Module-3

BASICS IN OB
LEARNING:
Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and
indirect experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and
training, practice, and experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge
and skills, which are relatively permanent.
Factors Affecting Learning
Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to
achieve a goal is known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning
as it acts gives us a positive energy to complete a task. Example − The coach
motivated the players to win the match.

Practice − We all know that ”Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a

perfectionist or at least complete the task, it is very important to practice what
we have learnt. Example − We can be a programmer only when we execute the
codes we have written.
Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people
around us. They are of two types of environment – internal and external.
Example − A child when at home learns from the family which is an internal
environment, but when sent to school it is an external environment.

Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to

hang out with. In simple words, we make a group of those people with whom
we connect. It can be for a social cause where people with the same mentality
work in the same direction. Example − A group of readers, travelers, etc
CURVES AND THEORIES IN LEARNING:
LEARNING CURVE.
A learning curve is a correlation between a learner's performance on a task and
the number of attempts or time required to complete the task; this can be
represented as a direct proportion on a graph.
The learning curve theory proposes that a learner’s efficiency in a task improves
over time the more the learner performs the task.
 THEORIES OF LEARNING.
1. Classical Conditioning Theory
2. Operant Conditioning Theory
3. Social Learning Theory
4. Cognitive Learning Theory
1.Classical Conditioning Theory
The classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with
an unconditioned stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an
impartial stimulus like the sound of a tuning fork, the unconditioned stimulus
(US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and the unconditioned
response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response
like salivation or sweating.
2. Operant Conditioning Theory
Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This
theory is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its
outcomes.
Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the
candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical
conditioning develops a relationship between a stimulus and a behavior. The
example can be further elaborated as the child may learn to salivate at the sight
of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent.
3. Social Learning Theory
The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −
 Learning is not exactly behavioral, instead it is a cognitive process that
takes place in a social context.

 Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the

outcomes of the behavior (known as vicarious reinforcement).

 Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those

observations, and making decisions regarding the performance of the
behavior (known as observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning
can occur beyond an observable change in behavior.
  Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely
responsible for learning.

 The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding,

environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other.

4. Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation,
understanding about himself and environment.
This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a
problem or situation based upon known facts and responding in an objective and
more oriented manner. It perceives that a person learns the meaning of various
objects and events and also learns the response depending upon the meaning
assigned to the stimuli.
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND ITS ORGANISATIONAL
APPLICATION
OB Mod in simple words can be defined as a technique for modifying the
modifying or behaviour of the organisational members so that they are engaged
in desirable undesirable behaviour and. replacing it with behaviour. It can be
used for motivating the employees as well as for enhancing organisational
effectiveness.
According to Stephen P. Robbins:

“OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance related

employee behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen
desirable behaviour and weaken undesirable behaviours.”

1. Identification:
identification of performance related behaviours. First of all the
behaviour should be identified as desirable or undesirable from the point
of view of the organisation. Then in the next stage, critical behaviours,
that have significant impact on the employees’ performance, should be
given due attention. The critical behaviours can be identified through
 discussions with the particular employee and his immediate superior as
both are closely intimated with the job behaviours.

Some of the critical behaviours which affect job performance are

absenteeism or attendance, tardiness or promptness, complaints or
constructive criticism, listening to or not listening to the instructions, etc.
If such behaviours are modified, good results could be expected. Due
attention should be given to the critical behaviour because they get
repeated again and again.

2. Measurement:
measure the frequency of the critical behaviour over time. The
measurement can be done by observation and by extraction of
information from records. If the frequency is within the acceptable limit,
it will require no action, but if it exceeds the acceptable limit,
it will need immediate attention. The measurement of behaviour will also
help the managers in determining the success in changing the employees’
behaviour.

3. Analysis:
At the next step, the managers will have to do a functional analysis of the
behaviour that requires modification. This analysis will determine what
circumstances lead to a particular type of behaviour, what are the
consequences of such behaviour etc. Contingent consequences of
behaviour should be identified because these consequences have impact
on subsequent behaviour. Moreover, some contingent consequences
appear to be affecting the critical behaviour on the surface only, the
functional analysis should try to find out the competing contingencies for
every behaviour also.

5. Intervention:
Once the critical behaviours have been identified and the circumstances
which cause such behaviours have been determined, the next step will be
to develop an effective intervention strategy. There are several strategies
that can be used at this stage. These include positive or negative
reinforcement, extinction or punishment.

The use of a particular strategy will depend upon the type of situation
faced. After developing and implementing a particular strategy, the
frequency of resulting behaviour is measured. If a behaviour change has
 occurred in the right direction, the manager will select a reinforcement
schedule that will maintain the desired behaviour.

5. Evaluation:
The last stage in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the intervention
strategies are working properly or not. The basic purpose of OB Mod is to
bring change in undesirable behaviours so as to improve performance.
Evaluation will reveal whether the undesirable behaviours have been
substituted by desirable behaviour or not. If there has been a change in
behaviour, whether it is permanent or just temporary.

Further, the evaluation will also show whether there is improvement in

the performance or not. If there is a positive change, it suggests that the
interventions are successful. However, if the change is not significant, it
may call for adoption of alternate and more appropriate strategies.

MOTIVATION
Motivation is goal-directed behavior. People are motivated when they expect
that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued
reward – one that satisfies their needs and wants.
‘It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action.’-
George R. Terry
Motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means, “to move”
Three components of motivation
1.Direction: what a person is trying to do.
2.Effort: how hard a person is trying.
3.Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying.
What is a Motivational Framework?
A motivational framework integrates vital constructs of motivation from many
disciplines. The central tenet of this conceptual framework is that, to support the
motivation of all learners, it is necessary to address essential knowledge and
skills within a culturally responsive, and intrinsically motivating, pedagogy
(Ginsberg, 2005, p. 219). In addition, the motivation framework demystifies the
role of culture in teaching and learning, without prescribing lists of learning
preferences and teaching approaches for entire student groups (Ginsberg, 2005).
Furthermore, the motivational framework is respectful of different cultures and
is capable of creating a common culture within a learning situation that all
students can accept it. It dynamically combines the essential motivation
conditions that are intrinsically motivating for diverse students (Wlodkowski,
1999).

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

A)Content theories try to figure “what” motivates people. Following are the
motivation theories in content theory perspective.

1.Maslow’s need Hierarchy

2.Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
3.McClelland’s Needs Theory
4.Alderfer’s ERG Theory

1.Maslow’s need Hierarchy

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a pyramid of the needs that motivate people.
Individuals most basic needs, at the base of the pyramid, are physiological.
Once they have fulfilled these needs, people move on to their safety needs,
social well-being, self-esteem then ultimately their need for self-actualization
Abraham Maslow’s theory is one of the earliest and most well know theories of
motivation. It’s often shown as a triangle, or pyramid. It fits into the content
school of motivation theories, meaning that it focuses primarily on what
motivates people, not the processes through which they are motivated.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says that all humans share the same types of
needs, and that these categories of needs have a hierarchy. Loosely speaking,
this hierarchy goes from the basic things we need for survival through to a sense
of fulfilling our potential and finding our purpose in life.

The hierarchy is important as, from a motivational perspective, it acts as a

ladder. What this means is that individuals must have fully met their needs at
their current level within the pyramid, before they are motivated by achieving
the needs of the next level up. Put more bluntly, an individual who is struggling
to to put a roof over their head will focus on that before exploring their true
calling in life.

Level 1: Physiological Needs

The most basic category of needs that humans have are physiological. These are
our survival needs, and the first things we need to achieve before we move on
towards more complex and aspirational needs in life. Our physiological needs
include our bodily requirements like sleep, food and water as well as the basics
of shelter and clothing. If we lack any of these needs, we need to fulfill them
before we can be motivated to pursue other needs
Level 2: Safety Needs
Safety First! Oh wait. Safety is second…
Once someone has achieved their physiological needs, they are motivated to
achieve their safety needs. Fundamentally these safety needs are about
removing risk from life and helping individuals maintain their physiological
needs into the future. Safety needs include physical and emotional security,
housing beyond the most basic of shelters, health and financial security
Level 3: Social Belonging
The third level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs introduces the need for social
belonging. The model says that once individuals have met their physiological
and safety needs, their next priority becomes the pursuit of social belonging.

Humans are fundamentally social beings and the need for social belonging is
strong in most people. Once humans have met their basic needs they start to
pursue things like family relationships, friendships, community relationships
and the sense of acceptance and belonging that many people find rewarding
Level 4: Self-esteem

Maslow’s model says that once humans have met their need for social
belonging and acceptance, that they start to focus on themselves and their self-
esteem.

These needs are all about satisfying the ego and being valued. Maslow divided
this need into two levels. At the lower level, individuals seek to achieve status,
respect and recognition from others. At the higher level, they seek these things
from themselves
Level 5: Self-Actualization
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says that once humans have satisfied their ego and
obtained self-esteem that their ultimate need is that of self-actualization. This
slightly clunky phrase simply means that humans want to feel that they are
fulfilling their potential and making the most of their abilities. In many ways
this is very similar to Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia, which loosely
translates as fulfilling your true nature.
2.Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation:
Herzberg’s two factor model says that basic factors like safety and salary need
to be met to prevent dissatisfaction at work, but that another set of higher order
motivating factors like autonomy and recognition are required to create actual
happiness at work.
  Hygiene factors
Hygiene factors in Herzberg’s model have the power to make people
dissatisfied and are prerequisites for satisfaction at work, but their presence
alone will never make people satisfied at work.
In other words, the absence of hygiene factors will prevent satisfaction, but the
presence of hygiene factors is not in itself enough to lead to high levels of work
satisfaction.
Examples of hygiene factors include: salary, safety, security, working
environment, working conditions and other things with the power to make an
individual unhappy in work
 Motivating factors
Motivating factors in Herzberg’s model have the power to make moderately
satisfied people highly satisfied, but have no impact on satisfaction if hygiene
factors aren’t already in place.

Examples of motivating factors include: achievement, recognition,

advancement, empowerment, responsibility and intrinsically interesting work
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation Theory
McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation Theory says that humans have three
types of emotional needs: achievement, power and affiliation. Individuals can
have any mix of these needs. Their motivations and behaviors are shaped by the
strength and blend of their specific needs
David McClelland’s motivation theory, which is more formally known as the
Expectancy Value Theory of Motivation, states that humans have a total of
three core types emotional needs, which they acquire as a result of their life
journeys. Given that this model focuses on needs, it is considered a content
theory of motivation. The needs the model considers are:
  Achievement (getting things done)
 Power (having influence over others)
 Affiliation (having good relationships)
McClelland says that these needs are scalar and everyone has a blend of them,
though usually one is dominant.
4. Motivation: A Simple Summary
Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
and states that humans have three core types of need: Existence, Relatedness
and Growth. These needs may be of different levels of priority for different
individuals, and their relative importance for an individual may vary over time.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be motivated
by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level which is most
important to them can change over time. In other words, an individual’s
priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move between the existence,
relatedness and growth levels of need over time. They can move upwards, and
they can move downwards
B)Process Models of Motivation
1.Reinforcement Theory In The World Of Work
Reinforcement theory says that the outcomes we experience as a result of our
actions and behaviors affect how we behave in the future. When actions result
in positive outcomes, we do more of them. When they result in negative
outcomes, we do less of them.
Reinforcement theory says that the way we respond to an individual’s actions
and behaviors has the ability to change their behaviors in the future. This
process is known as operant conditioning. You might also be interested in
checking out classical conditioning.
When individuals experience positive outcomes as a result of a behavior or
action, they are more likely to perform that action in the future. These positive
outcomes are known as “reinforcements”.
2. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Valence, Instrumentality and
Expectancy
Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation says that individuals are motivated to
do something by three things. They are motivated when they value the reward
associated with an action, trust that they’ll receive the reward if they do a good
job and believe that they have the ability to achieve their objectives by working
hard.
3. Adams’ Equity Theory of Motivation
Adams’ equity theory of motivation says that to be motivated, individuals need
to perceive that the rewards they receive for their contributions are fair, and
these rewards are similar to those received by their peers. If individuals perceive
that their rewards are not fair, they will feel distressed and try to change things
to create a sense of fairness.
4. Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory
Locke and Latham’s goal setting theory details five key principles that support
the creation of effective and motivating goals. These are: Clarity, Challenge,
Acceptance, Feedback and Complexity
Goal-setting is a hugely powerful tool and there are different types of goals.
Setting goals well can help organizations and leaders achieve their objectives.
Similarly, personal goals are motivating for individuals and help them achieve
their own goal
STRESS

Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or
psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires
attention or action.
Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress,
however, makes a big difference to your overall well-being.
Stress can be short-term or long-term. Both can lead to a variety of symptoms,
but chronic stress can take a serious toll on the body over time and have long-
lasting health effects.
Some common signs of stress include;
 Changes in mood
 Difficulty sleeping
 Digestive problems
 Feeling anxious
 Frequent sickness
 Grinding teeth
 Headaches
 Low energy
 Muscle tension, especially in the neck and shoulders
 Physical aches and pains
 Racing heartbeat
 Trembling
Types of Stress
Not all types of stress are harmful or even negative. Some of the different types
of stress that you might experience include:

1.Acute stress: Acute stress is a very short-term type of stress that can either be
positive or more distressing; this is the type of stress we most often encounter in
day-to-day life.
2.Chronic stress: Chronic stress is stress that seems never-ending and
inescapable, like the stress of a bad marriage or an extremely taxing job; chronic
stress can also stem from traumatic experiences and childhood trauma.
3.Episodic acute stress: Episodic acute stress is acute stress that seems to run
rampant and be a way of life, creating a life of ongoing distress.
4.Eustress: Eustress is fun and exciting. It's known as a positive type of stress
that can keep you energized. It's associated with surges of adrenaline, such as
when you are skiing or racing to meet a deadline.
Stress-Influenced Conditions
 Diabetes
 Hair loss
 Heart disease
 Hyperthyroidism
  Obesity
 Sexual dysfunction
 Tooth and gum disease
 Ulcers
MODELS OF STRESS.
1.Tiredness/mental fatigue
Stress can be understood at the simplest level as our minds not having enough
time to recuperate or heal following a period of activity. Just as after a very
busy day we want to chill out and do nothing physically, we need similar breaks
for our minds as well. Unfortunately our minds never rest. Even during periods
of rest and sleep the mind is constantly thinking and planning.
2. Relationship model
Relationships can cause stress in two totally opposite ways i.e. as a result of not
feeling connected or feeling isolated and as a result of being in an enmeshed
relationship.
3. Spiritual/religious model
In everyday life we tend to identify ourselves with the apparent systems that are
finite i.e. our body, mind, possessions, environment and people but at a deeper
level our existence is linked with and supported by the infinite cosmic forces
that support our life on this planet. Finding a meaningful connection with the
infinite is considered very important for our well being in most spiritual
traditions. Losing this connection can make us vulnerable to stress that can
result from the vicissitudes of life.
4.Genetic/biological model
For some individuals genetic and biological factors play a major role compared
to the environmental ones in producing stress. These factors modulate release of
certain chemicals such as serotonin and adrenaline which are involved in
producing anxiety and depression.
STRESS MITIGATION METHODS:
1. Breath focus. In this simple, powerful technique, you take long, slow,
deep breaths (also known as abdominal or belly breathing). As you
breathe, you gently disengage your mind from distracting thoughts and
sensations. Breath focus can be especially helpful for people with eating
disorders to help them focus on their bodies in a more positive way.
2. Mindfulness meditation. This practice involves sitting comfortably,
focusing on your breathing, and bringing your mind's attention to the
present moment without drifting into concerns about the past or the
future.
3. . Yoga, tai chi, and qigong. These three ancient arts combine rhythmic
breathing with a series of postures or flowing movements. The physical
aspects of these practices offer a mental focus that can help distract you
from racing thoughts
4. Repetitive prayer. For this technique, you silently repeat a short prayer
or phrase from a prayer while practicing breath focus. This method may
be especially appealing if religion or spirituality is meaningful to you
5. Running
6. Swimming
7. Dancing
8. Cycling
9. Balanced diet