CPT211: Computer

Fundamentals &
Learning Module
Programming

Esquieres Allan Francis M.

 Computer and Its Part and Number System

Overview:
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to
know about computers. Purpose of this Topic is to introduce you about history computer and its
fundamentals.

Objective:
The AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE The aims and objectives of this course
include the following:
1. to understand fundamentally the general scope of the computer system
2. to interact effectively with the computer
3. to know the uses of the basic components of the computer
4. to know some basic things about the computer and the world
5. Understand the Number System and how to compute it.
Before we Procced to the Main topic Java let us discuss first Computer.
Computer as a revolution left no area of life untouched in the present world. It is of
tremendous help in all field of life. Hence, the knowledge of computer is a necessity for
existence of everybody in this global village. The invention of computer has transformed our
simple manual works to sophisticated life of automated works to meet the global demand for the
higher productivity and increased efficiency with high precision.
Computer is increasingly becoming compulsory in nearly all fields of studies, not
because of anything but its accuracy and versatility in processing data. Many tasks at home or
office are being automated rapidly with computer. Thus it is becoming apparent that in whatever
discipline or working sector, the computer is now a very vital tool for efficiency improvement
and precision of job or task execution.
This is designed to meet the prerequisite need of everybody that are interested and wish
to know about computers science and computing in general.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in
its own memory. These instructions tell the machine what to do. The computer is capable of
accepting data (input), processing data arithmetically and logically, producing output from the
processing, and storing the results for future use. Most computers that sit on a desktop are called
Personal Computers (PCs).
The "computer" is an ensemble of different machines that you will be using to get your
job done. A computer is primarily made of the Central Processing Unit (usually referred to as the
computer), the monitor, the keyboard, and the mouse. Other pieces of hardware are commonly
referred to as peripherals.
In everyday life activities, we process data or encounter cases of data processing. A
typical example of data processing is the generation of statement of student result from the marks
score in an examination and continuous assessment. It is essential to know that information is as
good as the data from which it is derived, and the transformation process which they are
subjected to. Meaningless data or inappropriate processing produces wrong information. Thus
computer gives you results corresponding to what data you supply and how you process it (i.e.
gabbage- in, gabbage-out).
Summarily, the intelligent performance of a computer depends on correctness of input
data and the intelligence performance of the human being that drives it.

USES OF COMPUTERS
People use computers in many ways; business, computers are used to track inventories
with bar codes and scanners, check the credit status of customers, and transfer funds
electronically, homes, tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most appliances
control the indoor temperature, operate home security systems, tell the time, and turn video
cassette recorders (VCRs) on and off, automobiles regulate the flow of fuel, thereby increasing
gas mileage, they also entertain, creating digitized sound on stereo systems or computer-
animated features from a digitally encoded laser disc.
Computer programs, or applications, exist to aid every level of education, from programs
that teach simple addition or sentence construction to programs that teach advanced calculus.
Educators use computers to track grades and communicate with students; with computer-
controlled projection units, they can add graphics, sound, and animation to their
communications. Computers are used extensively in scientific research to solve mathematical
problems, investigate complicated data, or model systems that are too costly or impractical to
build, such as testing the air flow around the next generation of aircraft. The military employs
computers in sophisticated communications to encode and unscramble messages, and to keep
track of personnel and supplies.

Let Discuss the Functionalities of a computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
1. Takes data as input.
2. Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
3. Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
4. Generates the output
5. Controls all the above four steps.

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
1. accepts and stores data input,
2. processes the data input, and
3. generates the output in a required format.

Applications of Computer
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:
1. Payroll calculations
2. Budgeting
3. Sales analysis
4. Financial forecasting
5. Managing employees database
6. Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
1. Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 2. ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for
their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
1. procedure to continue with policies
2. starting date of the policies
3. next due installment of a policy
4. maturity date
5. interests due
6. survival benefits
7. bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
1. The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
2. CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
3. The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
4. There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to
educate the students.
5. It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
1. Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
2. Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to
be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning
and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by
computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
1. Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
2. Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
3. Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such
as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
4. Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful
drug’s side effects etc.
5. Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of
images. Some fields are:
1. Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
2. Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
3. Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also
employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
1. Missile Control
2. Military Communication
3. Military Operation and Planning
4. Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this
category are:
1. E-mail
2. Chatting
3. Usenet
4. FTP
5. Telnet
6. Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
1. Budgets
2. Sales tax department
3. Income tax department
4. Male/Female ratio
5. Computerization of voters lists
6. Computerization of driving licensing system
7. Computerization of PAN card
8. Weather forecasting

Types of Computer
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
 Sr. No. Type Specifications
PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having
Computer) moderately powerful microprocessor
WorkStation It is also a single user computer system which is
similar to personal computer but have more
powerful microprocessor.
Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system which is capable
of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system which is capable
of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
Software technology is different from minicomputer.
Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which can execute
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU
on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the
most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
Workstations are also single user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Computer Components
All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users

Sr. No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data
and instructions into the
computer system.
2 Store Data
Saving data and instructions
so that they are available for
processing as and when
required
3 Processing Data Performing arithmetic, and
logical operations on data in
order to convert them into
useful information.
4 Output Information The process of producing
useful information or results
for the user, such as a printed
report or visual display.
5 Control the workflow Directs the manner and
sequence in which all of the
above operations are
performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes
link between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form
understandable by computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).It controls the operation
of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components
1. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
2. Memory Unit
3. Control Unit
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer.
This unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output
into the form understandable by users.

Parts of Computer
CPU – Central Processing Unit
CPU consists of the following features:
1. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
2. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
3. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
4. It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

1. Memory or Storage Unit:
2. Control Unit
3. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
1. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. It stores intermediate results of processing.
3. It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
1. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
3. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
4. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5. It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely
1. Arithmetic section
2. Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive
use of above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.

Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Track Ball
5. Scanner
6. Microphone
7. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

Keyboard
 Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr. No Keys Description

1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9)
which generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement.
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in
the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which
are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes
four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home,
End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
Keys Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and
Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive
3. Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then
converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before
they are printed.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for
mixing music.

Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer
1. Monitors
2. Video Graphic Adapter
3. Graphic Plotter
4. Printer
5. Video Graphic Adapter

Video Graphic Adapter: This is a device that converts information generated by the computer
into visual. All Computer motherboard has already have a Built -in video graphic adapter.

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of
a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Flat- Panel Display
3.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT
1. Large in Size
2. High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories
1. Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
2. Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-
Crystal Device)

Printers:
Information and graphics processed or produced with the aid of computer are printed out
as hardcopy with the aid of printer. There are different types of printers; Dot-matrix printers,
Laser printers, Inkjet, etc.
Plotters:
Computer output to microfilm or fiche (COM) which process information on rolls of film
(drum plotter) or slide of film (flatbed plotter).

Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound
card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the
backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard A motherboard comes with following features:

1. Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
2. Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
3. Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to
function properly.
4. Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.\

Popular Manufacturers
 1. Intel
2. ASUS
3. AOpen
4. ABIT
5. Biostar
6. Gigabyte
7. MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws
through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components.
It provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are
available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via
ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound
cards and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer,
mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which
allow compatible devices to be connected in plugin/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive,
digital cameras etc.

STORAGE DEVICES
Storage devices provide permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by
the computer. The two main types of storage devices are disk drives and memory. There are
several types of disk drives: hard disk drive, floppy disk, magneto-optical, and compact disk.
Hard disk drives store information in magnetic particles embedded in a disk. Usually a
permanent part of the computer, hard disk drives can store large amounts of information and
retrieve that information very quickly. The disks are of different sizes such as 1G, 10G, 40G, etc.

Floppy disk drives

Also store information in magnetic particles embedded in removable disks. Floppy disks
store less information than a hard disk drive and retrieve the information at a much slower rate. It
is of 2 type 51/4 floppy disk and 31/2 floppy disk.

Magneto-optical disc drives

 Store information on removable discs that are sensitive to both laser light and magnetic
fields. They can typically store as much information as hard disks, but they have slightly slower
retrieval speeds.

Compact Disc Drives

Store information on pits burned into the surface of a disc of reflective material such as
CD-ROM. CD-ROMs can store about as much information as a hard drive but have a slower rate
of information retrieval.

Digital Video Disc (DVD):

This is similar and works like a CD-ROM but can store more than 15times as much
information.

Flash drives
Work as floppy disks but more sensitive as a hard disk that must be ejected logical
before final removal from the computer system. It has more memory than floppy disks.
Memory Cards
Work as flash drive but with an additional device called the card reader. This is very
effective and more durable than the flash drives.

Some devices serve more than one purpose. For example, floppy disks may also be used
as input devices if they contain information to be used and processed by the computer user. In
addition, they can be used as output devices if the user wants to store the results of computations
on them.

SYSTEM MEMORY
Memory refers to the computer chips that store information for quick retrieval by the
CPU. They are basically divided into two ROM and RAM.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store information and instructions that operate the
computers programs. Typically, programs are transferred from storage on a disk drive to RAM.
RAM is also known as volatile memory because the information within the computer chips is
lost when power to the computer is turned off or the computer hanged.
Read-Only Memory (ROM) contains critical information and software that must be
permanently available for computer operation, such as the operating system that directs the
computers actions from start up to shut down. ROM is called non-volatile memory because the
memory chips do not lose their information when power to the computer is turned off.

HARDWARE CONNECTIONS
 To function, hardware requires physical connections that allow components to
communicate and interact. A bus provides a common interconnected system composed of a
group of wires or circuitry that coordinates and moves information between the internal parts of
a computer. A bus is characterized by two features: how much information it can manipulate at
one time, called the bus width, and how quickly it can transfer these data.
A serial connection is a wire or set of wires used to transfer information from the CPU to an
external device such as a mouse, keyboard, modem, scanner, and some types of printers. This
type of connection transfers only one piece of data at a time, and is therefore slow. The
advantage of using a serial connection is that it provides effective connections over long
distances.

A parallel connection uses multiple sets of wires to transfer blocks of information

simultaneously. Most scanners and printers use this type of connection. A parallel connection is
much faster than a serial connection, but it is limited to distances of less than 3 m (10 ft) between
the CPU and the external device.

PS/2 Port

a. Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

b. Also called mouse port
c. Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
d. Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
a. It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
b. It was introduced in 1997.
c. Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
d. Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
e. USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port
a. Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
b. Has 15 holes.
c. Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector
a. Three-pronged plug
b. Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket
Firewire Port
a. Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
b. Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
c. Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
d. Invented by Apple
e. Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector

Ethernet Port
a. Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
b. Connect network cable to a computer.
c. This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
d. Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the
network bandwidth.

Game Port
a. Connect a joystick to a PC
b. Now replaced by USB.
c. Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 d. Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
e. Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are following:
a. Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.
b. Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
c. Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
d. Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.
Relationship between Hardware and Software
1. Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
2. Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
3. Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
4. To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded
into the hardware
5. Hardware is a one-time expense.
6. Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
7. Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
8. A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
9. If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is the set of instruction that tells the computer what to do and when to do it. The
computer uses this instruction to manipulate data, and enhance the proper functioning of the
hardware components. It is designed to exploit and provide the potential capabilities of the
hardware to the user. It converts data into information and allows users to use the computer in
different ways.
Computer programs are written by human beings, like you. This means that the person
who writes a program also decides on its functionality and behaviour; which explains why two
programs that are supposed to do the same thing, don't do it the same way. This is why,
regardless of your expertise, you need to be acquainted with a particular program in order to
make better use of it. The fact that you don't know a particular program doesn't say anything
about your intelligence or lack of it. It simply means that you are not familiar with that program.
These programs are usually stored and transferred via the computers hardware to and from the
CPU. Software also governs how the hardware is utilized; for example, how information is
retrieved from a storage device. The interaction between the input and output devices is
controlled by software called the Basic Input Output System (BIOS) Software. Software as a
whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the types of work done by programs.
The two primary software categories are system software, and application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
This refers to set of programs that facilitate the optional use of the hardware systems by
coordinating them. It consists of programs that start up the computer and perform some utility
functions such as checking and getting the computer ready for use. They are usually written to
accomplish loading, execution, storage, and retrieval of files from/into the computer. They are
basically operating system, utility software, and language
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software
 System Software
 Application Software

System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by
computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers
etc.

Features of system software are as follows

 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a
software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are following
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft Powerpoint

Features of application software are as follows

a. Close to user
b. Easy to design
c. More interactive
d. Slow in speed
e. Generally written in high-level language
f. Easy to understand
g. Easy to manipulate and use
h. Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system
where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available
in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system,
the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal
number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds
position, and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following
number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.N. Number System and Description

S.N. Number System and Description
1 Binary Number System
Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1
2 Octal Number System
Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7
3 Hexa Decimal Number System
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows
o Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
o Also called base 2 number system
o Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example
20
o Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x
where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22)
+ (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 101012 2110

Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

The binary number has a radix of 2. As r = 2, only two digits are needed, and these are 0 and 1.
In binary system weight is expressed as power of 2.

In Figure 2 The left most bit, which has the greatest weight is called the Most Significant Bit
(MSB). And the right most bit which has the least weight is called Least Significant Bit (LSB).
Example 2:
1001.012 = [ ( 1 ) × 23 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 22 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 21 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 20 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 2-1 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 22 ]
1001.012 = [ 1 × 8 ] + [ 0 × 4 ] + [ 0 × 2 ] + [ 1 × 1 ] + [ 0 × 0.5 ] + [ 1 × 0.25 ]
1001.012 = 9.2510

Example 3: Convert each of the following unsigned numbers to decimal:

10110011B

Solution:
1 * 27 + 0 * 2 6 + 1 * 25 + 1 * 24 + 0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 1 * 20
= 179D

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80

 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where
x represents the last position - 1.
Decimal Number 3-bit Binary Number Octal Number
0 000 0
1 001 1
2 010 2
3 011 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 001 000 10 (1+0)
9 001 001 11 (1+1)
10 001 0 10 12 (1+2)
Continuing upwards in groups of three
 Using our previous binary number of 11010101110011112 convert this binary number to
its octal equivalent, (base-2 to base-8).

Binary Digit Value 001101010111001111 

Group the bits into three´s starting 001 101 010 111 001 111 
from the right hand side
Octal Number form 1 5 2 7 1 78

Look in the Table the equivalent value of Binary to Octal

Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
Step 3 125708 549610

Example 2:
Convert the octal number 23228 to its decimal number equivalent, (base-8 to base-10).
Solution
23228 = ( 2×83 ) + ( 3×82 ) + ( 2×81 ) + ( 2×80 )
23228 = ( 1024 ) + ( 192 ) + ( 16 ) + ( 2 )
23228 = 123410

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =
15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example
160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1.

The hexadecimal numbering system has a base of 16. There are 16 symbols. The decimal digits 0
to 9 are used as the first ten digits as in the decimal system, followed by the letters A, B, C, D, E
and F, which represent the values 10, 11,12,13,14 and 15 respectively.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
 4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x
160))10
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x
160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210
Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Decimal to Binary
Steps
 Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of
new base number.
 Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
 Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the
most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

Decimal to Octal Conversion

Ex: convert 378.9310 to octal
37810 to octal: Successive division:
387/8= 47 r2
47/8= 5 r7
5/6= 0 r5

Now get the remainder start from the bottom 572

37810=5728

Now let get the Decimal Point .93

0.9310 to octal :
0.93x8=7.44
0.44x8=3.52 ↓
0.53x8=4.16
0.16x8=1.28
Now let get the value start from the top 7 3 4 1
0.9310 =0.73418
The Decimal to Octal of 378.9310 is
378.9310=378.73418