform. Sometimes failures do
indeed follow the classic slip-circle pattern, but uniform conditions are rare, particularly in residual soils,
and it is more common for slips to occur along planes of weakness in the vertical profile. Nevertheless,
slope stability analysis remains an important tool in investigating the likely causes of slope failures and
in determining remedial works, and such an analysis may be a necessary component ofsurveys to help
design cuttings in soils.

Cut-slope problems are perhaps the most troublesome of major geotechnical difficulties to be
encountered in road construction, and the most difficult to anticipate during design. There are two types
of slope failures: shallow – seated and deep – seated as described below;

5.8.1 Shallow – seated Slope Failures

Shallow failures show up as sloughing or erosion of surface material on the cut slope. Solutions to earth
– cut problems may require no more than regrading and reseeding, or in extraordinary circumstances
applying a slope – protection blanket of granular material or a slope drain. However, one difficulty is
predicting location of the failure. Normal methods of subsurface exploration do not usually indicate a
potential shallow cut – slope problem. In most cases actual need for slope protection blanket or retaining
wall does not become apparent until after finishing normal excavation.

5.8.2 Deep-seated Slope Failures

Deep-seated soil – cut failures often occur along circular arcs, similar to embankment foundation shear
failures. In effect, the cut reduces the natural resisting force, causing a weak stratum to fail in shear. A
common solution for a deep failure is to make the slope flatter. Slope flattening has the effect of
reducing the driving force of the material at the top of the slope. Another solution is to use a toe berm or
retaining wall, which increases the resisting force. These or other solutions like the provision of retaining
structures to cut – slope problems could probably have significant effect in ensuring the stability of
slopes along the project road.

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Rock slopes are also subject to failures. Some failures may be caused by weathering when rock breaks
down into small pieces that accumulate as talus at the toe of the slope. This talus may clog ditches and
cause flooding of the roadway. Rock slope failures may also take the form of rock slides or rock falls,
where many larger blocks, or individual blocks, detach from the rock mass and fall or roll into the road.

5.9 Slope Stability of the Project Road

The project road traverses in undulating rolling, mountainous and escarpment terrain almost for the
whole stretch except the first few kilometers. Associated with this, the presence of excavation work to
meet geometric requirements is inevitable. On the other hand, from surface observation, majority of the
cut sections will be in soils, at some places with undesirable engineering characteristics, from which
stable slope can only be constructed by providing appropriate supporting structures and/or using other
measures. Therefore, it is anticipated that slope stability problem may be triggered by the intervention of
the construction work, and the need for vulnerability assessment is warranted. This preliminary
investigation was initiated because of the fact that such aspect has become recently the most
troublesome of major geotechnical difficulties encountered in construction.

To this end, two way of examination have been carried out: the presence of existing landslide, and
examination of geological formation that make up the cut sections coupled with the topography and
climatic features. Moreover, such examinations was aided by the vast experience obtained from the
incidences in Arbamich - Belta road project, where similar geology and climatic conditions are evident.

Visual examination has been made to gather such important information so as to classify the
susceptibility and design the subsequent intervention. It included:

Collecting geological data to obtain sufficient information regarding properties of

the materials forming the slope
Identifying site specific environmental conditions potentially affecting slope
stability,
Describing the most relevant factors contributing to the slope instability hazards
in the site, and
Developing a conceptual mitigation strategy/design.

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5.9.1 Sign of the Existing Slope Instability

Where existing roads have been damaged or are threatened by ground instability, it is a good indicator
that ground instability could be trigged further by construction work. This is governed by two sets of
factors. First, both the location of the landslide & its length and direction of run out will determine
whether the has potential to do damage by slope instability. Second, assuming the landslide does
encroach on the road in question; the vulnerability of that road to damage caused by the landslide will
depend on the volume, speed, frequency, regularity, depth and aerial extent of movement. These factors
are difficult to define without intensive investigation and modeling, and even then after significant
uncertainties usually could remain.

Within the project area, two locations have been identified along the existing route;

Km 20.1 to km 20.7 (see plate 1 and 2 below)

Indicators of slope instability or active movement in the section include:

 Clay material forming the slope.

 Mmarked by gentle and deformed topographic features.
 Benched surfaces, especially below crescent-shaped headwalls.
 Water or spring water seepage lines.
 Leaning trees.
 Water-loving vegetation on slopes.
 Other patterns of disturbed vegetation.

Km23.4 to km23.8 (see plate 3 below)

The following characteristics of the slide area have been recorded:
 Original back slope: 400 to 600.
 Slope material is soft unconsolidated soil, mainly black cotton underlain by
light yellow unwelded tuff.
 Issuing from the toe are smaller watery mudflows.
 No treatment or protection work for the toe except gabion on foundered soil.

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The slope failure in the latter case seems to be the result of gravitational forces acting on a mass which
can creep slowly, fall freely, slide along some failure surface, and triggered by toe erosion or excavation
for widening. As stresses are usually highest at the toe of the slope, failure often begins there and
progresses upslope. In particular some specific problems caused by toe erosion can be avoided by
limited alignment shift within an existing corridor.

Such examination in other sections revealed the presence of suspicious landslide topography (mainly
steep slopes, side long grounds etc, where hill slopes are only marginally stable at their natural angle of
inclinations) even if there is no evidence of deformation at present.

It seems from the above findings that although any sign of movements on the natural ground in other
similar sections was not identified during the field investigation stage which is vulnerable for landslide,
this does not warrant the ground is stable due to the intervention of the construction work.

Figure 5. 12 Existing toe erosion and subsequent slides, km23.5

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5.9.2 Material in Excavation Section

The construction of new cuttings or widening of existing cut sections invariably disturbs the natural
stability of the ground by the removal of lateral support and a change in the natural ground water
conditions. An examination of the relationship between the geometry, groundwater and materials
characteristics of natural slopes could enable stable and unstable slope scenarios to be identified. This
information together with engineering geological judgment can then be used to assess the stability of
slopes.

As can be learned from the geology of the area and witnessed from the site visit, the project road is
dominantly covered by weathering product of volcanic rocks. Moderate to strong weathering has
commonly produced clayey soils and highly friable tuff. The rocks largely disintegrated into sticky friable
material and highly plastic clay soils, particularly in km18 to km28. These materials have characteristics
of softening, expansion, dispersing and rapid deterioration upon excavation and exposing. Coupled with
the fact that the area is wet, this increases the susceptibility of slope to landslide.

Therefore, attribute to the heterogeneous nature of soils as well as high plastic nature, cuttings in the
project area will need to be set back to a flatter slope. On top of these, other protection structures like
retaining walls near the toe need to be provided for slopes with potentially large vertical and horizontal
deformations.

5.9.3 Experience in nearby Projects

A number of slope stability problems as well as landslides have been reported in Woseza - Gidole road
and Arbaminch - Beltaroad(where Net Consult is supervision Consultant) projects.

Various study both by their respective consultants and by Ethiopian Roads Authority (represented by its
Research and Development Directorate) have been conducted in these projects to characterize, identify
the cause and forward remedial measures to avoid the problem and construct stable slopes. The
general consensus as to the cause of the problems can be grouped into four distinctive factors:
Topographic steepness.

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Geological settings including lithology, structures, stratigraphic arrangements,

groundwater and seepage conditions.
Climate (factors that control erosion and weathering such as rainfall splash and
infiltration, surface runoff, alternate wetting and drying etc.)
Human activity inducing modifications to the natural conditions.

According to the studies, specific potential causative variables are almost invariably similar for most
slopes and can be generalized as follow:

Susceptible lithology (presence of heavily jointed, highly fractured, sheared and

intensely weathered rocks, rapidly degrading rock varieties such as tuff and
other pyroclastic rocks), and more so adverse lithological stratifications (of
incompetent, weak and soft layers with hard rock varieties, palaeosol seams
etc.) creating varying strength, permeability conditions, weathering and erosion
resistance etc.
Removal of underlying material that provided support at the base (via toe
excavation either human action for construction of the road or fluvial
undercutting).
High and steep cut slopes beyond the strength of slope forming materials
without sufficient treatment or protective measures.
Spoil disposal on marginally stable steep side-long grounds and sensitive
slopes with bases marked by steam flows.
Erosive actions of surface and groundwater, plus saturation of the slope forming
materials and spoil heaps side-tipped on sensitive slopes and drainage
courses.

Considering the ground fact that, the proposed project traverses in similar geology and comparatively
similar topographic and climatic regions with the reported ones as well as the presence of indicative
existing slides, the investigation report concluded that the susceptibility of the road corridor to landslide
due to intervention of construction work is high unless proper remedial works have been taken. The
following further justify the conclusion:

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The project road, mostly in km18 to km28 and other short stretches, traverses
on a landslide-prone terrain, where hill slopes are only marginally stable at their
natural angle of inclinations.
The presence of adverse geological conditions & intercalations of highly
erodible pyroclastic materials including tuff that are highly susceptible to erosion
and softening characteristics.
The topographic constraints (mainly steep slopes, side long grounds etc) and ,
The climate contributions (largely heavy rainfall, concentrated runoff erosion
and high moisture level).

Therefore, four set of design considerations have been exercised in the present revision to form stable
slope as described below;

Avoiding the risk by reducing excavation work.

 To achieve this and also meet geometric requirements, realignment has

been made, particular in km18 to km28 where the cut depth has been
reduced from the original design appreciably_ maximum up to 15m from
the original in excess of 30m on center line.

Flattening the slope (adopt soil slope), and introduce bench (at 7m vertical
height) for cut depth greater than 6m.
An option of fill instead of hillside cut, or partial fill-partial cut has been
considered to reduce the total disturbed area and risk of triggering instabilities.
Constructing Supporting structures

 Construction of structures like gabions and retaining walls has been

recommended for slopes with potentially large vertical and horizontal
deformations, and where seepage is evident.

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5.10 Recommended Slope Condition for Different Manuals

In normal cut or fill section of a road segments where no back slope stability prone areas, it is
recommended to use slope condition tables from manual to decide the side slope and back slope ratio.
For this project case, It is advisable to use the recommended slope condition table for the road section
except the slope stability problem identified areas. Thus, stable cut and fill slopes are recommended
from the design manuals for normal road section by taking in to account current engineering practices in
different design manuals and experiences in to consideration. In this regard, reference has been made
to the following design manuals:
ERA Geometric Design Manuals
TCDE Geometric Design Manual,
Kenyan Design Manual and,
Tanzanian Design Manual.

The slope conditions are developed based on material type and height of slope. Thus the recommended
slope ratios for each stated manual are shown in the table below.

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Figure 5. 13 Comparison of the different cut slopes and recommendations

ERA Design TCDE Geometric Kenyan Road Tanzanian Road Consultant’s

Manual Design Manual Design Manual Design Manual Recommendation

Height of Slope Side

for Cut (V:H)

for Cut (V:H)
for Cut (V:H)

for Cut (V:H)

for Cut (V:H)

Material type Side Slope Side Slope Side Slope Side Slope

Back Slope
Back Slope

Back Slope

Back Slope

Back Slope
(m) Slope
(V:H) (V:H) (V:H) (V:H)
(V:H)

Cut
Cut

Cut

Cut

Cut

Fill
Fill

Fill

Fill

Fill
0.0m - 1.0 1:4 1:4 1:3 1:3 1:3 1:4 1:3 - 1:4 1:3 1:3
1:2 to
Earth or Soil 1.0m-2.0* 1:3 1:3 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2 - 1:2 1:2 1:2
2:3
Over 2.0* 1:2 1:2 2:3 2:3 2:3 2:3 2:3 - 2:3 2:3 2:3
Expansive soil 1:4 1:4
Rock 0.0-2.0* 1:3 1:3 4:5 4:5 2:1 - - - 1:2 2:1
3:1
Over 2.0* 1:2 1:2 1:1 1:2 1:1 4:1 1:2 - - - 1:1 to 1:2 1:1.5 4:1
to
Weathered Rock 0.0-2.0* - - - - - - - - 4:1 1:2 2:1
10:1
Over 2.0* - - - - - - - - 2:3 3:1
Decomposed 0.0-1.0 - - - 1:3 1:3 - - - - 1:2 to 1:3 1:3
1.0-2.0* - - - 1:2 1:2 - - - - 1:1 1:2 1:2
Over 2.0* - - - 2:3 2:3 - - - - 2:3 2:3
* The 2.0m limit is 3.0m for Kenyan and Tanzanian Road Design Manuals

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5.11 Conclusion and Recommendation of Construction Material

5.11.1 Existing pavement materials
Based on the detailed pavement condition survey, in – situ density tests and laboratory test results, the
existing gravel road is highly deteriorate and the Consultant recommends the following:
The existing gravel wearing course (top 15cm of the existing road) needs to be
scarified and oversize materials be removed and thus construction of the road
can proceed after reshaping and recompacting the underlying subgrade
material.
The upper 25cm of the subgrade immediately beneath the gravel wearing
course needs to be compacted to a relative density of at least 95% of the
maximum dry density achieved by AASHTO T 180.
The existing pavement gravel material has been depreciated and may not be
considered for reuse as gravel. i.e., it is not significant but could be blended
and used as embankment.

5.11.2 Roadbed materials

The Road bed materials along the majority of the project road are fair roadbed materials having low
plasicity indices, low swell and satisfactory CBR values with lower swell. However, almost all road
stretch materials are fine. We can effectively utilize the whole subgrade materials by mixing with
courser materials.

5.11.2.1 Expansive soils

Poor soils are found at some sections of the project road. The laboratory test results on these soils
indicate that they are characterized by low CBR values, high plasticity and high swell values. Besides,
these soils are subject to high volumetric changes with moisture fluctuation. Thus, it is recommended to
remove and replace a minimum of 1m depth of these soils with an impermeable improved subgrade
material having a minimum CBR of 6%.

Besides, the following points are worth noting for constructions on expansive soils:
The shoulders be sealed and widened as much as possible so that the zone of
seasonal moisture fluctuation is moved further away from the roadway.

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Side drains be avoided or shall be kept at a minimum distance of 6m from the

toe of the embankment.
The side slope shall be protected from erosion by grassing but no trees shall
be planted on the embankment slope as more cracks would occur if trees are
present.
The fill material shall have a minimum plasticity index of 15.

5.11.3 Construction Materials

In the project area, the team of engineers from the design section has tried to investigate the availability
of construction materials for the construction of the project. During the investigation works visual
inspections and laboratory tests were made for typical samples of possible sources of construction
materials. Accordingly, the team has tried to assess the Rock, subase, select material, natural sand and
water sources in the vicinity of the project.

To summarize, there are adequate construction materials except well graded subase to be utilized for
the construction of the project road.

5.11.3.1 Rock
The inspection conducted on the rock source revealed that the area rock type is basalt according to the
geological formation data and which is suitable for crushing and masonry works. Additional rock
sources could also be obtained from the fresh to slightly weathered basaltic rocks in the project area.
Thus, there are sufficient rock sources for crushing and masonry works in the project area.

5.11.3.2 Subase and Select Material

The inspection conducted on the natural gravel source revealed that some of the sources meet all the
specification requirements but a few has some problem regarding gradation. Thus, the sources could
be used for subbase construction by rechecking their gradation and PI during construction or by
blending with courser material, otherwise it should be processed. Thus, there are sufficient natural
gravel sources for subbase construction in the project area but care should be taken for high plasticity
and gradation in the sources.

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5.11.3.3 Borrow Material

The inspection conducted on the borrow material sources revealed that all the sources satisfy the
specification requirements of fill materials for embankment construction and replacement of poor
subgrades. Thus, there are adequate sources of borrow materials in the project area.

5.11.3.4 Water
The inspection conducted on the water sources revealed that the area is wet due to spring water, many
perennial river flows and frequent rainfall. Besides, all the recommended sources satisfy the
specification requirements to be used for compaction and concrete works. Thus, there are sufficient
water sources in the project area.

5.11.3.5 Natural Sand (Fine Aggregate)

Regarding natural sand, there is no scarcity of natural sand in the area. Hence natural sand should be
transported from the proposed source which is currently being utilized by Sugar project and Jinka Town
Section. Thus, there are sufficient sand source in the project area.

To summarize, there are adequate construction materials to be utilized for the construction of the
project road.

5.11.4 Recommended Slope Conditions

In an attempt to ensure the stability of slopes in the project area, the following slopes are recommended
slope conditions;

Table 5. 12 Recommended side and back slopes

Recommended slopes

Material type Height of Slope (m) Side Slope (V:H) Back Slope for Cut
Cut Fill (V:H)
0.0m - 1.0m 1:3 1:3
Earth or Soil 1.0m - 2.0m 1:2 1:2
Over 2.0 m 2:3 2:3
1:2
Expansive soil 1:4 1:4
0.0m - 2.0m 1:2 2:1
Rock
Over 2.0m 1:1.5 4:1

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0.0m - 2.0m 1:2 2:1

Weathered Rock
Over 2.0m 2:3 3:1
0.0m - 1.0m 1:3 1:3
Decomposed 1.0m - 2.0m 1:2 1:2
Over 2.0 m 2:3 2:3

5.11.5 Specifications for Construction Materials

Specification on construction materials is set by referring to ERA Standard Technical Specification
2002, TRL Road Note 31, TRL Road Note 3, IRC Specifications for Road and Bridge Works 2000 and
AASHTO Standard Specifications 2006 Part IA.

5.11.5.1 Borrow Material

The material requirements are taken from ERA’s Pavement Design Manual, Volume 1, Flexible
Pavements and Gravel Roads, 2002 and ERA’s Site Investigation Manual, 2002.
Materials with less than 5% by weight of organic materials.
The material shall have a minimum soaked CBR value of 7% at 95% of
maximum dry density as determined by AASHTO - T-180.
It is recommended that the upper 250 mm of soil immediately beneath the sub-
base or capping layer, i.e. the top of the embankment fill or the natural
subgrade, be compacted to a minimum of 100% of the maximum dry density
obtained by ASTM D 698 (standard compaction).
The material shall have a maximum swell of 3%.
The material shall have a maximum plasticity index and liquid limit of 45 and
90, respectively.
The material placed in layers for formation of embankments shall be
compacted to the 95% of the modified AASHTO density.
For silts and clays, the moisture content at the time of compaction should not
exceed 105% of the OMC (standard compaction).

5.11.5.2 Natural Subbase Material

The sub-base is an important load spreading layer in the completed pavement. It enables traffic
stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in the subgrade, it acts as a working platform for the

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construction of the upper pavement layers and it acts as a separation layer between subgrade and
base course. Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or as a drainage layer.

Subbase materials shall have liquid limit not more than 45% and plasticity
index not more than 12.

The minimum soaked CBR of the subbase materials shall be 30% when
determined in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T-193. The CBR
shall be determined at a density of 95% of the maximum dry density when
determined in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T-180 method D.

The minimum in-situ dry density of the sub-base material shall be 97% of the
modified AASHTO density.

The material shall have 10 percent fines value of 50kN or more when tested in
compliance with BS:812 (Part 111).

The material shall have a maximum plasticity index and Plasticity Modulus of
25 and 500, respectively.
Gradation requirements as shown in table below

Table 5. 13 Gradation Requirements of Natural Subbase

SIEVE SIZE ( MM) MASS PERCENT PASSING

50 100
80 – 100
37.5
60 – 100
20
30 – 100
5
17 – 75
1.18
9 – 50
0.3
5 – 25
0.075

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5.11.5.3 Capping Layers (GC)

These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover on weak subgrades. They are used in the
lower pavement layers as a substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a cost comparison
should be conducted to assess their cost effectiveness. The material requirement is taken from
Pavement Design Manual Volume 1, 2002 Flexible Pavements.
The density is specified as a minimum of 95 per cent of the maximum dry
density in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy Compaction).

A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is specified at the highest anticipated moisture

content measured on samples compacted in the laboratory at the specified
field density.

5.11.5.4 Graded Crushed Stone Base Course

This is the main component of the pavement contributing to the spreading of the traffic loads. This
material would be produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock (GB1) and would be an all-inproduct,
usually termed as ‘crusher-run’, or alternatively the material would be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution, as per the specifications specified below.

The material requirements are taken from ERA’s Pavement Design Manual, Volume 1, Flexible
Pavements, 2002.

The in situ dry density of the placed material would be a minimum of 98% of
the maximum dry density obtained in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy
Compaction).

The compacted thickness of each layer should not exceed 200 mm.

Crushed stone base courses constructed with proper care with the materials
described above would have CBR values well in excess of 100 per cent.
Therefore, there is no need to carry out CBR tests during construction.

Flakiness Index (FI) < 35%

Plasticity Index (PI) <6

Ten percent Fines Value (TFV) > 110KN

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wet/dry ratio > 75%

Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) < 25%

Magnesium Sulphate Soundness (MSS) < 12%

Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) < 35%

Gradation requirement as shown in table below:

Table 5. 14 Gradation requirement for Base course

Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test

sieve
Test Sieve (mm)
Nominal maximum particle size

37.5mm

50 100

37.5 95 – 100

20 60 – 80

10 40 – 60

5 25 – 40

2.36 15 – 30

0.425 7 – 19

0.075 5 – 12

In constructing a crushed stone base course, the aim would be to achieve maximum impermeability
compatible with good compaction and high stability under traffic.

5.11.5.5 Crushed Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes

 Coarse aggregate

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The coarse aggregate would consist of crushed rock, crushed gravel or other hard material retained on
the 2.36mm sieve. They would be clean, hard, durable, of cubical shape, free from dust and soft or
friable matter, organic or other deleterious substances.

Where crushed gravel is proposed for use as aggregate, not less than 90% by weight of the crushed
material retained on the 4.75mm sieve and would have at least two fractured faces. The coarse
aggregates would satisfy the physical requirements specified in the following table.

Table 5. 15 Physical Requirements for Coarse Aggregate

PROPERTY TEST TEST METHOD SPECIFICATION

MAX. 5% PASSING 0.075MM

CLEANLINESS GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS BS 812, PART 103
SIEVE

PARTICLE SHAPE FLAKINESS INDEX BS 812, PART 105 MAX. 30%

AGGREGATE CRUSHING
BS 812, PART 110 MAX. 25%
VALUE

ASTM C 131 & C

STRENGTH LOS ANGELES ABRASION MAX. 30%
535

AGGREGATE IMPACT
BS 812, PART 110 MAX. 25%
VALUE

SODIUM SULPHATE ASTM C 88 MAX. 12%

DURABILITY
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE ASTM C 88 MAX. 18%

WATER
WATER ABSORPTION ASTM C 127 MAX. 2%
ABSORPTION

MIN. RETAINED COATING

BITUMEN AFFINITY COATING & STRIPPING AASHTO T-182
95%

 Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregates would consist of crushed or naturally occurring mineral material, or a combination of
the two, passing the 2.36mm sieve and retained on the 0.075mm sieve. They would be clean, hard,
durable, dry and free from dust, and soft or friable matter, organic and other deleterious matter.

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The plasticity index of the fraction passing the 0.425mm sieve would not exceed 4 when tested in
accordance with AASHTO T-90. The fine aggregates would satisfy the physical requirements specified
in the following table.

Table 5. 16 Physical Requirements for Fine Aggregate

PROPERTY TEST TEST METHOD SPECIFICATION

GRAIN SIZE BS 812, PART MAX . 22% PASSING

ANALYSIS 103 0.075MM SIEVE
CLEANLINESS
SAND EQUIVALENT AASHTO T 176 MIN. 50%

PLASTICITY INDEX AASHTO T 90 MAX . 4%

SODIUM SULPHATE ASTM C 88 MAX . 15%

DURABILITY
MAGNESIUM
ASTM C 88 MAX . 20%
SULPHATE

 Filler
The filler (material passing the 0.075 mm sieve) can be crushed rock fines, Portland cement or
hydrated lime. Portland cement or hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (1-2 % by mass of total
mix) to assist the adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate. Fresh hydrated lime can help reduce the
rate of hardening of bitumen in surface dressings and may have a similar effect in premixes.

Filler would consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated lime or cement
approved by the Engineer. The filler would be free from organic impurities and have a plasticity index
not greater than 4. The plasticity index would not apply if the filler is cement or lime.

The filler would be graded within the limits indicated in Table below

Table 5. 17 Grading Requirements for Mineral Filler

Sieve Size (mm) Cumulative percent passing by

weight of total aggregate

0.6 100

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0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100

 Aggregate grading
When tested by wet sieving method, the combined grading of the coarse and fine aggregates and
added filler for the particular mixture shall fall within the limits shown in Table below;

Table 5. 18 Composition of Asphalt Concrete Pavement Layers

Percentage by mass of total aggregate

Test sieve (mm)
passing test sieve
19 100
13.2 79 – 100
9.5 70 – 88
4.75 53 – 71
2.36 42 – 58
1.18 34 – 48
0.6 26 – 38
0.3 18 – 28
0.15 12 – 20
0.075 4 – 10
Bitumen content % by
5–7
weight of total mix

The combined aggregate grading would not vary from the low limit on one sieve to the high limit on the
adjacent sieve. The optimum bitumen content would be determined by the Marshall Method described
in Asphalt Institute Manual, MS – 2.

5.11.5.6 Fine Aggregate (Sand) for Concrete Works

Sand would be clean, naturally occurring or blended material free from any deleterious substances, dry
and well graded within the limits given in the table below and with other physical properties conforming
to the requirements of this table. Sand for mortar and concrete works would fulfill the following
requirements:
7 days Mortar strength (AASHTO T – 71 : Min 95%
Soundness Loss by Sodium Sulfate (AASHTO T-104) : Max 10%
Clay lumps and friable particles (AASHTO T-112) : Max 3%

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Organic impurities (AASHTO T – 21) : Color plate No. 1 or 2

Plasticity index (%) : 6 max
Sand equivalent : 30 min.

Table 5. 19 Grading Requirement for Fine aggregate (AASHTO T – 27)

PERCENTAGE
SIEVE SIZE (MM)
PASSING BY MASS (%)

9.5 100

4.75 85-100

2.36 80-100

1.18 70-98

0.6 55-95

0.3 30-75

0.15 10-40

0.075 4-10

Ref. Indian Road Congress New Delhi, 2013

5.11.5.7 Bitumen
It is essential that good bonding is achieved between the surface treatment and the existing road
surface. This means that non-bituminous materials must be primed before surface treatment is carried
out.

 Prime Coats
This work would consist of the application of a single coat of low viscocity liquid bituminous material to a
porous granular surface preparatory to the superimposition of bituminous treatment or mix. The work
would be carried out on a previously prepared granular base course.

Where a surface treatment is to be applied to a previously untreated road surface it is essential that the
surface should be dry, clean and as dust-free as possible. Low viscosity, medium curing cutback

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bitumens such as MC-30 and MC-70 would be used for prime coats. The relationship between grade
and viscosity for cutback primes is shown in Table below.

Table 5. 20 Kinematic Viscosities of Current Cutback Binders

PERMITTED VISCOSITY
GRADE OF APPLICATION
RANGE
CUTBACK BINDER RATE (KG/SQ.M)
(CENTISTOKES AT 60 OC)

MC 30 30-60 0.6-0-9

MC 70
70-140 0.9-1.2

Ref. Indian Road Congress New Delhi, 2013

 Bituminous Concrete
This work would consist of construction of bituminous concrete for use in wearing and profile concrete
courses. This work would consist of construction of a single layer of bituminous concrete on a
previously prepared primed base course surface. The thickness of the layer would be 50mm.

80/100 penetration bitumen would be used and the percentage would be decided after marshal test.

6 PAVEMENT DESIGN
This chapter deals with the principles and applications of mainly ERA design manual 2002 in
connection with the flexible pavement structure design of the project road. Pavement design for Hot Mix
Asphalt Concrete road involves determining the thickness of pavement layers and improved sub-grade
layer. It also involves establishing specifications of construction materials after assessing their
conformity together with their availability.

This pavement design report deals with the traffic survey & analysis and determination of the design
traffic, determination of the design CBR and the pavement structural design. The pavement design
processes are described below;

Estimating the traffic in terms of the cumulative number of equivalent standard

axles that will use the road over the selected design life.

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Characterizing the strength of the subgrade soil over which the road is to be
built.
Selecting pavement materials for each layers.
Select a suitable structure type and thickness from the catalogue of pavement
structures presented in the ERA design manula 2002.

The performance of the pavement depends mainly on material quality that forms the pavement
structure as well as roadbed, the location through which the road traverses, and the volume and type of
traffic using the road.

The pavement layer thicknesses design mainly depends on the sub-grade strength (expressed in terms
of CBR) and the expected level of traffic during the opening year of the road for traffic.

6.1 Traffic Surveys and Analysis

6.1.1 general
Information about traffic is indispensible for any highway since it would form the basis for the design of
pavement, fixing the number of lanes, design of intersections and economic appraisal of the project etc.
Besides, the deterioration of paved roads are caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. It is necessary to consider not
only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the
axle loads) of these vehicles. Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative
standard axle loads. One of the important factors in pavement design is the volume and composition of
traffic that will use the road over its design life.

The pattern and characteristics of traffic flow of the project area were assessed by site visit both by
ERCC’s design team and Net Consult Engineers so as to estimate the volume and damaging effect of
the traffic that will use the road within the design period. There are a lot of traffic survey methodologies
but for this project we have preferred to use the classified traffic volume count method to estimate the
traffic flow in the design life of the road project.

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6.1.2 Classified Traffic Volume Count

Count of traffic is the basic traffic study required in connection with many types of highway projects.
Therefore, the design team has used this method by selecting proper station for getting proper result of
traffic count. Classified traffic count was organized at the jinka town junction to the road towards Jinka –
Gazer – Tolta.

Manual classified traffic count was conducted at the Jinka junction for a week from May 1 – May 7/2015
by taking the data for 12 hours from 6AM to 6PM. In carrying out the traffic surveys, the vehicle
classification system of ERA design manual 2002 was used as shown in Table below.

Table 6. 1 Vehicle Classification

Class Type Axles Description

1 Car 2 Passenger cars and taxi
2 2 Pickup, minibus, land rovers, land
Utilities
cruisers
3 Small bus 2 ≤ 27 seats
4 Bus/coach 2 > 27 seats
5 Small truck 2 ≤ 3.5 tonnes
6 Medium truck 2 or 3 3.5 – 7.5 tonnes
7 Large 2-axled truck 2 > 7.5 tonnes
8 3-axled truck 3 >7.5 tonnes
9 4-axled truck 4 *
10 5-axled truck 5 *
11 6-axled truck 6 *
12 2-axled trailer 2 *
13 3-axled trailer 3 *
*Not needed for definition

From the traffic study, it appears that the anticipated traffic for the project road is mainly composed of
diverted and generated traffic. The relevant socio-economic principles were applied and parameters
were considered to forecast and determine the likely traffic level of the project road.

Even though Traffic counts carried out over for a week as a basis for estimating the AADT, it could
produce estimates which are subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have large daily,

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weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. For the project, almost no traffic is observed. But there will be
a great traffic expected in the future after the sugar factories are completed.

The traffic count data was collected and estimated on a directional basis: on the Mendir village bound
lane and the Jinka Junction bound lane. The traffic count data is summarized and presented in the table
below.

Table 6. 2 Traffic count data on Mendir bound lane

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
04/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
05/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
06/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
07/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
08/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
09/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
10/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45

Table 6. 3 Traffic count data on Jinka Junction bound lane

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
04/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
05/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
06/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
07/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
08/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
09/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
10/05/2015 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45

Table 6. 4 Traffic count data on both lanes

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
04/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
05/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
06/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90

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07/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
08/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
09/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
10/05/2015 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90

Note that the current estimated traffic is very small and below the above estimated traffic flow but it is
amended by considering many factors including the seasons and the future sugar factory traffic flow
contributions.

6.1.3 Determination of Annual Average Daily Traffic

Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT can produce estimates
which are subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have large daily, weekly, monthly and
seasonal variations. Based on the review of various traffic studies conducted in Ethiopia in recent
years, it has been concluded that traffic volumes are very erratic and do not show any identifiable
general trends. This makes it difficult to predict growth rates and future volumes. However, it is
expected that, as traffic increases, the variability will decrease and it will become a little easier to
forecast traffic more accurately.

In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate initial
traffic volumes. The annual average daily traffic (AADT) of the project road was determined based on
the traffic count data from Jinka junction to Mendir vilage counting station by considering the night and
seasonal adjustment factors in to consideration. Night factors were applied to convert the 12 hour count
data to an equivalent 24 hour count data. The night factor for each vehicle type is obtained by taking
the ratio of the number of vehicles for the 24 hours count to the corresponding 12 hour counts on the
days when 24 hour counts were conducted.

To estimate the night factor, we checked for one day 24 hours traffic flows and only around 20 percent
of traffic growth were observed compared with daytime traffic. Therefore, the night traffic factor could be
taken as 1.2 in view of the fact that no significant traffic flow along the project existing roads. Therefore,
the night factor for each vehicle could be considered as 1.2.

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Since the traffic flow is considered and estimated uniformly by considering the current actual day traffic
and the five sugar factories development project, we can consider typical one day trffic data for
adjustment due to night time. Therefore, the full day traffic flow including is as shown in the tables
below.

Table 6. 5 Adjusted 24 hours Traffic count data on Mendir bound lane

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
12
hour 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
One day
NF 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
traffic
24
hour 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
*NF is the night multiplication factor

Table 6. 6 Adjusted 24 hours Traffic count data on Jinka Junction bound lane

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
12
hour 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 45
One day
NF 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
traffic
24
hour 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
*NF is the night multiplication factor

The average daily traffic (ADT) which is the 24 hour traffic count data is thus summarized and
presented in the tables below.

Table 6. 7 Adjusted 24 hours Traffic count data on both lanes

Truck &
Date Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
12
hour 10 20 10 10 20 10 10 90
One day
NF 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
traffic
24
hour 12 24 12 12 24 12 12 108
*NF is the night multiplication factor

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The calculated average daily traffic reveal that the traffic of the project area is dominantly composed of
pickups, small trucks, buses and small vehicles.

The percentage composition of the various vehicle classes along the project road is summarized and
presented in the tables below.

Table 6. 8 Percentage Traffic composition on Mendir bound lane

Vehicle type Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer
% composition 11.11% 22.22% 11.11% 11.11% 22.22% 11.11% 11.11%

Table 6. 9 Percentage Traffic composition on the Jinka Junction bound lane

Vehicle type Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer
% composition 11.11% 22.22% 11.11% 11.11% 22.22% 11.11% 11.11%

The seasonal adjustment factor is estimated to be one after reviewing past traffic data since the most
common method of forecasting normal traffic is to extrapolate data on traffic levels and assume that
growth will remain constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year, or constant in
relative terms for the project current socio economic conditions.

The normal computed AADT2015 values are presented in the tables below.

Table 6. 10 AADT on on Mendir bound lane on the year 2015

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
ADT 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
SCF 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AADT2015 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

Table 6. 11 AADT on the Jinka Junction bound lane on the year 2015

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
ADT 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

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SCF 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AADT2015 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

Table 6. 12 AADT on both lanes on the year 2015

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
ADT 12 24 12 12 24 12 12 108
SCF 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AADT2015 12 24 12 12 24 12 12 108

6.1.4 Traffic Forecasting

Even with stable economic conditions, traffic forecasting is an uncertain process. Although the
pavement design engineer may often receive help from specialised professionals at this stage of the
traffic evaluation, some general remarks are in order.

The road is Main Access Road and In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic
into the following three categories namely Normal traffic, Diverted traffic and Generated traffic. However
a general traffic forecasting approach is considered for the project road compared to a road – specific
projection. In general, traffic or transport demand is a derived demand driven by growth in population,
the economy and personal incomes. Forecasts of these factors are therefore required to make accurate
traffic forecasts. Traffic growth can also be related to the growth in fuel consumption and vehicle fleet;
therefore trends are also developed for these parameters.

Moreover, estimates of income elasticity, relating traffic growth directly to forecast changes in national
income, are often applied in making forecasts. To forecast traffic growth it is usually necessary to
separate traffic into the following three categories according to ERA Design Manual 2002:

Normal traffic. Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if
no new pavement were provided.
Diverted traffic. Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport)
to the project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between
the same origin and destination.

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Generated traffic. Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or

improvement of the road.

6.1.4.1 Normal Traffic Growth Rates

The annual Normal traffic growth rates were determined by considering the trend in the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of the country. The GDP data was collected from the Ministry of Finance and Economic
Development, MoFED’s, report. It is expected that the traffic growth will show a higher increase rate in
the first ten years after its opening to traffic and will tend to reduce slightly in the last five years.
 Trends in GDP
The main income development of the country for the last decade or so is depicted in table below. The
table shows average annual rates of growth of income and income per head for the period from 1997 –
2008. In the period 2000/01, the country witnessed a fairly high growth rate of 8.3% pa, followed by two
years of marginal to negative growth rates due to drought. However, the GDP has well recovered from
2003/04 onwards, registering an average growth rate of 11.7% pa. The overall GDP growth rate during
the period of 1997 – 2008 has been recorded at more than 6% pa.

It is to be noted that due to unavailability of time series data of GDP at regional level, national economic
data was used for calculation of the traffic growth as a proxy for the regional economy, as the latter
represents the entire economy.

Table 6. 13 Table 5.2.15 GDP, Population and per capita income Development

Population % GDP per

Year GDP
mln [b] Change Capital (US $)
2.8
2006/07 72.4 270 11.8

2007/08 74.9 2.5 359 11.2

2008/09 76.8 1.9 419 10.0
2009/10 78.8 2.0 377 10.4
2010/11 80.9 2.1 389 11.4
2011/12 83.0 2.1 510 8.8
2012/13 84.8 1.8 550 9.7

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Population % GDP per

Year GDP
mln [b] Change Capital (US $)
2013/14

Average rates 2006/07 –

2.17 10.47
2013/14
Sources: [a] MoFED Country Economic Brief UNDP Analysis Issue No. 1/Feb.2014

Concerning future trends in GDP, long term (2010/11 – 2019/20) economic forecasts for Ethiopia
prepared by IMF/World Bank in 2002 assume a 6.3% p.a., GDP growth. MoFED on the other hand, has
set a medium term (PASDEP: 2004/05-2009/10) target rate of growth of at least 10 percent although
very favourable circumstances would be required for this to be sustainable into the longer term.

Bearing in mind that GDP projections have to be made for at least 20 years period, a general approach
is to assume that recent trend will be projected for into the future. Based on the above, the medium or
base forecast is therefore conservatively assumed to increase by 10.47 percent p.a. for the coming
eight years.

In line with the above discussion, three set of scenarios are considered for estimating annual GDP
growth in Ethiopia (to be in turn used for estimating the future traffic demand) as follows:

Low: stagnant to slow growth in the Ethiopian and regional economy.

Medium: moderate growth in Ethiopian and regional economy as a result of
continued government commitment to poverty reduction and a supportive
policy environment.
High: Relatively high growth in Ethiopian economy.

Table 6. 14 Expected GDP Growth in Ethiopia

National GDP Growth (% pa.)

Period in years
Low Medium High
2014 – 20 9 10 11

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2021 – 30 6 8 10

The growth rates adopted in later stages of the appraisal take into account the fact that the economy in
the country will stabilize and maintain a slower rate of growth.
 Transport demand elasticity with respect to GDP
Empirical evidences have established that demand for transport tends to expand at somewhat faster
rate than the economic growth rate as measured by national and/or regional GDPs. As the economy
grows and reaches stability, the rate of growth for transport declines. This relationship is commonly
referred to as income elasticity of demand for transport, measuring the relative change in
travel/transport demand due to change in income, over time. Income elasticity is a measure of
responsiveness of travel demand; generally a given rise in per capital income can be expected to result
in a more than proportionate increase in demand for travel, since travel demand is usually found to be
income elastic. Also income elasticity tend to decrease over time as the economy and/or personal
income grows.

In Ethiopia, detailed empirical evidence have not yet been established and/or made available providing
reasonable estimates of income elasticity of demand for transport. Some general forms of estimates,
which may be taken as indicative, are however suggested by few studies.

The Network Analysis Study (2003) provides an estimate of income elasticity of demand for transport
for different vehicles categories. Based on the findings of the study, estimates of income elasticity have
been derived (with upwards adjustments) for the project under consideration to estimate traffic growth
rates. Generally, elasticity of demand for transport with respect to economic growth are assumed
initially to reflect recent trends, but to decline over time.

Table 6. 15 Income elasticity of demand for transport

Vehicle type Income Elasticity (e)

2010 – 2020 2021 – 2035

Passenger Transport

Passenger cars/4WD 1.3 1.2

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Vehicle type Income Elasticity (e)

2010 – 2020 2021 – 2035

Small Buses 1.2 1.2

Large Buses 1.1 1.1
Average 1.20 1.17
Freight Transport
Small Trucks 1.2 1.1
Medium Trucks 1.2 1.1
Heavy Trucks 1.3 1.2
Articulated/truck & trailer 1.4 1.3
Average 1.28 1.18
Source: computed The Network Analysis Study (2003)

In specifying traffic growth rates for the projection of stream of freight traffic using the road in the future,
a simple model has been used that combines the effect of GDP growth on travel demand for freight
vehicles. On the other hand, forecast growth rates for passenger traffic were computed using a model
that combines the effect on travel demand of population growth and of changes in per capita incomes.
Two models of the following forms were, therefore, applied:

ΔT = e (ΔGDP)
Where:
ΔT = the change in freight transport
ΔGDP = the change in GDP
E = the income elasticity for freight travel demand.
and
ΔT = ΔP + e (ΔC)
Where:
ΔT = the change in passenger transport
ΔP = the change in population
ΔC = the change in per capita income
e= the income elasticity for passenger travel demand.

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Based on the model relationship specified above, estimate of forecast traffic growth rates for passenger
and freight vehicles category (for three scenarios) are presented in tables below corresponding to the
forecast traffic growth periods.

Table 6. 16 Average Annual Traffic Growth Rate – Low Scenario

change Traffic Growth
change Elasticity (e)
in per Rate pa (%)
Period in National in
capita
years GDP (%) populatio Passenger Freight
income PV FV
n (ΔP) Vehicles Vehicles
(ΔC)
2010- 2020 9.0 2.17 10.34 1.20 1.28 14.57 11.52
2021-2030 6.0 2.17 8.00 1.17 1.18 11.53 7.08
Average over Period: 13.05 9.30

Table 6. 17 Average Annual Traffic Growth Rate – Medium Scenario

chang Traffic Growth
chang Elasticity (e)
e in Rate pa (%)
Nationa e in
Period in per
l GDP popula
years capita Passenger Freight
(%) tion PV FV
incom Vehicles Vehicles
(ΔP)
e (ΔC)
2010-2020 10 2.17 10.34 1.20 1.28 14.57 12.80
2021-2030 8 2.17 8.00 1.17 1.18 11.53 9.44
Average over Period: 13.05 11.12

Table 6. 18 Average Annual Traffic Growth Rate – High Scenario

chang Traffic Growth
chang Elasticity (e)
e in Rate pa (%)
Nationa e in
Period in per
l GDP popula
years capita Passenger Freight
(%) tion PV FV
incom Vehicles Vehicles
(ΔP)
e (ΔC)

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chang Traffic Growth

chang Elasticity (e)
e in Rate pa (%)
Nationa e in
Period in per
l GDP popula
years capita Passenger Freight
(%) tion PV FV
incom Vehicles Vehicles
(ΔP)
e (ΔC)
2010 – 2020 11 2.17 10.34 1.20 1.28 14.57 14.08
2021 – 2030 10 2.17 8.00 1.17 1.18 11.53 11.80
Average over Period: 13.05 12.94

Thus, by considering medium growth scenario, the following traffic growth rates are adopted for traffic
forecasting as summarized and presented in the table below.

Table 6. 19 Estimated Annual Traffic Growth Rates

Vehicle Type Period in years Growth rate% (r)

Passenger vehicles 2010 – 2020 14.57

[Car, Utilities, S/bus, L/bus] 11.53

2021 – 2035

Freight vehicles 2010 – 2020 12.80

[S/truck, M/truck, Truck &

2021 – 2035
9.44
Trailer]

6.1.4.2 Generated Traffic

Generated traffic arises either because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time
reduction or because of the increased development that is brought about by the road investment.
Besides the cost or time reduction generated traffic, an inducted traffic from the sugar factories was
considered by the ERCC Design team and the Net Consulting Engineers. Of course, this sugar factory
development is one of the main objectives for the need to design and upgrade the project road.

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Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily overestimated. The
recommended approach to forecasting generated traffic is to use demand relationships.

Some studies carried out in similar countries give an average for the price elasticity of demand for
transport of about -1.0. This means that a one per cent decrease in transport costs leads to a one per
cent increase in traffic.

It is assumed that the design works and the procurement process of the project road completed at the
end of year 2016 and also the construction works is assumed to take three years. So assuming that the
construction of the road will be completed and opened for traffic by the year 2019, the baseline traffic is
taken as the projected traffic volume of 2019. Thus, the Generated traffic AADTb is computed using the
relation:

AADTb = AADTo (1+r) n

Where AADTb = Baseline AADT (AADT2015)

AADTo = Normal AADT at the current time.

r = vehicle growth rate (fraction)

n=number of years elapsed from the time of counting to the period of

opening of the road to traffic

The baseline traffic volumes on each lane are presented in the tables below.

Besides considering the traffic grouth due to economic growth (GDP and population growth), it is vital to
consider the effect of traffic growth by the development of sugar factories. So around 30 trucks &
trailers traffic flows are estimated to be induced on both lanes due to the sugar development. Hence,
considering both cases and computing the generated traffic as shown in the tables below;

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Table 6. 20 Normal & Generated traffic on Mendir bound lane on the year 2019

Truck &
Vehicles Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total

AADT2015
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

Number of

years (n)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Growth factor (r)

14.57 14.57 14.57 14.57 12.80 12.80 12.80
Induced for Sugar

factories
15 15

AADT2019
10 21 10 10 19 10 25 106

Table 6. 21 Normal & Generated traffic on Jinka junction lane on the year 2019

Truck &
Vehicles Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total

AADT2015
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

Number of

years (n)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Growth factor (r)

14.57 14.57 14.57 14.57 12.80 12.80 12.80
Induced for Sugar

factories
15 15

AADT2019
10 21 10 10 19 10 25 106

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Table 6. 22 Normal & Generated traffic on both lanes on the year 2019

Truck &
Vehicles Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total

AADT2015
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

Number of

years (n)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Growth factor (r)

14.57 14.57 14.57 14.57 12.80 12.80 12.80
Induced for Sugar

factories
30 30

AADT2019
21 41 21 21 39 19 49 211

6.1.4.3 Diverted Traffic

Besides the normal and generated traffic growth on the project road, after the improvement option,
diverted traffic will also be observed mainly due to reduction in vehicle operation costs (VOCs) and
travel time. This phenomenon takes place, as demand for the transportation increases as its cost
decreases, which yields savings to the road users, also experienced in Ethiopia.

The diverted traffic refers to the economic “law of demand”, which states that the consumption of any
goods and services increases as its price declines. So the generated traffic depends on the saving in
transportation cost and increase in the transport demand which is largely guided by the transport
market.
The project road, which is currently a relatively narrow and earth access road, is proposed to be
improved to a wider and smoother hot mix asphalt road. The improvement effects, involving changes in
geometric and pavement features of the road, are expected to result in faster movement, decreased
transportation cost and increased demand for transportation.

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It is anticipated that upgrading of the project road would result in savings of VOCs of up to 30%. Such
savings in VOC are expected to result in proportional increase in traffic growth rate as a result of the
prevailing transport market.

Based on international studies, the elasticity values resulting generated traffic with respect to the total
cost of travel varies between 0.5 and 2.0. The TRRL Overseas Road Note 5: “A Guide to Road
Appraisal” states that for developing countries, the price elasticity of demand for transport for generated
traffic varies between 0.6 and 2.0. An elasticity of 0.5 is used for roads to be improved and a higher
value of 1.5 to 2.0 for roads where their capacity is to be upgraded. Thus, for the subject road project,
an elasticity of 0.5 is adopted.

The improvement of the project road would, thus, result in 150% of the normal traffic as diverted traffic
up on completion and opening of the road to traffic in 2019. Thus, on average 50% growth is expected
from 2019 AADT.

Table 6. 23 Estimated Diverted traffic on Mendir bound lane on the year 2019

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
AADT2015 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
50% diverted 3 6 3 3 6 3 3 27

Table 6. 24 Estimated Diverted traffic on the Jinka Junction bound lane on the year 2019

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
AADT2015 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
50% diverted 3 6 3 3 6 3 3 27

Table 6. 25 Estimated Diverted traffic on both lanes on the year 2019

Vehicles Truck &

Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer Total
AADT2015 12 24 12 12 24 12 12 108
50% diverted 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54

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6.1.4.4 Base Line Traffic

The projected traffic at baseline (at the time the road gives traffic service) is the combinational effect of
Normal traffic, Diverted traffic and Generated traffic as shown in the tables below.

Table 6. 26 Estimated traffic on Mendir bound lane on the year 2019

Truck
& Total
Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer

Normal AADT2015
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
Normal &
generated
AADT2019
10 21 10 10 19 10 25 106
Diverted traffic in
2019
3 6 3 3 6 3 3 27
AADT2019
13 27 13 13 25 13 28 133

Table 6. 27 Estimated traffic on Jinka junction bound lane on the year 2019

Truck
& Total
Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer

Normal AADT2015
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
Normal &
generated
AADT2019
10 21 10 10 19 10 25 106
Diverted traffic in
2019
3 6 3 3 6 3 3 27
AADT2019
13 27 13 13 25 13 28 133

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Table 6. 28 Estimated traffic on both lanes on the year 2019

Truck
& Total
Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer

Normal AADT2015
12 24 12 12 24 12 12 108
Normal &
generated
AADT2019
20 42 20 20 38 20 50 212
Diverted traffic in
2019
6 12 6 6 12 6 6 54
AADT2019
26 54 26 26 50 26 56 266

6.1.4.5 Traffic Projection

The total traffic anticipated in each year within the design period of 15 years consists of the normal,
diverted and generated traffics. The annual average daily traffic anticipated within the design period i.e.
2019 – 2034 is projected by using the following relation (using year – to – year growth rates):

AADTn = AADTb (1+r) n

Where AADTn = Projected AADT on the nth year

AADTb = Baseline AADT (AADT2019)

r = vehicle growth rate (fraction)

n = period between the base year and the 15th year

Table 6. 29 Projected AADT on Mendir bound lane

Truck & Total
Years Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer

2019 13 27 13 13 25 13 28 132
2020 15 31 15 15 28 15 32 150

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Truck & Total

Years Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck M/truck Trailer
2021 17 35 17 17 32 17 36 171
2022 20 41 20 20 36 19 40 194
2023 22 47 22 22 40 21 45 221
2024 26 53 26 26 46 24 51 251
2025 29 61 29 29 51 27 58 285
2026 34 70 34 34 58 30 65 324
2027 39 80 39 39 66 34 73 369
2028 44 92 44 44 74 38 83 420
2029 51 105 51 51 83 43 93 477
2030 58 121 58 58 94 49 105 543
2031 66 138 66 66 106 55 119 618
2032 76 158 76 76 120 62 134 703
2033 87 181 87 87 135 70 151 799
2034 100 208 100 100 152 79 171 910
Total Traffic
AADT 697 1448 697 697 1146 596 1284 6566

Table 6. 30 Projected AADT on Jinka Junction bound lane

Truck Total
S/truc M/truc &
Years Car Utilities S/bus L/bus k k Trailer

2019 13 27 13 13 25 13 28 132
2020 15 31 15 15 28 15 32 150
2021 17 35 17 17 32 17 36 171
2022 20 41 20 20 36 19 40 194
2023 22 47 22 22 40 21 45 221
2024 26 53 26 26 46 24 51 251
2025 29 61 29 29 51 27 58 285
2026 34 70 34 34 58 30 65 324
2027 39 80 39 39 66 34 73 369
2028 44 92 44 44 74 38 83 420
2029 51 105 51 51 83 43 93 477
2030 58 121 58 58 94 49 105 543
2031 66 138 66 66 106 55 119 618
2032 76 158 76 76 120 62 134 703
2033 87 181 87 87 135 70 151 799
2034 100 208 100 100 152 79 171 910
Total Traffic
AADT 697 1448 697 697 1146 596 1284 6566

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Table 6. 31 Projected AADT on Both lanes of the Road

Truck Total
M/tru &
Years Car Utilities S/bus L/bus S/truck ck Trailer
2019 26 54 26 26 50 26 56 266
2020 30 62 30 30 56 29 63 300
2021 34 71 34 34 64 33 71 341
2022 39 81 39 39 72 37 80 388
2023 45 93 45 45 81 42 91 441
2024 51 107 51 51 91 47 102 502
2025 59 122 59 59 103 54 115 570
2026 67 140 67 67 116 60 130 649
2027 77 160 77 77 131 68 147 738
2028 88 184 88 88 148 77 166 839
2029 101 210 101 101 167 87 187 955
2030 116 241 116 116 188 98 211 1086
2031 133 276 133 133 212 110 238 1235
2032 152 316 152 152 239 124 268 1405
2033 175 363 175 175 270 140 302 1599

2034 200 415 200 200 305 158 341 1819

Total Traffic
AADT 1394 2896 1394 1394 2293 1192 2568 13132

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3
1

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6.1.5 Design Traffic

The design traffic to be used for gravel road design is the traffic forecasted to the opening year of the
road to traffic (base line traffic). The design traffic is then classified into different traffic classes. Different
design manuals have different traffic classes as discussed in the subsequent sections.

While determining the design traffic which will be used for the pavement design, the desirable
assumptions for the level of uncertainty are considered. The ESA values of all the traffic are combined
to determine the total design traffic for the design period.

6.1.5.1 Axle Loads

The damage that vehicles do to a paved road is highly dependent on the axle loads of the vehicles. For
pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a“standard” axle of 8.16 metric
tons using empirical equivalency factors. In order to determine the cumulative axle load damage that a
pavement will sustain during its design life, it is necessary to express the total number of heavy vehicles
that will use the road over the design period in terms of the cumulative number of equivalent standard
axles (ESAs).

6.1.5.2 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class (ESA)

Axle loads could be converted and compared using standard factors to determine the damaging power
of different vehicle types. A vehicle’s damaging power, or Equivalency Factor (EF), could be expressed
as the number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs), in units of 80kN. The design lives of pavements are
expressed in terms of the ESAs they are designed to carry. The number of equivalent standard axles
(ef) of an axle is related to the axle load as Follows according to ERA Design Manual 2002.

EF=(L/8160)n

Where, EF is number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs)

L is axle load in Kg.
n is damage exponenet (n=4.5)
The sum of the individual EF values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the
vehicle as a whole, EF(m). Guidance on the likely average EF(m) for different vehicle classes derived
from historical data is given in the following table.

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Table 6. 32 Average equivalency factors (ESAs) for different vehicle types

Class Type No. of axles Average ESA per Average ESA per
vehicle-all loaded vehicle - half loaded(1)
1 Car 2 - -
2 Utilities 2 - -
3 S/bus 2 0.3 0.15
4 L/bus 2 2.0 1.0
5 S/truck 2 1.5 0.7
6 M/truck 2 5 2.5
7 Truck &Trailer 3/4/5/6 15 7.5
Note It is common to find that vehicles have no back-load hence half the vehicles are likely to
be empty, or nearly so.

6.1.5.3 Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles over the Design Period

The cumulative ESAs over the design period for each vehicle class is obtained by multiplying EF(m) by
the cumulative traffic, T(m). The total number of cumulative standard axles for all vehicle classes is then
obtained by adding together the values of EF(m) x T(m) for all the classes.

With the truck factors and the forecasted year by year AADT known, the cumulative number of
equivalent standard axles expected over the design life of the road on the design lane is computed
using the following formula:
2034
CESA  365 *  AADT * ESAs
i 2019
i

Where; CESA = cumulative equivalent standard axles

ESA = Equivalence standard axle
th
AADTi = Annual average daily traffic on the i year

The cumulative equivalent standard axles on the design lane are presented in the tables below by
considering the vehicles are loaded half during taking ESA.

Table 6. 33 Estimated equivalent standard axles on the design lane

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Class Type 2034 Days in a

ESA  AADT
i  2019
i
year
CESAi

1 Car - 1394
365 0
2 Utilities - 2896
365 0
3 S/bus 0.15 1394
365 76,322
4 L/bus 1.0 1394
365 508,810
5 S/truck 0.7 2293
365 585,862
6 M/truck 2.5 1192
365 1,087,700
7 Truck &Trailer 7.5 2568 365 7,029,900
CESA 9,288,593

The design traffic of the project road is, therefore, estimated to 9.289 million ESA.

6.1.5.4 Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design

Accurate estimates of cumulative traffic are difficult to achieve due to errors in the surveys and
uncertainties with regard to traffic growth, axle loads and axle equivalencies. To a reasonable extent,
however, pavement thickness design is not very sensitive to cumulative axle loads and the method
recommended in this manual provides fixed structures of paved roads for ranges of traffic as shown in
Table below according the ERA design manual 2002.

Table 6. 34 Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design

Traffic classes Range of ESAs (millions)

LV1 < 0.01

LV2 0.01- 0.1

T1/LV3 0.1 - 0.3

T2/LV4 0.2 - 0.5

T2/LV5 0.5 - 0.7

T3 0.7 - 1.5

T4 1.5 - 3.0
T5 3.0 - 6.0
T6 6.0 - 10.0

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T7 10 - 17

T8 17 - 30

T9 30 - 50
T10* 50 - 80
T11 > 80

Based on the above recommendation from the ERA 2002 manual, the Main Access Road would belong
to the traffic class of T6 for flexible pavement design of Cumulative ESA of 9.289 million.

6.2 Subgrade
All pavements derive their ultimate support from the underlying subgrade. Thus, in addition to the
volume of traffic, the strength of the subgrade materials is a key factor that affects the structural
pavement design and performance. In this regard, laboratory tests were conducted on subgrade of the
existing Earth Road samples to determine their plasticity and strength characteristics.

The type of subgrade soil is largely determined by the location of the road. However, where the soils
within the possible corridor for the road vary significantly in strength from place to place, it is desirable
to locate the pavement on the stronger soils if this does not conflict with other constraints. For this
reason, amongst others, The Design Team involved in the route selection process considering the
subgrade.

The strength of the road subgrade for flexible pavements is commonly assessed in terms of the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture
content. Hence the design CBR values were determined based on the laboratory CBR values.

The eventual moisture content of the subgrade soil is governed by the local climate, the depth of the
water table below the road surface, and the provisions that are made for both internal and external
drainage. It is useful to recall some basic relationships relating soil strength, density and moisture
content and how they affect the final subgrade strength. the various steps leading to the selection of a
design CBR were utilized during calculating Design CBR of the homogenous section.

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6.2.1 Sub grade soil investigation

For the Pavement Design purpose, the laboratory CBR values were analyzed by the Net Consulting to
determine homogeneous sections using the AASHTO Design procedure. Then after, the Design CBR
value (CBRD) was determined for respective homogeneous sections.

The sections with problematic sub-grade soils property were also identified and possible remedial
measures were recommended as detailed in the Soil & Material Investigation Report chapter.

6.2.2 grade strength category

The design CBR is taken as the 95th percentile value of the sections of the road that are deemed to
have homogeneous subgrade characteristics. The Design team has adopted the methodology
recommended by ERA as well as AASHTO guide for “Analysis Unit Delineation by Cumulative
Differences” for the determination of fair homogeneous sections in respect of the bearing strength of the
subgrade soil. In accordance with this design guide, the cumulative difference variable was calculated
on the CBR values at 95% MDD for the whole project road.

While designing a pavement, it is undesirable and uneconomical to determine the thickness according
to individual CBR values. For this reason, the sub-grade soils along the whole alignment has been
divided in to homogenous sections based on soil classification, general behavior, compaction, range
of laboratory test results and extent of occurrence. However, all these factors are erratic and even will
result in very short sections where it would be impractical to design for several design sections. Thus,
for the design of the pavement structure, the sub-grade soil is divided into homogenous sections solely
based on the laboratory CBR values.

As shown in Table below, the whole project road is subdivided into six fairly homogeneous sections.
Then, Design CBR values (CBRD) were determined by taking the 90th percentile CBR value (the CBR
value below which only 10% of results may fall) for respective homogenous sections.

Table 6. 35 Design CBR

Section Station Length CBR Design (%)

Start End (Km)

1 0+000 6+500 6.5 7.0

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2 6+500 20+600 14.1 8.0

3 20+600 29+000 8.4 10.0

4 29+000 34+200 5.2 6.0

5 34+200 43+100 8.9 10.0

6 43+100 48+100 5.0 6.0

6.2.3 Design CBR and Design Subgrade Strength Class

The structural catalogue given in the ERA Design Manula 2002 requires that the subgrade strength for
design be assigned to one of six strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design to
subgrade strength. The classes are defined as shown in the table below.

Table 6. 36 Subgrade Strength Classes

Class CBR Range (%)

S1 <3
S2 3, 4
S3 5, 6, 7
S4 8 - 14
S5 15 - 30
S6 > 30

For our project case, the CBR values in the homogenous sections are ranging from 6% to 10%.
Therefore, the Subgrade strengethses classes S3 and S4 throughout the project length.

Thus, the design CBR of the subgrade soils would be the minimum CBR value from the subgrade
strength class of S3 and which is equal to 5% for the whole section of the project road. Therefore, any
subgrade CBR value below 5% would be removed with a depth of 1m and replaced with a select
material which would have a CBR of at least 5% and compacted according to the specification specified
for borrow material.

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6.2.4 Problematic Soil Sections along the Project Route

Pavement layers constructed on a section of the route with expansive soils are in most cases,
susceptible to moisture induced damages and hence, result in poor performance. For this reason, it is
not recommended to place the pavement layers directly on these soils with CBR of subgrade less than
5%.

Treatment option using excavating and replacing with appropriate materials was recommended as it is
relatively simple, straightforward and cost-effective. The available construction materials for
embankment and the sub-grade soil sections, except those stretches having expansiveness nature are
found to be suitable for such replacement.

Therefore, it is recommended to excavate and replace a minimum of 1m of the unsuitable material with
CBR of less than 5%.However, for road sections with fill/embankment sections of greater than 2m don’t
require undercut works.

Fill materials proposed for replacement would conform to the general requirements of soils for fill with
CBR≥5 and be as impermeable as possible, i.e. 15<PI<30% shall be used wherever available.

6.3 Pavement Design

The design of flexible pavements stated in ERA Design Manual 2002 is based on the catalogue of
pavement structures published in TRL’s Overseas Road Note 31 but updated, improved and extended
to higher traffic levels based on the latest research.

The cumulative number of equivalent standard axles over the design period is less than the maximum
limit of 80 million. Thus, ERA Design Manual 2002 could be used.

6.3.1 Design Approach and Criteria

The layer thicknesses obtained from the analysis have been adopted from the following simple input
parameters of:

i) Traffic Class and

ii) Subgrade Strength class

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Generally, the project road is defined in to six homogeneous sections based on the subgrade strength
with a design CBR. The design traffic of the project road is 9.289 msa and which corresponds to T6
traffic class. We can summarize the traffic class and Subgrade soil for the six sections according to
ERA design manual 2002 as specified in the table below;

Table 6. 37Actual Soil & Traffic Class for Road Sections

Length
Section CBR at Traffic
Station (Km) 95% Class Soil
Class
Start End
6.5 7.0
1 0+000 6+500 T6 S3
14.1 8.0
2 6+500 20+600 T6 S4
8.4 10.0
3 20+600 29+000 T6 S4
5.2 6.0
4 29+000 34+200 T6 S3
8.9 10.0
5 34+200 43+100 T6 S4
5.0 6.0
6 43+100 48+100 T6 S3

The Main Access Road of the project has the traffic class T6 with subgrade soil classification of S3 and
S4. However, the Design team observed that the area is wet and covered with vegetation hence these
would have negative effects on the subgrade soil CBR. Due to this reason it is safe and good to
assume the lesser subgrade strength S3 throughout the project road length during designing the
pavement layers.

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Figure 6. 1 Flexible AC Surfacing Granular Road Base

Hence, the pavement layer thicknesses that correspond to the design traffic T6 and the design
subgrade strength S3 are summarized and presented in the table below. Therefore, the whole project
length will have the same pavement layer thicknesses for the design traffic and generalized subgrade
class.

Table 6. 38 Proposed pavement design for design traffic and subgrade classes

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Station Pavement layer thickness

Traffic (mm)
Soil Class
Class
Start End AC BC SB

0+000 48+100 S3 T6 50 200 350

For the Road Section Pavement

Layer Thicknesses

50mm AC

200mm BC

350mm SB

Figure 6. 2 Recommended pavement layer thicknesses for the project road

6.4 Shoulder Design

Shoulders would have sufficient strength to carry occasional traffic, be impervious to surface water and
help in removing surface water from the road surface and facilitate the internal drainage of the
pavement. The ideal solution is usually to extend the subbase and base course outwards to form the
shoulders.

For this project case, the project road Annual Average Daily Traffic Flow (AADT) is estimated to be
above 200 and which belongs to Road Design Standard of DS4. Therefore, the recommended shoulder

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width for Flat and Rolling terrain will be 1.5m and for mountainous and escarpment terrains will be
0.5m.

It is to be noted that, since the base course material is not extended fully across the shoulders, so
some extra width is recommended for the base according to ERA Design Manual 2002. This provides
support to the edge of the pavement, where compaction is difficult to achieve. Hence, extra width of
30cm base course is used on both sides.

When permeable road base materials are used, particular attention would be given to the drainage of
this layer. A suitable value for paved roads is about 3% for the carriageway, with a slope of about 4-6%
for the shoulders.

For this project unpaved shoulders are proposed and the shoulders would comprise granular subbase
quality material to address the drainage problem. So, the shoulder material should fulfill the following
drainage criteria to improve internal drainage of the pavement structure.

To prevent entry of soil particles into the drainage layer;

And

Aggregates meeting the following criteria are regarded as very good drainage materials:

Where;

D85, D50, D15 and D2 are the sieve sizes through which 85%, 50%, 15% and 2% by weight of the
material passes, respectively.

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7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
7.1 General
Geometric design is the design of the visible dimensions of a highway with the objective of forming or
shaping the facility suitable to the characteristics and behavior of drivers, vehicles and traffic. Therefore,
geometric design deals with features of location, alignment, profile, cross section, intersections and
highway types.

The objectives of Geometric design are as follows:

To provide the most simple geometry attainable, consistent with the physical
constraints,
To provide a design that has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at
the expected operating speeds.
To provide a facility that is adequate for the expected traffic conditions.

Highway design is the process whereby the layout of the road in specific terrain is designed to meet the
needs of the road users, keeping in view the road function, type and volume of traffic, potential traffic
hazards and safety, capital cost, maintenance costs, vehicle operating costs, environment impacts,
aesthetics as well as convenience of the road users.

7.2 Introduction to Geometric Design

Roads are designed based on functional classification of road and traffic. The function of the road is
determined by the character and anticipated level of service that the road would render. Typically, this
relates into categorization or classification of the road as Trunk Road, Access Road, Collector Road,
Link Road etc. for which a generic definition is given indicating its primary function and purpose.
Various geometric design manuals have their own definition and classification systems. Road standards
are selected based on the road’s intended capacity to accommodate traffic. Normally, for high traffic
volumes a higher set of design standard (i.e, wider carriageways, gentle curves, flatter vertical gradient,
full overtaking distances etc.) are associated while the vice versa is true for low traffic. Other factors
such as terrain, road safety and so on play role in determination of road design standard.

Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be very costly,
usually follows provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions which will affect economic
performance are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in redesign.

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One of the principal objectives of the traffic survey of the Jinka – Mendir Design & Build road project is
to make recommendations about the geometric design standards for the project such that the optimum
balance between road construction cost and road user cost which is obtained over the project analysis
period. Accordingly, from the traffic study result and since the project road is the main access road to
five villages and future five sugar factories, the project road should be constructed to a DS-4 standard
with paved Surfacing.

The geometric aspect of the project which consists of the design elements such as the x-section, the
horizontal and vertical alignments is designed based on the general design standard values for road
standards DS-4 as per ERA geometric design manual – 2002.
The Geometric design of the project road which is around 44.11 kms has been carried out with Eagle
Point design Software. The survey data in the form of X, Y, Z are loaded onto software to prepare a
DTM model.

A total of 47 horizontal curves are provided ranging from 75m radius to maximum 2000m radius.

7.3 Terrain Classification

Terrain classification is a main factor that governs all geometrical features directly. It is a measurement
of slope along the road. ERA design standards provide the following terrain classification as shown on
the table below.

Table 7. 1 ERA Terrain classification

TRANSVERSE TERRAIN
TERRAIN TYPE
SLOPE (%)
FLAT 0-5
ROLLING 5-25
MOUNTAINOUS 25-50
ESCARPMENT > 50

The selected route terrain classifications and the respective design speeds for each section of the road
segment according to the Design Road Standard of DS-4 is shown below.

Table 7. 2 Terrain Classifications (Along the existing road)

Station Design Speed

Length, Km Terrain Type km/hr
From To
0+000.00 3+720.00 3720 Urban 50

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3+720.00 5+000.00 1280 Mountainous 60

5+000.00 7+530.00 2530 Rolling 70
7+530.00 8+950.00 1420 Urban 50
8+950.00 9+420.00 470 Rolling 70
9+420.00 11+080.00 1660 Mountainous 60
11+080.00 12+800.00 1720 Rolling 70
12+800.00 14+200.00 1400 Mountainous 60
14+200.00 17+600.00 3400 Urban 50
17+600.00 23+000.00 5400 Escarpment 50
23+000.00 24+500.00 1500 Mountainous 60
24+500.00 26+300.00 1800 Rolling 70
26+300.00 27+700.00 1400 Urban 50
27+700.00 32+200.00 4500 Mountainous 60
32+200.00 33+100.00 900 Rolling 70
33+100.00 34+300.00 1200 Mountainous 60
34+300.00 36+000.00 1700 Rolling 70
36+000.00 38+160.00 2160 Urban 50
38+160.00 40+740.00 2580 Mountainous 50
40+740.00 41+670.00 930 Rolling 70
41+670.00 43+240.00 1570 Escarpment 50
43+240.00 43+800.00 560 Rolling 70
43+800.00 44+111.00 311 Urban 50

As can be seen in the above Tables, the project road is characterized by Rolling, Mountainous,
Escarpment and Town Sections. Therefore, the project road sections are geometrically constrained and
higher standards are not easy to achieve and accordingly, moderate geometric design which attracts
safe and higher operating speeds are generally designed in the project road.

7.4 Functional Classification of the Project

The choice of design standards is made on the basis of the function of the road, likely traffic volumes
and the economical practicality in terms of the topography. So, the feasibility studies concluded that the
functional classification of the road, from Jinka Junction to Mendir village, was Main Access road which
is defined as a road linking important villages to the Jinka town besides the project road gives main
access to the sugar factories which are currently under construction.

Therefore, the project road is designated as a Main Access Road and the geometrical classification of
the road is DS4 (Paved surfaced).

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7.5 Design Vehicle

Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric design.
Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning
radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include
the selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.

The selection of the appropriate design vehicle is a key element in deciding lane width and providing
minimum turning paths at the intersections. The design vehicle considered for the project road is DV1
with an overall length of 15.2 m, width of 2.6 m and height of 4.1m.

7.6 Design speed

Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight distance
and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the geometric design
parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed.

Design speed is a speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of the road or
the highway that influence vehicle operation. AASHTO defines Design Speed as the maximum safe
speed that can be maintained over a specified section of a road when conditions are favorable.

Almost all the geometric design elements such as gradients, curvatures, superelevation, sight distances
and side friction are directly related to and vary appreciably with the design speed.

For Jinka - Mendir Design & Build Road Project, the design speed depends on the Design Standard
chosen; in this case DS-4. The design speed varies according to the terrain classification.

Geometric design of project corridor has been conceptualized for a design speed of 85 km/h, 70 km/h,
60 km/h and 50 km/h for flat, rolling, mountainous and escarpment terrains respectively. The design
limit for town areas is adopted as 50 km/h.

7.7 Geometric Design Standards

The first step in choosing geometric standards is to fix the 'Design Speed' for the road. Design speed is
the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions

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are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. Some features, such as curvature,
super elevation, and sight distance, are directly related to, and vary appreciably with the design speed.

For Jinka Junction – Mendir Design & Build Road Project, the design speed chosen depends on the
Design Standard chosen; in this case DS-4. The design speed varies according to the terrain
classification as described above.

The Geometric Designs Standards for the project is based on the above basic factors are summarized
and presented in the tables below:

Table 7. 3 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

urban
Design Speed km/h 85 70 60 50 50
Min. Stopping m 155 110 85 55 55
Sight Distance
Min. Passing m 340 275 225 175 175
Sight Distance
% Passing % 25 25 15 0 20
Opportunity
Min. Horizontal m 270 175 125 85 85
Curve Radius
Transition Curves yes yes no no no
Required
Max. Gradient % 4 5 7 7 7
(desirable)
Max. Gradient % 6 7 9 9 9
(absolute)
Minimum % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Gradient
Maximum % 8 8 8 8 4
Superelevation
Crest Vertical k 60 31 18 10 10
Curve
Sag Vertical k 36 25 18 12 12
Curve
Normal Crossfall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Crossfall % 4 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50

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Source ERA Design Manual 2002

7.8 Existing scenario

The existing road is around 48 km and which was built by the Regional Rural roads Authority to DS6
standards. All of the road stretches were completed including cross drainage works. The existing
alignment conforms to reasonable geometrical parameters as it traverses flat to escarpment terrains.
Geometrical elements were designed to minimum standards in spite of availability of land and facility.
Most of the horizontal and vertical alignments are conforming to the standards.

Mendir
Jinka Village
Junction

Figure 7. 1 Profile of the Road

7.9 New Route Section

The road stretch from km 0+000 to km 48+100 is an entirely new road moving along the existing route
and which has been modified to satisfy design standard of DS4 of ERA Geometric Design Manual
2002.

In some sections of the road, significant departures are considered to make the road construction cost
effective. A number of switchbacks are also provided in this section to reduce substantial amount of
earthworks.

7.10 Creation of DTM

Topographical survey Data collected using Total Station together with the findings of inventory surveys
have been used to render a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) using Eagle Point software. Horizontal
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alignment is largely followed existing road centerline except improvement or modification locations.
Pavement layers thickness and deck levels of bridge are the guiding factors in finalizing the profile
grade.

7.11 Proposed Geometric design

Geometric design is the design of the visible dimensions of a highway with the objective of forming or
shaping the facility to suit the characteristics and behavior of drivers, vehicles and traffic. Therefore,
geometric design deals with features of location, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross section,
and intersection and highway types.

The Geometric Design has been carried out using the Eagle Point design software. The total station
data was directly exported into Eagle Point and generated DTM for processing of triangulation,
contouring, alignment design (both horizontal as well as vertical) including earthwork quantities.

The existing alignment conforms to the design standards. However, in some locations minimum
standards are adopted. Endeavors are made to provide more than the minimum standards without
deviating much from the existing alignment.

The overall economics in terms of balance of cut and fill was done using the software tools iteratively
and thus an economical design is evolved keeping the existing alignment and profile to maximum
possible use.

7.11.1 Horizontal Alignment

7.11.1.1 General
The design elements of horizontal alignment are the tangent or straight section, the circular curve, the
transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation section. The survey data in the form of X, Y, Z are
loaded onto software to prepare a DTM model and geometric design has been carried out with Eagle
Point design Software.

In the course of the design of the horizontal alignment due care has been given to ensure that the
design matches the design manual requirements, so that, the primary objective, safety is achieved.
Therefore to achieve the objective the following factors were given due attention during the design
process;
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Safety.
Compliance with the standards in the design manual.
Environmental impact.
Minimum destruction of crops, forests and houses.
Suitable crossing for bridges.

In addition to the above considerations in the design of the horizontal alignment; safety measures like
widening, super elevating the circular curves, introducing guideposts & signposts on sharp curves,
approach to bridges and at high fills were taken.

The detailed design of horizontal alignment was carried out from a DTM prepared from topographic
survey data. The detail design of a total length of 48.1km road was carried out starting from Jinka
round-about Junction passing through Yetnebersh, Gazer, Mitsir, Tolta villages and ends at Mendir
town. Since the road traverses on different terrains from flat to escarpment, different design speeds are
used throughout the project length. Whereas in towns and villages, the design speed of 50km/hr is
used as per the ERA Design manual 2002.

7.11.1.2 Tangents
From safety standpoint, it provides better visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long
tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. ERA
Design Manual 2002 set the limit to 4000m; thus the design team has considered the guideline during
fixing tangents.

7.11.1.3 Horizontal Curve Alignment

As a vehicle traverses a circular curve it is subject to inertial forces, which must be balanced by
centripetal forces, associated with the circular path. For a given radius and speed, a set of forces is
required to keep the vehicle in its path. The minimum radius can be calculated directly from the
simplified curve formula as follows:

Rmin = VD2
127(e + f)

Where; Rmin = radius of curve (meters);

VD = design speed of vehicle (km/hr)

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e = crossfall of road (e is negative for adverse crossfall);

f = coefficient of friction for the tyres and road pavement.

For Ethiopian roads, according to ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002 for DS-4 road design standard,
transition curves are required for flat and rolling terrains for the project road with design speed of equal
to 85 km/hr and 70km/hr respectively.

7.11.1.4 Superelevation
Superelevation is provided to counteract centrifugal forces. It mainly depends on design speed, radius
and lateral friction of the pavement. The maximum rates of super elevation usable on highways are
controlled by several factors;
Climatic conditions
 Frequency and amount of rain which permit hydroplaning;
Terrain conditions
type of area i.e. rural or urban
Friction value of surfacing and
frequency of very slowly moving vehicles that would be subjected to
uncertain operations.

ERA’s design manual for super elevation rate recommends a maximum of 8% for rural sections and a
maximum super elevation rate of 4% for Town sections and is used for the subject project. The Super
elevation is provided for runoff lengths given in the ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002. When spirals
are not provided, 1/3 of runoff length is achieved inside a circular curve.

7.11.1.5 Widening
Widening is important on curves of roads to allow for turning vehicles and to make operating conditions
comparable to those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve
widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to furnish for the selected design
vehicle. The extra width required depends on radius of curves. Curves which are less than 250m are
widened. The widening is provided on both sides of curves over transition lengths.

Moreover, Widening due to high fill also required for design standards DS1 through DS5 for the
psychological comfort of the driver.

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ERA Geometric design manual for widening provisions for the increase in the width on curves for radius
of curves R<250m and high fill > 3m is shown in the table below. Widening for curvature and high fill
have been added where both case apply.

Table 7. 4 Widening on curves and high fill

Widening due to Curvature Widening due to High Fill

Radius of Curve Curve widening
Height of fill Fill widening Amount
(m) Two lanes(m)
(m) (m)
>250 0.0
120-250 0.6 0.0-3.0 0.0
60-120 0.9 3.0-6.0 0.3
40-60 1.2 6.0-9.0 0.6
20-40 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9

7.11.1.6 Departures from Standard

As It is anticipated that Departures from standard in a read projects with more than 50% mountainous
and escarpment terrains of the project road, the projects road deviates some standards from the road
design standard of DS4. The deviation was happened to avoid excess economic impact and to avoid
possible land sliding in the land sliding prone areas. So, a number of Horizontal Alignment Design
Departures are considered in the Design and it is believed that ERA will consider our reasons and
approve the design departure from standard.

We will do safety measures for these Horizontal Alignments by proposing and doing proper safety
measures like providing traffic signs and pavement marking for avoiding any possible traffic accidents
due to design departures from the DS4 road design standard.

For the project road, the Horizontal Alignment Data is presented and attached in the provided Annex of
the report.

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7.11.2 Vertical Alignment

7.11.2.1 General
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature (K), which is governed by sight
distance criteria, and gradient related to vehicle performance and level of service. Vertical curves
composed of either crest or sag used to effect gradual change between tangent grades.

Vertical curves serve a number of purposes;

As a gradual transition from one gradient to another without discomfort to
riders.
They eliminate sudden humps and troughs and;
Provide adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking.

The topography of the project road varies from flat to escarpments and made the vertical alignment to
be composed of grades ranging from flatter to steep grades depending on the terrain condition.

Total of 61 vertical curves are provided to finish the profile. The minimum K- value is 12.29 which is
provided at 21+345 whereas maximum K- value is 119 at 24+020 and most of the k-values are ranging
between 20 – 60. The maximum gradients provided are 9.06% at km 41+183 followed by 8.53% at km
20+523 and 8.28% at km 42+407. The manual recommendation of maximum gradient is 9%.

There are five locations at bridges and the minimum gradient has been provided 0% or less than 0.5%
to facilitate smooth drainage.

7.11.2.2 Sight Distance

The provision for adequate horizontal and vertical sight distance is an essential factor in the
development of a safe highway. Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any
instance of time. The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicles ahead with safety against the traffic of opposing direction is known as the
passing sight distance.

It is desirable to provide stopping sight distances exceeding the minimum at changes in geometry,
approaches to intersections, entrances and exits, and other potential decision points or hazards.

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6.1.1.1 Right of Way

ERA Manual stipulated 30m of land in rural areas and 40 m in urban areas. Accordingly land acquisition
surveys are carried out according to the recommended width specified by ERA Design manual.

6.1.1.2 Gradient
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity and length of
gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking opportunities on the gradient
and in its vicinity. ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002 states that for very low levels of traffic flow
represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other references advocate a maximum traversable
gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 percent gradient;
whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily
laden. Therefore limitation of Maximum vertical gradient is extremely important criterion that greatly
affects both the serviceability and cost of the road.

Table 7. 5 Terrain versus maximum allowable grade for DS4

MAXIMUM GRADIENTS (%),FOR DS-4

DESIGN STANDARD
TOPOGRAPHY
DESIRABLE ABSOLUTE

FLAT 4 6

ROLLING 5 7

MOUNTAINOUS 7 9

ESCARPMENT 7 9

URBAN 7 9

Source ERA Design Manual 2002

7.11.2.3 Vertical Curvature (K)

It can be defined as the ratio of length of curve to algebraic difference of approach and exit grades. It is
also a limiting value of horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade and expressed as,
L
K ,
g1  g 2

Where,

g1 = approach grade
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g2 = exit grade
L = length of vertical curve;
K = ratio of proportionality between L and Δg

In order to satisfy the minimum sight distance needed, minimum allowable vertical curvature (K) for sag
and crest curve is provided in each curve. These values vary depending on the design speed. The
Design Team recommended the use of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002 for rate of Vertical
curvature “K – Value” and are shown on Table below;

Table 7. 6 Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves

RATE OF VERTICAL CURVATURE, K

DESIGN SPEED
FOR STOPPING SIGHT F OR P ASSING SIGHT
(KM/H)
DISTANCE DISTANCE
20 2 10
30 3 50
40 5 90
50 10 130
60 18 180
70 31 250
85 60 350
Source ERA Design Manual 2002

Table 7. 7 Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves

RATE OF VERTICAL CURVATURE, K

DESIGN SPEED
(KM/H) FOR STOPPING SIGHT F OR P ASSING SIGHT
DISTANCE DISTANCE
20 2 10
30 4 50
40 8 90
50 12 130
60 18 180
70 25 250
85 36 350
Source ERA Design Manual 2002

The topography of the project road varies from flat to mountainous and made the vertical alignment to
be composed of grades ranging from flatter to steep grades depending on the terrain condition.

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7.11.3 Design Road Cross - Section

7.11.3.1 Lane width

Lane width has a significant influence on the safety and comfort of the traveling public. The capacity of
a roadway is markedly affected by the lane width. The lane width for DS4 is specified as 3.35m paved
in the ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002 but 3.5m is adopted.

A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and
earthwork profiles. The carriageway width has great influence on safety and comfort. The cross
sectional elements are different for terrain types, rural and town sections as shown in the figure below.

Figure 7. 2 Typical x-section for Flat & Rolling Terrain

Figure 7. 3 Typical x-section for Mountainous & Escarpment Terrain

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Figure 7. 4 Typical x-section for ‘Kebele’ Seat

The roadway x-section in rural sections has two lanes with 7.0m total width. Asphalt concrete paved
surfaced has 2.5% normal crown slope. The carriage way in rural sections is widened by 0.60 – 1.5m
on both sides for curvature depending on the degree of curve of the circular curves and 0.3 – 0.9m for
high fill deepening on the height of fill.

In town sections of Big cities or ‘Wereda’ seat, the carriageway width is two lanes of 2X3.5m wide with
2X3.5m parking lane on both sides of the carriageway and 2X2.5m Side walk. Whereas, in town
sections of smaller cities (Villages) or ‘Kebele’ seat, the carriageway width is two lanes of 2x3.5m wide
with 2x2.5m parking lane on both sides of the carriageway. The Kebele typical section are applied for
all towns including Jinka. Since, the road doesn’t pass the main path in Jinka town, the Kebele typical
section is sufficient. The Gazer town is considered as provisional town ‘Woreda’ but it is very small city
and the traffic volume is minimum. So due to the reasons we recommends the ‘Kebele’ typical sections
for all towns in the road designs.

Cross section templates have been developed based on the typical Cross sections. And the templates
are assigned which would be cross referenced to different road sections along the alignment to
estimate earthwork and pavement quantities accurately. For this project, the typical sections which
represent the different sections of the road are included in Annex-2.

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7.11.3.2 Shoulders
The ERA Geometric Design Manual 2002 recommends provision of shoulders in normal cross section
to be adopted for the entire project for the DS-4 Design Road Standard. However, in urban areas, it
stipulates 3.0m parking with 2.5 m footway.
 Shoulder width

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation of
stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians;
emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses.

Shoulder widths vary according to the type of terrain. For flat and rolling terrains the shoulder width is
1.5m and for mountainous and escarpments it is 0.5m according to the ERA design Manual.

 Shoulder cross slope

Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall. Unpaved
shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the roadway. The precise
choice of normal crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with construction type and material rather than
any geometric design requirement.

Accordingly, the Design Team adopted 4% shoulder slope as the shoulder material proposed is Gravel
Wearing Course.

7.11.3.3 Side Slopes

The slopes of embankment and cut sections depend upon the type of soil and height of embankment or
depth of cuttings. Side slopes are provided as per Table 6.1 page no 6-4 of Geometric Design Manual.

7.11.3.4 Side drains

ERA manual stipulates covered drains for urban areas. The inlets of covered drains may clogged during
the rainy season where binder material washes away with drainage water. In view of the above open
drains are provided in urban areas.

7.11.3.5 Junctions
The following locations are proposed for design of junctions:

1. Jinka Junction
2. Mendir Junction

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7.11.4 Junctions design

Generally, traffic volumes warrant the type of junctions. The intersection angle provides the basic layout
for the proposed junctions. Without an appreciable traffic level, the proposed junctions are designed as
simple T-junctions. Three centre curves whose combinations comply with the desired and expected
speeds of the turning maneuver for the specific design vehicle (DV4) are adopted. In addition, adequate
signing is provided to guide motorists.

7.12 Typical Cross Sections

Typical cross sections are adopted as per design standard i.e. DS4. three types of cross sections are
proposed. They are as follows:
1) Rural Cross Section
2) Town Cross section (‘Kebele’ seat)

7.12.1 Rural Cross sections

This main cross section is provided for entire length of the project road. The carriage width is 7 m with
shoulders. Open lined drains are contemplated for flat areas and paved V-ditches for rolling areas. In
mountainous and escarpment areas rectangular masonry ditches are provided in order to reduce space
requirements. Providing a rectangular ditch at the end of carriage without shoulder may endanger
moving traffic. In view of safety of the moving traffic, a shoulder of 0.5m is provided along the ditch. This
has been worked out on the basis of relative economics of probable earth works for adopting V-ditch
with slopes based on recovery concept.

7.12.2 Town cross sections

Town cross sections are provided as per design standard of the road. A carriage of 3.5m, parking lane
of 2.5m and open rectangular ditch. Providing a covered ditch may not be practicable as the drainage
outlet may clog due to surface water that consists of binder material of gravel wearing course. In view of
this open rectangular masonry drains are adopted.

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8 HYDROLOGY & HYDRAULICS DESIGN

8.1 General
Highway drainage structures are an essential component in the design development of a highway. ERA
Drainage Design Manual - 2013 is used to establish basic design techniques for economical design of
surface drainage structures including ditches, culverts, and bridges. It is intended for use in the design
of the project road.

The consideration of Hydrological investigations and Hydraulic design for cross structures along the
selected road alignments is paramount importance for the safety of the road through the prevention of
damage to provide a high level of service.

Types and sizes of drainage (side ditches, culverts and bridges) structures are determined with
hydrologically estimated design discharges for recurrence intervals recommended by ERA's Drainage
Design Manual 2002 for the geometric design standard of Table 2-1. The flood characteristics of this
project area are estimated from the catchment characteristics.

8.2 Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on the earth's surface, and in
the soils, underlying rocks, and atmosphere. For the purpose of this manual, hydrology will deal with
estimating flood magnitudes as the result of precipitation. In the design of highway drainage structures,
floods are usually considered in terms of peak runoff or discharge in cubic meters per second (m3/s)
and hydrographs as discharge per time.

8.2.1 Introduction
It is known that any hydrologic analysis is only an approximation. The relationship between the amount
of precipitation on a drainage basin and the amount of runoff from the basin is complex, and too little
data are available on the factors influencing the rural and urban rainfall-runoff relationship to expect
exact solutions. However, the design team uses the previous experience and ERA manual
recommendation to get satisfactory hydrology results for each catchment.

During the site visit, the hydrological study was undertaken in order to compute and evaluate peak
discharges for all watercourses crossing the project road. Calculation of these peak discharge values
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then enabled the determination of the hydraulic opening sizes and types of waterway required for the
subject road project. In the subject road project the existing drainage structures are concrete bridge
structures, slab and pipe culverts which requires for checking of hydraulic adequacy.

Peak discharge is the maximum discharge in cubic meters per second of the watercourse at its
crossing of the project road during design peak flood.The hydrological analysis was undertaken using
available maps and aerial photographs together with available Meteorological Services Agency data.
Additional hydrological and geological information has been gathered from site visits to the area.

From the studies undertaken, it was found that there are some 127 catchments along the projects road
from Jinka to Mendir out of which 5 accommodate major stream crossings (bridge crossings). The
remaining 122 structures are minor structures and out of which 110 pipes, 8 slabs and 4 box culvert
structures.

All hydrologic analysis considered the flood history of the area and the effect of these historical floods
on existing and proposed structures. The flood history includes the historical floods and the flood history
of any existing structures. However, the entire project streams are un-gauged and no flood history;
therefore, available rainfall data have been utilized.

8.2.2 Hydrological Analysis

8.2.2.1 Hydrological Design Criteria
The hydrological analysis of the present study has been carried out as per the ERA Drainage Design
Manual 2002 and AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines.

Flood Estimation.

The following criteria have been adopted for flood estimation.

 For un-gauged rivers, streams and flood paths crossing the road SCS unit hydrograph
and Rational methods have been adopted.

Return Periods.

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The selection of the return period on the design floods is commonly based on experience and economic
consideration. Considering the guidelines mentioned above, the following return periods have been
adopted for the present analysis;
50 years return period for bridges (with check for 100 years return period for
overtopping), and
25 years return period for culverts (with check for 50 years return period for
overtopping).

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8.2.3 Catchments characteristics

8.2.3.1 Topography
The project areas have flat, rolling, hilly and mountainous but most of the terrain types are rolling
and escarpment. And the altitudes of the project road alignment vary between 1380m to 1870m
above sea level. The altitude at the beginning of the project is about 1405 meters above sea level
and which gradually increases to 1870 meters above sea level and decreases at Mendir to 1427m.

8.2.3.2 Soil Types

The soil type of the project area is predominantly Dark brown clay and silty clay soils except
boulders mixed with soils is observed in some mountains section of the watershed.

8.2.3.3 Climate
The project area is located on the medium lands of the Ethiopian plateau, i.e. having average
altitude of 1600m. Therefore, the project area is considered as ‘wein-adega’. The effective
temperature is 21oc and which is lower than 250. So, the project area climate is good and most of
the time comfortable.

 Rainfall
The project area gets mean annual rainfall of 1345mm, and the rainy period is between June
through October, although significant shower is expected in the month of November, March, April
and May. Therefore, it is observed from the Ethiopian Meteorological Agency data that 75% of a
year months has rainfall of more than 100mm as shown in the table below;

Table 8. 1 Mean Monthly rainfall (mm) of the project area

MONTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

RAINFALL
47 71 107 178 167 107 124 120 130 169 126 29
(MM)

 Temperature
For the project area, the monthly temperature is maximum of 30oC during the months of January
through March and it is minimum in the months of November through January, 14 0C.

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Table 8. 2 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature (0C) for the project area

MONTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

MAX. 30 30 30 27 26 25 24 25 25 26 27 29

MIN. 14 15 17 17 16 15 15 15 15 16 14 14

8.2.3.4 Vegetation and land use

Most of the project is forested area with some cultivated and intermittent grazing land. Sparsely
populated forest areas found in large portions of the catchments.

8.2.4 Drainage (Watersheds or Basins)

Along the route, there are some 119 catchments out of which 5 are major crossing catchments and
the remaining are minor structures and local crossings for flood relieving purpose. These
catchments, showing the limits of the watersheds (or basins) were delineated from 1:50,000
topographic maps and are presented in Annex-3.

All of the 5 main catchments, which are bridge crossings, have existing structures of ford, steel
bridge and slab culverts. Only one bridge which is located at station 27+460 was constructed
satisfactorily. All the catchments drain to Omo River which is the biggest rivers in the area.

The crossings along the routes which are considered hydraulically as major stream crossings are
listed in Table below. All the streams are perennial and all of them could be considered as sources
of water for construction.

Table 8. 3 Major Stream Crossings along the Route

SERIAL CHAINAGE BY AREA SEASONALITY OF REMARK

NO. VEHICLE (KM2) STREAM FLOW

1 PERENNIAL NEW CONSTRUCTION

2+075 131.14
2 PERENNIAL NEW CONSTRUCTION
5+704 12.02
3 PERENNIAL EXISTING ADEQUATE
26+425 48.76
4 PERENNIAL NEW CONSTRUCTION
28+424 15.36

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SERIAL CHAINAGE BY AREA SEASONALITY OF REMARK

NO. VEHICLE (KM2) STREAM FLOW

5 PERENNIAL NEW CONSTRUCTION

33+440 8.80

8.2.5 Hydrological Study

The aim of the hydrological and hydraulic analysis was to derive the maximum discharge for a given
waterway crossing of the road alignment at the design return period. Since overtopping is a potential
danger for large watercourses, longer return periods are considered for such crossings.

As per ERA’s Geometric Design Manual 2002, the subject road is to be considered as DS4.
Accordingly, the return periods to be considered for the drainage structures along the road are as
shown in table below.

Factors affecting the maximum discharge of a waterway are catchments area, slope, soil type and
vegetation (land cover and land use), intensity of rainfall and duration of storm. Various methods of
determining the peak or maximum discharge have been deployed; some being more appropriate for
larger catchments and others for smaller catchments. Therefore, in the study of this particular
project, the most appropriate method for each waterway crossing has been applied

Table 8. 4 Return Periods Considered (ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002)

RETURN PERIOD
STRUCTURE TYPE TOTAL SPAN FOR THE MAXIMUM FLOOD
(DS4)

SIDE DITCHES 10

CULVERT , PIPE <2M 10

CULVERT 2 < SPAN < 6 M 25

SHORT SPAN BRIDGE 6 M < SPAN < 15 M 50

MEDIUM SPAN BRIDGE 15 M < SPAN < 50 M 50

LONG SPAN BRIDGES > 50 M 100

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RETURN PERIOD
STRUCTURE TYPE TOTAL SPAN FOR THE MAXIMUM FLOOD
(DS4)

CHECK/REVIEW FLOOD 200

8.2.6 Data Availability

8.2.6.1 Rainfall Data

From the National Meteorological Service Agency (NMSA) hydro-meteorological of station near the
project area has been collected.

8.2.6.2 Topographic Maps

Topographic maps at 1:50,000 scale which covers the entire project were used for determination of
catchments details such as area, average slope, length of the main watercourse and difference in
elevation computations.

8.2.6.3 Aerial Photographs and satellite maps

Arial photographs of 1:50,000 scales were interpreted using a table stereoscope to delineate
catchments area, which could not be identified on the topographic maps, and to determine all other
parameters that are required for hydrological/ hydraulic study. In additions satellite maps were found
from Google earth for the project area for having more clear view of the recent catchment cover and
land use.

8.2.6.4 Field Surveys

Field surveys were carried out to gather hydrological and hydraulic data related to the road’s
drainage system. The following important data and information was gathered during these visits.
Collect information about the conduction of existing drainage structures
(condition survey).
Recording historical high water marks for major drainage
structures/Bridges.

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Gather data on land use, watershed soil type, riverbank and bed materials
(to determine Manning’s roughness coefficient at major river crossing).
Intercepted ground water - this was observed many places across the road
during the visit.

8.2.7 Hydrological Conditions

The study of the mapping and other data has revealed that there is one hydrologic soil group B.
Based on the factors affecting the flood drainage, catchments crossing the proposed road can be
categorized into one homogenous hydrological region by their geology, geomorphology, catchments
characteristics, mean annual rainfall and land cover.

8.2.8 Rainfall Data

Along the road there is meteorological data for rainfall analysis and ERA (2002) IDF curves with 24
hours maximum rainfall for the Rainfall Regimes B2 representing the area and the computed were
used for further analysis.

8.2.8.1 Rainfall analysis using the available rainfall data

The rainfall data available is too sparse to develop highly accurate intensity-duration-frequency
curves. The 24-hour rainfall depth records were generally adequate to project the frequency of 24-
hour rainfall depths. Based on the monthly rainfall depths and patterns, the country was divided into
regions and sub-regions.
 Frequency analysis of rainfall data
Stream flow measurements for determining a flood frequency relationship at the project site are
unavailable. Therefore, it is an accepted practice to estimate peak runoff rates and hydrographs
using statistical or empirical methods. In general, results from using several methods would be
compared, not averaged. Standard practice is to use the discharge that best reflects local project
conditions with the reasons documented. Use is outlined with each hydrologic procedure given
below.

The analysis and processing would be aimed at the determination of appropriate rainfall depth
applicable for the project road using the available rainfall data. Using the short period data obtained
for the project will be used to establish relationship between 24-hour rainfall depth and return period.

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Gumbel or Log Pearson III analyses shall preferably be used for all routine designs provided there is
at least 10 years of continuous or synthesized record for 10-year discharge estimates and 25 years
for 100-year discharge estimates;

By undertaking statistical analysis using Extreme Value Type-I (Gumbel distribution) was adopted to
compute the design point rainfall of the project area for different return periods: 100, 50, 25, 10, 5
years.
The rainfall depth computation for the specified return period of the respective rain gauge stations is
carried out using the following relationship for the computation of 24-hour rainfall depth and return
period:

hT  X avg  KT *
Where;
hT = Rainfall depth at return period T years
Xavg = Mean value of rainfall data (daily)
 = Standard deviation
KT = Gumbel’s distribution frequency factor (from readily available table, see table in
Appendix 2)

 6  T 
K T= 0.57721  ln ln 
   T  1

1 in
And X   Xi
n i 1
1

 
 1

 Xi  X   
2 2

 n 1 

Where;
Xi =hydrological data rainfall depths
n = total number of individual data

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Using Gumbel probabilistic methods of analysis the value h and I for different return periods, which
are rainfall in mm and rainfall intensity (mm/hr), are given for different duration as shown in tables
below.

Table 8. 5 The 24 hours Rainfall depth for different return period

RAINFALL DEPTH ,
RETURN PERIOD X avg
(MM) KT 
H [MM]
148.29
5 YEAR 114.58 0.719815 46.83
175.71
10 YEAR 114.58 1.305217 46.83
210.34
25 YEAR 114.58 2.044875 46.83
236.04
50 YEAR 114.58 2.593595 46.83

100 YEAR 115.58 3.138264 46.83 262.55

8.2.8.2 Catchments averaged rainfall

As is shown in Figure below, the project area is located in Hydrological Zone B2 with soil
classification of Orthic Acrisols. For this hydrological zone, the 24-rainfall depth for different return
periods is obtained from the manual. The summary of the regionalized Rainfall Depths for different
Return Periods are shown in the table below.

ERA Drainage Manual 2002 subdivides the whole of Ethiopia into 8 (eight) rainfall regions, as can
be seen from Figure above. These rainfall regions have more or less similar rainfall patterns.

The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to the time of
concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been selected for
design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the rainfall intensity can be
determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves. Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves for use in
Ethiopia are given below.

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Table 8. 6 Daily maximum Rainfall for Regions B2 (mm)

RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) 2 5 10 25 50 100

24-HR RAINFALL DEPTH IN

65 84 98 118 132 147
MM (REGIONALIZED VALUES )

Source: ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

8.2.8.3 Catchments averaged rainfall

As is shown in Figure below, the project area is located in Hydrological Zone B2. For this
hydrological zone, the 24-rainfall depth for different return periods is as shown in the above table.

ERA Drainage Manual (2002) subdivides the whole of Ethiopia into 8 (eight) rainfall regions, as can
be seen from the Figure. These rainfall regions have more or less similar rainfall patterns.

The result of the computation shows computed 24-hour rainfall is less than the regionalized rainfall
data (B2 rainfall region from manual). The computed rainfall data for 24-hour duration is shown in
the same table. As it is shown in the table below, the regionalized values are lower than the
computed values.

For the computation of design discharge, the design team preferred to use the regionalized rainfall
and rainfall intensity data since the recorded rainfall data of the nearby area was poorly managed
and may not represent the project area. Therefore, the rainfall data based on the regions stated in
the ERA design manual 2002 was used for this particular project for the computation of design flood.

Table 8. 7 Computed and Adopted Rainfall Depths for different Return Periods

RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) 100

5 10 25 50
24-HR RAINFALL DEPTH IN MM 210.34
148.29 175.71 236.04 262.55
(COMPUTED VALUES )

24-HR RAINFALL DEPTH IN MM 84.00 98.00 118.00 132.00 147.00

(REGIONALIZED VALUES )
148.29
148.29
148.29

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Figure 8. 1 Rainfall Regions across Ethiopia

8.2.8.4 Intensity / Duration Relationship

The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to the time of
concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been selected for
design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the rainfall intensity can be
determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves. Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves for use in
Ethiopia are given in Figures 5-9 through 5-12 at the end of this chapter.

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The Rational Method use rainfall intensity for computation of peak flood after computing the time of
concentration. Since it was not possible to get short duration rainfall data values of rainfall intensity
for the project area, data from nearby station (Gamu-Gofa area) is taken and compared with the
regional values derived from ERA’s Drainage Manual (2002). Since, the computed values by
Gambel found higher than the Regional recommended value, we have taken the computed 24-hours
rainfall depth for computation.

The average rainfall intensity for a given return period is computed by the duration equal to the time
of concentration, in mm/hr. i.e T=Tc

Table 8. 8 Rainfall intensity for different duration and different return period

RAINFALL DEPTH , H [MM] [REGION B2]

DURATION RETURN PERIOD

5 YEAR 10 YEAR 25 YEAR 50 YEAR 100 YEAR

5.0 MINUTES 152.3 178.7 213.7 240.1 266.6

10.0 MINUTE 128.4 150.7 180.2 202.5 224.8
20.0 MINUTE 90.3 106.0 126.8 142.5 158.2
30.0 MINUTE 70.4 82.7 98.8 111.1 123.3
60.0 MINUTE 43.9 51.6 61.6 69.3 76.9
Source: ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

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Figure 8. 2 Rainfall Intensity Duration Curve

The value of rainfall intensity for a given return period is computed based on the above regionalized
data obtained from ERA design manual 2002. Considering the duration equal to the time of
concentration, we can read the rainfall intensity for each time of concentration computed for each
structure.

8.2.9 Design floods Estimation

Hydrologic analysis should include the determination of several design flood frequencies for use in
the hydraulic design. These frequencies are used to size different drainage structures to allow for an
optimum design, that considers both risk of damage and construction cost. Consideration would be
given to what frequency flood was used to design other structures along a highway corridor.

Estimating peak discharges for various recurrence intervals is one of the most common engineering
challenges faced by drainage structure designers. This is the main challenge in Ethiopia where there
is no adequate primary data to base the analysis.

The following methods and sources could be used in determining peak flood magnitudes for design
of road drainage structures in Ethiopia. The following are some of the most widely used flow
estimation methods:

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Rational Method;
NRCS (SCS)Runoff Curve Number Methods;
Statistical analysis of stream data; and
Regional regression equations.

The design team was interested to use the first two methods for estimating the design discharge of
the project catchments.

8.2.10 Run off Models

ERA Drainage Design Manual recommends Rational Method and SCS Method for Catchment area
less than 0.5km2 and greater than 0.5km2 respectively, however, for bigger catchments the SCS
method of analysis is not reliable. The Design Team has used the two methods as listed in the table
below for the estimation of design discharge for the project road.

Table 8. 9 Catchment area versus Discharge Computation Methodology

CATCHMENT AREA METHOD OF DISCHARGE COMPUTATION

A  0.5 KM2 RATIONAL FORMULA

A > 0.5 KM2 SCS SYNTHETIC UNIT

The SCS method for small catchments gives higher rainfall discharge than rational method. The
computation of discharge involves the collection of all pertinent data like topographic map, aerial
photographs, the project rainfall data, run-off coefficients, land use vegetation cover, rainfall intensity
etc.

8.2.10.1 SCS or Triangular Unit Hydrograph Dimensionless Hydrograph

This method of runoff assessment is based on physical considerations of rainfall runoff and takes
into account specific catchment parameters such as slopes, area, infiltration rates and catchment
shape factors. These physical characteristics are combined with rainfall intensity-duration-frequency
to yield estimates of peak runoff.

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The method enables the determination of the magnitude of different return period floods by
introducing a parameter known as the Curve Number (CN), which is estimated from the
classification of one of four hydrological soil groups together with the classification of land use.

The curve number for each of the catchments has been derived from topographic maps of 1:50,000
and 250,000 scales, satellite imagery, soil maps, drainage parameters, and field inspection. The
rivers and streams and drainage areas crossing the alignment are categorized into hydrologic
regions, and Curve Numbers (CN) are assigned according to the soil classification and land use/
land cover.

Peak discharge is also computed using the Triangular unit hydrograph or SCS method. According to
SCS methodology the direct runoff is calculated using the following equation:

Pc =
P - Ia 2
( P  Ia)  S

Where:
Pc = accumulated direct runoff (mm)
P = design rainfall (24 hours potential maximum rainfall), mm
Is = Initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration
prior to runoff (mm)
S = potential infiltration or potential maximum soil water retention (mm)

The relationship between Ia and S was developed from experimental catchment area data. It
removes the necessity for estimating Ia for common usage. The empirical relationship used in the
SCS runoff equation is:
Ia=0.2S

Substituting 0.2S for Ia in the above equation, the SCS rainfall - runoff equation becomes:

Pc =
P - O.2S2
( P  0.8S )

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The potential maximum soil water retention, S, is related to hydrologic soil properties, land cover
and management conditions as well as the soil moisture status of the catchment prior to a rainfall
event and expressed by a dimensionless response index termed the catchment curve number (CN).
The CN and S are related as follows:

25,400
S  - 254
CN

The CN number is selected according to the soil, moisture and the land cover of the watershed area.
By the triangular method peak rate of flow is computed using the following equation:

0.2083 A . PC 0.2083 A PC
QP  
0.5TC  0.6TC
0.5
tp

Where:
tP =time to peak (hrs)
=0.5 TC0.5 + 0.6 TC
QP =peak discharge (m3/sec)
A =catchment area (km2)
PC =storm flow depth or direct runoff (mm)
TC=time of concentration (hrs)

The time of concentration, TC, in hours is computed using Kirpich formula.

0.77
 L   1
TC  0.0195 0.5   
  H / L   60 

Where:
TC=Time concentration (hrs)
L =Mainstream length (m) in the basin from its source to the
crossing point with the road alignment.
H =Maximum difference in elevation (m) of the main stream from its
source to the crossing point with the road alignment.

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In order to minimize and avoid any errors in calculating time of concentration, particularly when the
average basin slope varies significantly from the mean channel slope (as in steep mountainous
areas), the time of concentration is calculated for two sections. The first one is from the low point to
0.7 point and the second one is from the 0.7 point to the end of the channel. Further subdivision of
the waterway was carried out for those streams that traverse different terrain.

In the computation of direct run-off, the value of design rainfall is taken as discussed above for
regionalized values. The computation of the direct run-off for different design periods of the various
structures is presented in Annex 3.

As per ERA Drainage Design Manual the project area is located in hydrological region B2, which is
having average antecedent moisture conditions (AMC). Accordingly the CN values of average
antecedent moisture conditions (CN) are taken directly based on the specific location of the
proposed catchment areas. Therefore, the CN number for the catchments along the route has been
assessed as having different values (refer Annex 3).
8.3

8.3.1.1 Rational Formula

This method is applied for small catchment areas because of its assumption that the rainfall is of
equal intensity over the entire water shed, and because its frequency is not related to flood
frequency. The Rational formula is considered appropriate for catchment areas less than 0.50 km2.

As per the ERA Manual the runoff coefficients given in the manual are applicable for storms of 5-yr
to 10-yr return frequencies. Less frequent and higher intensity storms require modification of the
coefficients because infiltration and other losses have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff. The
adjustment of the Rational method for use with major storms can be made by multiplying the right
side of the rational formula by a frequency factor C.

The Rational formula now becomes:

QT = 0.278 * C * Cf * IT * A

where:
QT = T - years return period flood, m3 /s

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A = Catchment area, km2

C = Runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall
IT =T-years return period rainfall intensity during the time of
concentration, mm/h.
Cf = Frequency factor for recurrence intervals.

Cf values are >= 1. The product of Cf times C will not exceed 1 (refer to Table 5-6 of ERA Drainage
Design Manual). But as the rational formula is to be employed for areas less than 0.5 km2, the Area
Reduction Factor for the same will barely be less than one and, hence, this is neglected without
significant difference.

Table 8. 10 Derived Run-off Coefficients (C)

Factor Description Run-off Coefficient

< 3.5% (flat) 0.05

3.5% - 10% (Flat to moderate) 0.10

Average
Cs slope of 10% - 25% (Rolling) 0.15
catchment
25% - 45% (Hilly) 0.20

>45% (Mountainous) 0.25

Well drained soil (e.g. sand and gravel)

0.05
Fairly drained soil (e.g. sand and gravel with
0.10
fines)

Permeability Poorly drained soil (e.g. silt) 0.15

Cp
of soil 0.25
Impervious soil (e.g. clay, organic silts and clay)
0.50
Water-logged black cotton soil
0.40
Rock

Dense forest/thick bush 0.05

Spares forest/dense grass 0.10

Ground
Cv Grassland/scrub 0.15
type/cover
Cultivation 0.20

Sparse grassland 0.25

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Factor Description Run-off Coefficient

Barren 0.30

C = k(Cs + Cp + Cv), where k = 1.0 swampy area and 0.6 for others

Source ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most remote
point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the Rational Method requires the
time of concentration (tc) for each design point within the catchment area. The duration of rainfall is
then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the design of average rainfall
intensity (I).

The Kerby formula is recommended for Tc calculation. It is applicable only to parts where the slopes
is fairly even
0.467
 rL 
Tc  0.604 0.5 
S 

Where, Tc – Time of concentration (hours)

L - L=hydraulic length of catchment, measured along flow
path from the catchment boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined (km)
S - Slope in m/m
r - roughness coefficient and equal to Cv

Table 8. 11 Recommended values of (SANRAL Drainage manual 2006)

SURFACE DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDED VALUES OF ‘ r’

PAVED AREAS 0.02

CLEAN COMPACTED SOILS , NO 0.1

STONES

SPARSE GRASS OVER FAIRLY ROUGH 0.3

SURFACE

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SURFACE DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDED VALUES OF ‘ r’

MEDIUM GRASS COVER 0.4

THICK GRASS COVER 0.8

The time of concentration is the sum of the sheet and overland flow. It should be noted that for
bigger catchments the defined channel flow time is dominant while for small catchments the
overland flow time is dominant.

Table 8. 12 Frequency Factor for Rational Formula

RECURRENCE INTERVAL (YEARS) Cf

5 1.0

10 1.0

25 1.1

50 1.2

100 1.25

Source ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

Table 8. 13 Run-off Coefficient (C) as per ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

Soil Type
Terrain Type
A B C D
Flat, < 2% 0.04-0.09 0.07-0.12 0.11-0.16 0.15-0.20
Rolling, 2-6% 0.09-0.14 0.12-0.17 0.16-0.21 0.20-0.25
Mountain, 6-15% 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.24 0.23-0.31 0.28-0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18-0.22 0.24-0.30 0.30-0.40 0.38-0.48
Source ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002

In addition to the foregoing list of major culverts, a large number of potential minor culvert locations
have been identified. These are located where very small catchments will produce minimal amounts
of runoff which will, nevertheless, need to be provided with a means of passing from one side of the
road to the other. Most, if not all, of the conduits in such locations will consist of single 0.910 mm

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diameter pipe culverts (minimum practicable size for maintenance). The analysis of design
discharges for all crossing structures of culverts and bridges are shown in the Annex-3.

8.4 Hydraulic Designs of Open Channels

Open channels are natural or fabricated conveyances for water in which the water surfaces are
exposed to the atmosphere, and the gravity force component in the direction of motion is the driving
force.

8.4.1 General
The opening areas of the drainage structures are determined to pass safely the design flood by
hydraulic calculation. The design flood is the flood that adopted for the design of drainage structures
after consideration of economic and environmental factors. The design flood of each watershed was
computed in the hydrology section of this report (in the previous section).
The hydraulic studies were carried out in two stages: the first stage comprised a condition survey of
the existing drainage systems, including channel characteristics, and the second stage was to
compute opening requirements.
Opening sizes were computed using hydraulic analysis of the computed discharges for the
corresponding discharges.
Safe opening is determined to safeguard against scour due to constriction and general scour. In the
hydraulic computations, important local hydrological and geomorphologic characteristics have been
taken into consideration.

8.4.2 Existing Drainage Conditions

Since the project is existing road with drainage system, it had required condition survey of the
existing structures. From the condition survey carried out the structures at some locations were
found inadequate and were recommended for replacement. The details are presented in the
Appendix.

8.4.3 Determination of Capacity of Drainage Structures

8.4.3.1 Bridges
Manning’s equation has been used for developing the rate curve at bridge crossing.
2 1
1
Q  A R 3  S 2
n
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Where;
Q= Discharge in m3/s
n=Weighted manning’s roughness coefficient
R= hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope of energy grade line or channel bed slope (m/m)

After developing the stage discharge curve the pick design discharge is used to locate the High
Flood Mark (HFM). The effect of Back water is considered for all cases; however, there is no
constriction in all cases. Therefore, the effect of Back water is negligible.

The normal water level which corresponds to flood with 50/100 years design period has been taken
as High Water Mark (HWM). The waterway (opening area) at the bridge is designed taking into
account the backwater effect due to constriction and scour. The results of hydraulic design of
bridges are given in Annex 3.

8.4.3.2 Culverts
Culvert size selection was carried out using ERA’s culvert design monographs (flow charts) for the
various pipe culvert sizes and slab culvert sizes. The Manning’s roughness coefficient used is 0.015
for pipe culverts and 0.017 for slab culverts (with paved waterway at inlet, bed and outside the slab
culvert). Minimum efficiency factors of 200 % and 150 % in accommodating the available discharge
were used for both new pipe and new slab/box culverts respectively. For design purposes, the
hydraulic radius of pipe culverts has been calculated assuming that pipes are flowing 2/3 full. Outlet
velocities for pipe culvert were computed by iteration using the following two equations:

Q = 1/n * R2/3 *S1/2 * A

Where:
n=Manning’s roughness coefficient. 0.015 for reinforced concrete pipe
culvert;
R=Hydraulic radius or hydraulic mean depth [m]
=A/P;
A=Cross-sectional flow area [m2];
P=Wetted perimeter [m];
S=Longitudinal slope expressed in decimals.

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Q=V*A

Velocity is computed by iteration where Q, n, S and diameter of pipe/width of culvert are taken as
fixed, and V and A values are calculated using both equations given above until the design
discharge is attained.

After computing the design discharge corresponding to the return period of the structure using the
available meteorological and topographic data, culvert size selection has been carried out according
to the Manning’s Formula based on the design discharge, roughness coefficient, and slope of the
stream and geometric data of the cross-section.

The computed opening size requirement was then compared to the existing opening. Based on this,
where the existing opening was found to be inadequate, replacement with a new structure, or
provision of additional openings, is recommended.

The computed opening sizes and recommendations are presented in Annex 3.

To avoid siltation and to assist with routine maintenance cleaning, the minimum size of pipe was
taken as 36’, and the minimum slope of pipe taken as 3% unless the terrain condition does not allow
this.

8.4.3.3 Ditches
Peak discharge in the ditches has been calculated, considering a return period of 5 years, with the
Rational formula as explained in Hydrology section of this report;
h  A
Q  C T 
 Tc  3.6
Where:
Q = Peak Discharge in m3/s for fixed return period.
C = Runoff coefficient, assumed = 0.4 because of the generally small area
and gentle slope of the basin and assuming fair to poor ground cover and relatively impervious road
surface.
A = area (km2) of the basin intercepted by the ditch

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h = rainfall (in mm) with return period of 5 years, and duration equal to the
concentration time Tc
Tc =concentration time Tc (hours) calculated with the Kirpich formula

Finally the capacity of the ditch size to accommodate the peak discharge is checked. In order to do
so the capacity of side ditch is estimated using the Manning Striker formula below:
2 1
Q  K  A  R 3  S 2  A V

Where:
Q =the capacity of Ditch [m3/sec]
A =the cross sectional area of water/ditch [m2]
V = the velocity of flow [m3/sec]
R = the hydraulic radius A/P where P is the wetted perimeter in m and A is the
area in m2
S =the average longitudinal slope expressed in decimal

Limiting values for the velocity of flow in the ditch to prevent scour, together with the corresponding
roughness coefficients for the different types of ditch materials, which are normally encountered are
given in the Table below:

Table 8. 14 Maximum permissible Velocities and corresponding roughness coefficients

MAX.
ROUGHNESS
DITCH MATERIAL PERMISSIBLE
COEFFICIENT K
VELOCITY [M /SEC]

SAND, LOAM, FINE GRAVEL AND 0.6 45

VOLCANIC ASH

STIFF CLAY 1.1 50

COARSE GRAVEL 1.5 40

CONGLOMERATE , HARD SHALE & 2.0 25

SOFT ROCK

HARD ROCK 5.0 25

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MAX.
ROUGHNESS
DITCH MATERIAL PERMISSIBLE
COEFFICIENTK
VELOCITY [M /SEC]

MASONRY 5.0 40

CONCRETE 5.0 60

The introduction of erosion protective measures such as check dams and ditch lining in all places
where the velocity of water exceeds the maximum permissible velocity for the corresponding ditch
material given in Table above would be very expensive for the specific class of roads. Therefore, for
these projects the following is recommended:

Erosion protective measures by ditch lining to be provided in areas

of ditch sections where the velocity of water exceeds 5m/sec.
In places where the velocity of water in the ditch exceeds 10m/sec.,
check dams in addition to ditch lining is required in order to reduce
the speed of water.
Wherever the velocity of water in the ditch is between 3.0 – 5.0
m/sec. dry masonry check dams to be introduced.

8.4.4 Drainage capacity analysis and sizing of new structures

During the condition survey it was found out the opening size and conditions of the structures in
terms of adequacy. In addition local people were interviewed about their observation in the past
years how the structures were performing during the pick flood period. Combining these with the
hydrological and hydraulic computation to determine the size of the openings the adequacies of the
structures were determined. Accordingly, all the major and minor structures were found hydraulically
inadequate except Makia Bridge at station 27+460. For those structures, which were found
inadequate, new structures were recommended.

The existing bridge structures at station 2+075 and 5+704 were steel bridge and ford structure
respectively. Both were structurally inadequate. Bridge locations at station 28+424 and 33+440 were
constructed as slab culverts and which were found hydraulically inadequate. Therefore, these four
structures were designed according to the hydrology of the area and standard of the road.

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In regard to the minor structures, all of which were found hydraulically inadequate and were
recommended to be replaced by new structures and at some stations additional structures were
recommended.

The details of the opening size determinations and analysis of the existing structures are presented
in Annex 3.

9 STRUCTURES

9.1 Introduction
Structures are the weakest links in the chain of a highway. Hydraulically adequate, functionally
efficient, structurally sound and economically affordable structures are required for a good highway.

This section of Engineering Design Report describes the activities performed in the structural design
process of major and minor drainage structures as well as retaining walls and miscellaneous items.
It also contains findings of the design team during the condition survey of existing drainage
structures. The design standards used, decisions made based on the findings of detail field
investigations; geometrical parameters as well as structural computations made through the detail
design process are also incorporated in the report. Design calculation sheets of structural
components are attached as annexure.

The structure study outlines the following:

Designing new bridges.
Designing additional elements such as reatining walls, bank
pitching, wearing coat and approach slab.
Designing new culverts
Designing retaining walls.

As the project is to be designed to specified road standards (DS4 standard), all of the existing
structures are checked and evaluated to suit this requirements. Moreover, new bridge structures are
also designed for a two lane carriageway with a provision for 0.8m sidewalks on both sides. The

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superstructures are designed as reinforced concrete, while the sub-structures are designed using
stone masonry on RC footing for foundation material other than rock.

9.2 Methodology
On the basis of hydrological/hydraulic investigations and analysis and/or other pertinent
requirements such as geometric and subsurface soil properties, the opening size and the span of
the drainage structures are determined.

A check is made to each case whether the existing opening satisfy the hydrology/hydraulic
requirements. Accordingly, the existing minor structures do satisfy the hydrology/hydraulic
requirements with some remedial measures to be made on the underside of the structures such as
cleaning and some protection works to the sub-structures.

Based on the economic considerations and availability of construction materials, type of new cross
drainage structure to be provided for the particular location is also determined. Regarding the
existing structures, no extension with repair and rehabilitation measures were proposed therefore
complete replacement has been proposed depending on the condition of the alignment.

9.3 Evaluation of existing structures and new recommendations

9.3.1 Existing Structures
All existing structures are inadequate for either hydraulically or structurally. Besides they are not
sufficiently in good conditions. Therefore, demolishing of all culvert structures and replacing with
new structures with sufficient hydraulic capacity were proposed.

9.1.1 Replacement of Structures

All existing culverts are not sufficiently in good conditions and proposed to be replaced with new
ones.

Only bridge at station 27+460 is sufficient structurally and hydraulically. But the existing Ford, steel
bridge and the two slab culverts were proposed to be replaced by constructing bridge structures.

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9.1.2 Recommended Structure

New culverts are proposed in the road section where the hydrological inquiry proposes on the
stretch from km 0+000 to km 48+100. Reinforced concrete pipe culverts, of diameter from 900mm to
1220mm, slab and box culverts are recommended. There are a total of 114 culverts along the route,
106 pipes and 8 slab culverts. In addition, 4 new bridges are provided.

9.3.2 Recommended Strategy

In addition to the recommendation of new structures, methodology is devised for the existing
structures as mentioned below:

The following tables show the summary of structural recommendations.

Table 9. 1 Summary of all structures

Structure DB Contract Total

Type
Bridges 4 7

Slab Culverts 8 8

Box Culverts 0 0

Pipe Culverts 106 106

Table 9. 2 List of Bridge Structures

S.No Chainage(Km) River Bridge Span(m) No.of Remarks

Name Type spans
1 Neria T– New
2+075 20.00 2
girder construction
2 Baki Slab New
5+704 10.00 1
bridge construction
3 Makia T– * Existing
26+425 16.00 1
girder Adequate
4 Poshti Slab * New
28+424 10.00 1
bridge construction
5 Tolta Slab * New
33+440 8.00 1
bridge construction

*existing bridge and Slab Culverts

Table 9. 3 List of Slab Culverts

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S.No Chainage (Km) Span(m) No of span Remarks

1 0+710 4.00 2 New

2 0+945 3.00 1 New

3 4+950 4.00 1 New

4 5+520 4.00 1 New

5 24+440 4.00 1 New

6 26+830 3.00 2 New

7 36+520 4.00 1 New

8 36+860 4.00 1 New

Table 9. 4 List of Pipe Culverts

S.No Chainage (Km) Dia of Pipe No of Pipes Remarks

(inches)
1 1+207 36 1 New

2 1+460 36 1 New

3 1+829 36 1 New

4 2+691 36 1 New

5 3+157 36 1 New

6 3+300 36 1 New

7 3+619 36 1 New

8 3+940 36 1 New

9 4+297 36 1 New

10 4+581 36 1 New

11 5+395 36 1 New

12 5+997 36 1 New

13 6+214 36 1 New

14 6+429 36 1 New

15 6+787 36 1 New

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S.No Chainage (Km) Dia of Pipe No of Pipes Remarks

(inches)
16 7+037 36 1 New

17 7+765 36 1 New

18 8+736 36 1 New

19 8+999 36 1 New

20 9+414 36 1 New

21 10+640 36 1 New

22 11+362 36 1 New

23 12+010 36 1 New

24 12+344 36 1 New

25 12+710 36 1 New

26 13+006 36 1 New

27 13+355 36 1 New

28 13+573 36 1 New

29 13+801 36 1 New

30 14+114 36 1 New

31 14+511 36 1 New

32 16+343 36 1 New

33 17+490 36 1 New

34 17+929 42 1 New

35 18+026 36 1 New

36 18+397 42 2 New

37 18+590 36 1 New

38 18+848 36 1 New

39 19+258 36 2 New

40 19+582 36 1 New

41 19+715 36 2 New

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S.No Chainage (Km) Dia of Pipe No of Pipes Remarks

(inches)
42 20+015 36 1 New

43 20+361 36 1 New

44 20+741 36 2 New

45 21+001 36 1 New

46 21+628 36 1 New

47 22+187 36 1 New

48 22+525 48 2 New

49 22+980 36 1 New

50 23+335 42 3 New

51 23+934 36 2 New

52 24+144 42 2 New

53 24+372 36 2 New

54 24+777 36 1 New

55 25+129 36 2 New

56 25+438 42 1 New

57 25+753 36 1 New

58 25+937 36 1 New

59 26+111 42 3 New

60 26+413 36 1 New

61 27+001 36 1 New

62 27+811 36 1 New

63 28+882 36 1 New

64 29+197 36 1 New

65 30+035 36 1 New

66 30+421 36 2 New

67 30+891 36 1 New

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S.No Chainage (Km) Dia of Pipe No of Pipes Remarks

(inches)
68 31+080 36 1 New

69 31+361 36 1 New

70 31+833 42 1 New

71 33+637 36 1 New

72 34+051 48 1 New

73 34+480 42 2 New

74 34+980 48 1 New

75 35+153 36 1 New

76 35+488 36 2 New

77 36+142 36 1 New

78 37+392 36 1 New

79 37+899 36 1 New

80 38+357 36 1 New

81 38+564 36 1 New

82 39+612 36 1 New

83 39+951 36 1 New

84 40+247 36 1 New

85 40+701 42 2 New

86 41+220 36 1 New

87 41+365 36 1 New

88 41+707 36 2 New

89 42+037 36 1 New

90 42+240 36 1 New

91 42+612 36 1 New

92 42+851 36 1 New

93 43+659 36 1 New

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S.No Chainage (Km) Dia of Pipe No of Pipes Remarks

(inches)
94 43+870 36 1 New

95 44+071 36 1 New

9.4 Design Procedures Of Structures

9.4.1 Structural Design Standards
In the design and in the evaluation of existing bridge structures, ERA 2002 Bridge Design Manual is
adopted and in addition reference has been made to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification
3rd Edition, 2004.

Following ERA 2002 Bridge Design Manual and Complementary sections of AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specification (3rd Edition, 2004), the Load and Resistance Factor Design Method is adopted
for the design of new structures. Both ULS and SLS requirements are checked through explicit
calculation wherever necessary and implicit provision is also made wherever found appropriate.

As far as geometrical standards are concerned, standard width of 8.90m is used for all slabs and T-
girder Bridge. Curb and separate walkway is provided as per the recommendation of the bridge
design standard for bridges outside 5.0km radius from towns inhabiting 5000 people within the
design life of the structure. Sufficient free board is provided from hydraulic point of view and
appropriate finished road grade is provided considering the optimum approach road grade from
geometric requirement. Thus which ever design requirement governs is applied.

9.4.2 Minimum Dimensions

Table 2-1 of ERA Bridge Design Manual is used as a guide for cell component sizing with due
consideration to the design depth of the superstructure and free board height (Table 2-3, ERA BDM)

The width of the bridge is to provide a two-lane carriage width plus sidewalk. The walkways are
raised by about 250 mm above carriage way surface and railings are made with a height not less
than 800 mm above the walkways.

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9.4.3 Structure Type

Depending on the defined channel opening and discharge requirements, the spans of the cross
drainage structures are determined on the basis of which they are classified as:

Below 6 m span Culverts – Pipe and Slab

7– 10 m span Slab Bridges,
10 – 24 m span Girder Bridges
Above 25 m span Box girder

The selection of the bridge is based on the following:

Straight reach of the river ;
Well defined and stable banks ;
Shortest span ;
Good foundation material ;
Location beyond disturbing influence of tributaries.

9.4.4 Design Criteria and Loading

In the design of the bridge, the following criteria and loading have been used:
Bridge carriageway width: 7.32 meter
Sidewalk width: 0.80 meter
Railing height: 0.8 meter
Minimum freeboard: 0.9m for minor and slab bridges and1.2m for
major structures
Transverse Cross fall: 2%
Live loading: HL-93, HS22-44
Design specification: ERA Bridge Design Manual 2002 and
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Third edition,
2004.

9.4.5 Materials Properties

The following material properties have been used for the design of the bridge.

Table 9. 5 Concrete Strength of Bridges

Type Compressive strength Elasticity modulus

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C30 30 Mpa (4500 psi) 23500 Mpa

Table 9. 6 Reinforcing steel

Diameter of Steel Yield Elasticity Unit weight

bar grade strength modulus
<20 mm 300 300 Mpa 200 x 103 Mpa 78.50 KN/m3

>=20 mm 420 420 Mpa 200 x 103 Mpa 78.50 KN/m3

9.4.5.1 Design Loadings of Superstructure

In the design of the superstructures, the following loads were considered.
 Dead load including 5 cm - wearing surface (for future use);
 Live load;
 HL-93 truck, lane and tandem loading;
 Impact;
 Load combinations were applied
The design loads (shear forces and bending moments) were calculated at
each section.
Dead load and live load deflections are checked for the allowable limits and
camber is provided at mid span for the calculated dead load deflection.

9.4.5.2 Design Loadings of Substructure

The substructure of this bridge consists of masonry abutments and piers.
The following loads were considered in the design of the substructure.
 Dead loads;
 Live loads;
 Wind loads on structure;
 Wind load on live loads;
 Longitudinal forces.
The load combinations were applied in the stability analysis of the
substructure.
The stability of the substructures was checked against overturning, bearing
pressure and sliding.

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9.5 Detail Design of Bridges

The first bridge composed of double span of RC Deck Girder and supported on concrete pier and
masonry abutments. The second, the fourth and the fifth bridges are Slab superstructure supported
on masonry abutment. Accordingly, the type of superstructure is Reinforced Concrete Deck Girder
and Reinforced Concrete Slab. Concerning to substructure masonry abutment &wing wall and
concrete pier are used for these bridges. The followings section briefly discuses about the main
factors considered during the detail design of substructure and superstructure of these bridges.

9.5.1 Superstructure Design

9.5.1.1 Types of Superstructure

One 16.00m Reinforced Concrete Deck Girder Superstructure, one 10.00m Reinforced Concrete
Slab Superstructure and one 8.00m Reinforced Concrete Slab Superstructure are designed. The
RCDG superstructures of the bridges are composed of four reinforced concrete girders spaced at
2.20m center to center of cross girders and 0.22m thick reinforced concrete deck slab.

9.5.1.2 Loading
AASHTO HL-93 and HS20-44 live loadings are used combined with the dead load of bridge
components for T-girder and slab bridges respectively as per the recommended load combination of
ERA bridge design manual. HL-93 or HS20-44 loading combined with lane load or tandem axle and
lane load and the design is performed taking the maximum effect of these loads combined with that
of the dead load multiplied by the corresponding load factors. (Please refer to the structural
computation sheets attached as appendix in this report).

HL-93 or HS20-44 live load is a combination of Design Truck load or Design Tandem load with that
of Design Lane load.

Design track load is applied as per article 3.8.3 of ERA Bridge Design Manual. Accordingly three
axles of the design truck, the first of which is 35KN and the 2nd and the rear axles of 145KN are
applied at the specified axle spacing. A total of 32.5 Ton load is used as design truckload on
superstructures of bridges.

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In addition to the truck load a design lane load of 9.3KN/m uniformly distributed in the longitudinal
direction is applied on each traffic lane of bridges. It is the combined effect of Truck and Lane load
or Tandem axle and lane load whichever is greater that is taken for design of bridge components.

Tandem axle loads consists of a pair of 110KN axles spaced at 1.2m intervals. The total load of
tandem axle loads is far more than that of design truckload. However the axle spacing of tandem
axle loads is very small that it results in higher internal stresses on some bridge components.

9.5.1.3 Material Properties

 Reinforcement steel
The steel industries available in the country produce grade 60-reinforcement steel for diameter of
bar equal to and greater than 20mm, and grade 40 steel for those less than 20mm diameter. The
minimum yield strength of grade 60 reinforcement steel is 413Mpa, while that of grade 40 is
276Mpa. These and other strength parameters are used in the design of the superstructures of the
bridges.

Minimum clear cover of reinforcing bars are recommended and shown on drawings as per table 9-5
of ERA Bridge design Manual.

 Concrete
Design parameters of C-30 concrete are used in the structural computations of superstructure of the
bridges. These strength parameters are specified on design drawings and technical specifications
attached in the final design documents of the project.

Resistance factors are recommended on the design manuals to account the imperfection in
production of these construction materials. Accordingly the appropriate resistance factors for shear
and bending moment of structural components were taken during the design of these components.

 Software Used
A developed excel spread sheet is used to compute maximum bending moment and shear forces of
structurally determinate members. The program is also used in the computation of deck thickness
and reinforcement bars.

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 Design Philosophy
LRFD (Load and resistance factor design) method is strictly followed in the design of the
superstructure of the bridges. The appropriate load and resistance factors are used for each and
every load combination case as per ERA bridge design manual.

9.5.2 Substructure design

9.5.2.1 Types of Substructures

The height of abutments of the bridge is within applicable limit for masonry structures. Masonry
structures are considered to be economical and feasible for heights up to 9 to 10m. Therefore the
substructure of both bridges is composed of RC Concrete pier and class “B” masonry abutments
and wing walls. It is optional to use plain concrete leveling course under the substructure, which
shall be decided after excavation of foundation materials. However reinforced concrete footings are
designed for substructure of bridge as required.

9.5.2.2 Loading
Substructure components are designed for maximum reactions of dead and live loads of
superstructures, surcharge load, their own dead loads, stream force, longitudinal force, various wind
loads and earth pressure loads etc. The designed masonry abutments, wing walls and RC pier are
designed as gravity retaining structure under the action of the above indicated load cases.

9.5.2.3 Design Philosophy

The substructures are designed as gravity retaining walls to resist overturning, sliding and bearing
failures due to their own weight and loads imposed on them. Since the ultimate bearing capacity of
foundation materials is practically unknown, allowable bearing capacity of foundation material is
checked for the above load effects based on working stress design philosophy.

9.5.2.4 Material properties

 Reinforcement steel
The steel industries available in the country produce grade 60-reinforcement steel for diameter of
bar equal to and greater than 20mm, and grade 40 steel for those less than 20mm diameter. The

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minimum yield strength of grade 60 reinforcement steel is 413Mpa, while that of grade 40 is
276Mpa. These and other strength parameters are used in the design of the substructures of the
bridges.

Minimum clear cover of reinforcing bars are recommended and shown on drawings as per table 9-5
of ERA Bridge design Manual.

 Concrete
Design parameter of C-30 concrete is used in the structural computations of substructure and
superstructure of the bridge as required. These strength parameters are specified on design
drawings and technical specifications to be attained during construction stage.

 Stone Masonry
The unit weight of stone masonry used in the design of substructure components is taken from table
3-4 of ERA bridge design manual.

As per ERA's Standard Specification cement mortared stone masonry walls shall be constructed
with mortar of 6:1 cement sand ratio. However the past experience of masonry construction for
bridges in the country was using sand cement ratio of 2:1. In the opinion of the consultant it is not
reasonable to make such a big change of material quality without improving the workmanship of
construction activity in the country. Therefore sand cement ratio of 3:1 and 4:1 are recommended to
be used for major and minor drainage structures respectively of the subject project. The required
amendments would be incorporated in the technical specification too.

9.5.3 Foundations
In general it has been observed during the site inspection and study that the open type foundations
for the existing bridges have not suffered any distress and accordingly open type foundations are
proposed to be adopted for new structures at these locations. According to the geotechnical
investigation report and recommendation stability of all bridge substructures were checked and
designed with concrete footing wherever required.

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9.5.3.1 Foundation Investigation

 General
Following the hydrologic/hydraulic investigations, foundation investigation was not conducted at the
crossing sites to assess the foundation material and the possible foundation level of the abutment
and pier positions. Therefore, all newly designed major drainage structures may requires foundation
investigation at construction stages. The foundation design was made based on the visual
investigation.

During the field investigation, the condition of the river, the river channel width, the riverbank
material type and height, the approach to the bridge and the foundation material type are properly
assessed.

Thus the foundation investigation may be conducted at the proposed bridge sites to identify the
possible bearing layer and make suitable recommendation on safe bearing capacity(as per EBCS-7,
1995) and the required depth of foundation for safely conveying the superstructure loads to the
supporting strata.

9.5.3.2 Conclusion and Recommendation

From the visual investigations of the bridges foundation materials, the following allowable bearing
capacities were estimated at both abutment and pier position of the entire river bridge crossing
along this project. Accordingly, we have proposed 1m thick matt foundation for girder bridge and
0.5m matt foundation for slab bridges.

However, if we get stiff rock foundation during constructing the bridges , the proposed matt
foundation may be omitted and replaced with 30 cm thick class C concrete foundation.

Summary of the estimated foundation parameters is presented in the table below.

Table 9. 7 Bridges Foundation Materials & Estimated Bearing Capacities

No. Estimated Name Foundation material Estimated Remark

Chainage of Description Bearing
river Jinka side Mendir Capacity
side (kg/cm2)
1 Neria Highly Highly 1-3 1m C20 matt
2+075
Weathered Weathered footing
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rock rock
2 Baki Highly Highly 1-3 0.5m C20
5+704 Weathered Weathered matt footing
rock rock
3 Poshti Highly Highly 1-3 0.5m C20
28+424 Weathered Weathered matt footing
rock rock
4 Tolta Highly Highly 1-3 0.5m C20
33+440 Weathered Weathered matt footing
rock rock

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9.5.4 Bridge Ancillary Elements

9.5.4.1 Bridge Railing
ERCC’s Standard drawing of Reinforced Concrete Railing based on ERA’s Standard Drawing and
ERA’s Bridge Design Manual; is adopted to be used for all new bridges designed. Concrete bridge
railings are advantageous than steel railings in that steel railings are liable to theft and damage by
local people as the steel pipes are easily cut and taken. Therefore, Reinforced concrete posts and
railings are provided.

9.5.4.2 Bridge Bearings

Electrometric bearings of dimensions 77mm thickness, 38cm width and 26.5 length are provided to
transmit the loads from the superstructure to the substructure and to accommodate the differential
movements.

9.5.4.3 Deck Drains

Since all the recommended bridges have curbs due to walkways, Drip notches would be provided
with five meter interval for the entire length of the decks to drain the decks. Drip notches are located
around the cumber locations and spacing are shown in the bridge design drawings.

9.5.4.4 Deck Joint Seals

Joint seals of the pre-molded expansion joint filler type are provided at the ends of the
superstructure to prevent the intrusion of material and water through the joint system in addition to
accommodating their movements. Therefore, 20mm thick compressible joint filler board would be
used at deck joints along with 20mm deep grouted polysulphide sealant materials.

9.6 Masonry
The masonry to be used for the substructures (abutments, wing walls and piers) would be class ”B”
stone masonry according to ERA specifications and it would be tough, dense, sound, durable, free
of seams or cracks, and any other structural defects.

9.6.1 Abutments and Wing walls

Class ‘B’ stone masonry abutments and wing walls with reinforced concrete footings are provided
based on the estimated bearing capacity values of the foundation material.
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The back fill material behind the walls shall be free from draining, non-expansive and non-corrosive.

9.6.2 Piers
Piers are designed to be of class ‘B’ stone masonry and reinforced concrete footings are provided
based on the estimated bearing capacity values of the foundation material recommended on the
geotechnical report.

9.7 Retaining Wall

Retaining walls are frequently used items in construction of roads in mountainous areas. The fact
that the cross fall of the natural ground in such areas is very steep makes it practically impossible to
construct embankments with the normal trend. The cut and fill slopes in such steep cross sections
do not intersect the natural ground with reasonable distance from the edge of the road, and hence
makes construction of embankments and cuts very difficult.

Retaining walls are usually provided on locations with the following geometrical and topographical
conditions.

On cut sides of roads where the recommended safe cut slope is flatter than the
natural cross fall for a very long distance from the edge of the road.
On fill sides where the natural cross fall is steeper than the recommended fill slopes
of embankments.
On fill sides where the fill slope stake is in streams where the embankment toe is
subject to scouring due to existing streams.
On cut sides where sliding or rock fall is anticipated.
On fill sides and downstream of drainage structures in areas of steep cross.

During Construction if there is any landslide prone area we recommend to construct masonry
retaining wall according to ERA’s Retaining wall Design manual and the original grade level. (see
the standard drawing).

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10 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKING

10.1 General
This chapter deals with road furniture and markings. These features include the elements intended
to improve the driver's perception and comprehension of the continually changing appearance of the
road. Elements addressed herein include traffic signs, road markings, marker posts, traffic signals,
and lighting.

Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient maneuvering on the
road. Road markings delineate the pavement edges and thereby clarify the paths that vehicles are
to follow. Marker posts assist in a timely perception of the alignment ahead and, when equipped with
reflectors, provide good optical guidance at night. Traffic signals are key elements for the efficient
functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions. Finally, lighting is provided to improve
the nighttime safety of a road.

Traffic signs, road markings, and marker posts shall conform to ERA standards. Standards for traffic
signs and road markings and their placement are provided in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-
2002.

10.2 Traffic Signs

The extent to which signs and markings are required depends on the traffic volume, the type of road,
and the degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient operation.

The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric design.
However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic signing as a means of
informing and warning drivers, and controlling drivers. Design of traffic signs and road markings is
an intricate part of the design process.

Traffic signs are of three general types:

Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement

Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Informatory Signs: convey information of use to the driver

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Figure 10. 1 Types of Traffic Signs

Traffic signs have been provided, depending on the requirement, as per ERA's Standard
Specification 2002.

The basic requirements of a highway signs are that it be legible to those for whom it is intended and
that it be understandable in time to permit a proper response. Desirable attributes include:

High visibility by day and night; and

High legibility.

10.2.1 Road Sign Details

The sign plate would be of Aluminum alloy of thickness 2mm and the alloy should conform to 6061-
T6 according to ASTM specification No.B 209 m with corners rounded to 4 cm radius. Reflective
sheeting background should be white, transparent red paint to borders and opaque black paint on
lettering and symbols.

All the warning signs are erected in advance of traffic regulation as follows;

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Table 10. 1 Location of Traffic Signs

S.NO Traffic signs Distance

1 Right Curve 150m

Left Curve
Deep Right Curve
Deep Left Curve
Left and Right Reverse
Cross Roads
Left Side Road
Right Side Road

2 Grades over 7% 100m

Pedestrian Crossing
Schools and Play grounds
Road Narrow

3 Stop Sign 10m

4 Town signs 90m

5 Animal Crossing 10m

All signs except stop signs are placed as pairs at either end of the warning. The road signs are
placed at a minimum distance of 1.50m from carriage way and a minimum vertical distance of 1.75m
from road level to bottom edge of sign for unkerbed roads.

Figure 10. 2 Location of Traffic Signs for unkerbed Road

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10.3 Marker posts

Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditious operation.
There are two types of marker posts in use. These are kilometer posts & guide posts.

10.3.1 Kilometer Posts

The Kilometer stone specification of ERA indicates distance in kilometers from the starting point.
Hence, it is proposed to adopt well known standards showing kilometers and name of next important
station. These are to be made of pre-cast class 20 grade reinforced cement concrete.

Kilometer posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads and it shall be placed every 1 km, past
the edge of the shoulder. Eventhough the project is main Access Road, it is good to provide
Kilometer Posts since the area is very remote.

Jinka Jinka
21
21

Figure 10. 3 Kilometre Stones

10.3.2 Guide posts

These are intended to delineate road area where abrupt changes in alignments, approach to
structures take place. The concrete guide posts fitted with reflectors are to guide traffic during night
time.
Position of guideposts;

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For change in shoulder width and approaches to structures guidepost

should be provided at 50 m Interval.
On horizontal curves based on their curve radius guidepost is provided. The
Spacing of guidepost for particular radius is shown on table below.

Table 10. 2 Spacing of Guide Posts at CurvesTable

Curve Radius Guide Post Spacing

(m) (m)
500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5

10.4 Road Markings

The function of road markings is to encourage safe and expeditious operation. Road markings either
supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve independently to indicate certain regulations or
hazardous conditions. There are three general types of road markings in use;
pavement markings
object markings
road studs.

For the project case only pavement marking is sufficient since the road is Main Access Road.

10.4.1 Pavement Markings

Pavement Markings Consist of centerlines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines, etc. Night time
visibility of these markings can be markedly improved by mixing small glass beads into the paint or
thermoplastic before applying it to the road surface. Other pavement markings such as stop and
pedestrian crossings and various word and symbol markings may supplement pavement markings.

Normal paint or thermoplastic paint could be used for our project case.

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Jinka – Hana (Lot1: Jinka – Mender) Design ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

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