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Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education
Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education
Synthesis Projects

5-8-2013

The Impact of Student Choice on Learner

Engagement in Physical Education
Michael Bray
The College at Brockport

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 1

The Impact of Student Choice on Learner Engagement in Physical Education

A Synthesis Project

Presented to the

Department of Kinesiology Sport Studies and Physical Education

The College at Brockport

State University of New York

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Education

(Physical Education)

by

Michael Bray

May 8, 2013
 2

THE COLLEGE AT BROCKPORT

STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK

BROCKPORT, NEW YORK

Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education

Title of Synthesis Project: The effect of student choices on learner engagement in

physical education.

Read and Approved by:

Francis M. Kozub, PhD

Date: May 6, 2013

Accepted by the Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education, The
College at Brockport, State University of New York, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree Master of Science in Education (Physical Education).

Date: __________________ ___________________________

Dr. Susan Petersen
Chairperson, Department of Kinesiology,
Sport Studies, and Physical Education
 3

Abstract

Physical activity levels decline with age and this begins in children as young as sixth grade and
continues into adulthood. Research has demonstrated that children ages 12-21 do not regularly
participate in vigorous physical activity and that there is a 50-75 percent decrease in physical
activity levels from kindergarten to 12th grade (Bryon & Solmon, 2012). Inactivity is attributed
to a decrease in motivation due to various factors, including boredom of repeated activities,
coeducational classes, and a lack of perceived competence. This synthesis comprised of 14
studies that examined how curriculums that offer choices can have an impact on self-
determination and student engagement. Choice in general has been found to increase self-
determination in persons of all ages (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and the findings from the critical mass
also supports more self-determined learners in physical education when choices are offered. It
was also found that students have a desire to choose activities that they enjoy and increase self-
competence. Students in general want to receive several opportunities to participate and feel
physically challenged. Students lose interest in large-sided games because team sizes are too
large. Gender appears to be a factor that influences findings and it appears that males may differ
from females in relation to activity preferences. Gender differences are something that physical
educators should consider when developing or revising their curriculum. Factors related to
choice were examined and then recommendations were provided for implementing choice into a
physical education curriculum.
 4

Table of Contents
Page #
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………....7

Background…………………………………………………………………………….7

Scope of the Synthesis.....................................................................................................12

Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………..13

Summary………………………………………………………………………………………….14

Methods………………………………………………………………………………………..15

Results………………………………………………………………………………………….16

Autonomy/Self-Determination………………………………………………………………….18

Physical Activity/Gender………………………………………………………………………..20

Coed versus Single-Gender……………………………………………………………………..23

Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………...25

Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….26

A Continuum of Choice…………………………………………………………………………..26

Physical Activity/Gender…………………………………………………………………………27

Choice/Self-Determination………………………………………………………………………29

Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………………30

Future Research…………………………………………………………………………………..32

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….....33

References………………………………………………………………………………………..34

Appendix – Coding Table from Critical Mass

 5

List of Figures and Tables

Page #
Figure 1 - The Self-Determination Continuum Model……………………………………………9

Table 1 - Summary of Results from Critical Mass……………………...……………………….16

Figure 2 - Choice Continuum Model……………………………………..……………………..27

 6

Acknowledgements
I would first and foremost like to thank my wife, Annie, for all of your encouragement

and support throughout my Graduate studies. Your patience has been greatly appreciated. You

have been invaluable to my success at SUNY Brockport.

I would also like to thank Dr. Francis Kozub for your support throughout my synthesis.

You have gone above and beyond as a professor. Your guidance and feedback has made this

synthesis possible.
 7

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Physical education teachers are responsible for delivering instruction that will help

contribute to a student’s quality of life and lifetime fitness. Physical Education is a learning

process that focuses on increasing knowledge and affecting attitudes and behaviors relative to

physical activities, including exercise, sports, games, dance, aquatic activities, and outdoor

adventure activities (Darst & Pangrazi, 2002). These physical activities need to be designed in a

thoughtful manner to ensure that students are engaged in their learning as much as possible.

Physical educators choose from a variety of curriculum models that they feel best suits their

students. This synthesis examined how choice within physical education class effects the

engagement and/or willingness to engage of students. Various aspects of choice were studied

throughout the literature review. The first is how choice can increase self-determination during

physical activity. The second is how choice within curriculum could increase participation and

effort in physical education. The third aspect of choice is how coeducational classes or single-

gender classes affect their level of effort in the physical education setting.

Background

In this background, several topics are explored. Specific activities were researched as

well as how students are self-determined in the physical education setting. Activity preferences

within curriculum of both secondary male and female students were also explored. Some of the

critical mass also examined how single-gender and coeducational classes can have an affect on

participation and opportunities to participate.

 8

Self-Determination

Physical education research has demonstrated that self-determined motivation is

positively correlated with active participation/engagement, learning, and mental, psychomotor,

and social experiences (Ward, Wilkinson, Graser, & Prusak, 2008). Deci and Ryan (2000)

suggest that autonomy is a students’ feeling of choice and/or control over their behavior. In

physical education, supporting autonomy is achieved when a student is provided and perceives a

level of control over a learning task. Furthermore, while the traditionally prescriptive nature of

education can be controlling, a student who perceives an activity as informational or meaningful

will be supported in their need for autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Self-determination in

physical education is about reshaping class environments to promote active lifestyles

independent of size, shape, or abilities.

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) proposes that as students move along the

motivation continuum from amotivation toward intrinsic motivation, there will be an increase in

cognition, positive behavior, and participation. According to this theory, the intrinsically

motivated student should be more likely to practice physically active behaviors in class, and

could possibly become more physically active on his or her own (Ward, Wilkinson, Graser, &

Prusak, 2008). The following is a model of self-determination that illustrates various levels of

motivation and the continuum of a non-determined to a self-determined learner.

 9

Figure 1. The Self-Determination Continuum. Adapted from Deci & Ryan, 2000. Self-

Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and

Well-Being. American Psychologist. 55(1),68-78.

 10

Educators need to understand more about age-related declines in self-efficacy for

physical activity, particularly in females by the end of primary school. In general, teachers would

not argue that discomfort with physicality is more likely to increase with age in females than

males. Within the limitations of trend analyses, fewer adolescent females than males have

positive experiences in physical education.

Curriculum

A physical education curriculum is a framework of student-centered physical activities

that promote physical activity and skill development (Darst & Pangrazi, 2002). Designing a

quality curriculum involves many steps including: developing a philosophy and framework,

considering environmental factors, determining content standards and student objectives,

selecting student-centered activities, organizing units, and evaluating and modifying curriculum.

Physical educators also have the decision to choose a curricular model that they feel will most

benefit their students.

Many curriculum models have been used for physical education, including the sport

education, fitness, and skill-development models. The sport education model is an activity-based

approach developed by Siedentop (Darst & Pangrazi, 2002). Its main objective to help students

become skilled sports participants and good sports people.

The fitness education model focuses on delivering physical fitness concepts to students.

Fitness education has been found to promote knowledge, improve attitudes about activity, and

alter lifestyle activity patterns later in life. The skill development model provides students with a

progressively arranged physical education curriculum. The model is built on educational theory
 11

and research and on environmental factors that influence learning environments (Darst &

Pangrazi, 2002). These are just a few of the well documented curricular models used in physical

education classes.

Another model that has been shown to be effective, especially in secondary settings, is

the elective model. Within this model, a choice concept can be utilized (Darst & Pangrazi, 2002).

Choices may involve the units that they take, activities that they participate in, or having a choice

in how they complete a task. Permitting choice within a curriculum can offer many advantages,

including increased student participation, enthusiasm, and motivation. These choices can give

students a sense of autonomy in their learning as well. Curriculum has been found to be the most

important consideration for both males and females in determining their attitude toward physical

education (Hill & Hannon, 2008).

Gender

Females are less active than males and there is a decline in females’ activity levels during

adolescence. Physical educators create a more positive environment for males than they do for

females. Less active females are bored with playing traditional sports and would prefer to have a

choice in the activities that they participate in (Ward et al., 2008).

In the context of gender issues, offering experiences in lifelong learning acknowledges

the diversity of interests and places for learning acceptable to males and females (Ward et al.,

2008). In Penny’s (2008) article, a student states “If I (was) a PE teacher, I would make the

females feel comfortable about what they were doing, about how good they are at their own

sports or activities. If they didn’t want to participate, I would find out why instead of saying, ‘go

sit down and fill out this sheet if you’re going to be lazy.’” (p.33). This statement from a female
 12

student is not isolated. Many females fear “looking stupid” in physical education or choose not to

participate in sports such as team handball, flag football, or basketball because of extreme

competitiveness. Males tend to shy away from activities such as yoga, gymnastics, and dance

because they feel these are feminine activities (Hill & Hannon, 2008). Many studies have been

performed to survey students about their likes and dislikes of activities in physical education.

This information can be beneficial for teachers to instill choice within their curriculum to further

engagement in their students’ learning.

Scope of the Synthesis

Curriculum design that entails choice has been shown to be an effective tool for

increasing student motivation and self-determination (Brooks & Young 2011). However, which

types of choices benefit students the most? By creating a critical mass and analyzing the

literature, this synthesis will help determine how student choice within physical education

curriculum affects their engagement in learning. Utilizing previous research will create a

synthesis to inform teachers on how to structure student choices within their curriculum. In this a

continuum of choice options will be developed and utilized to provide information on how to

incorporate choice into a curriculum and the potential benefits to learners.

Definitions

Autonomy-supportive environments. Ones in which significant others offer choice,

provide a meaningful rationale, minimize pressure, and acknowledge the target individual’s

feelings and perspectives (Ward, Wilkinson, Graser, & Pruzak, 2008).

Elective Curriculum. A curriculum that allows student choice in physical education.

Students can select between several units and activities (Darst & Pangrazi, 2002).
 13

Field Dependent. Individuals that rely upon external factors, such as environments and

authorities and are less autonomous in decision making (Liu & Chepyator-Thomson, 2009).

Field Independent. Individuals that rely upon internal factors, such as themselves and are

autonomous in their decision making (Liu & Chepyator-Thomson, 2009).

Motivation. The innate energy and driver of behavior (www.activate.edu, 2012).

Perceived Competence. An individual’s judgment about his or her ability in a particular

area (Weiss, 2000).

Self-Determination Theory. Self-Determination Theory is a theory of motivation and

personality that addresses three universal, innate and psychological needs: competence,

autonomy, and psychological relatedness. (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Summary

There are a variety of curriculum models that are used in physical education. They

provide a framework for what content is taught, the sequence it is delivered, and how to reach

learning standards and objectives. Within each model, there are many opportunities for teachers

to allow choice for their students. When students are given autonomy, they can become self-

determined learners. Through the review of this critical mass we will examine how choice is

utilized in physical education classes and how it effects student motivation and engagement in

the process.
 14

CHAPTER 2

METHODS

This section provides information on how the literature search was utilized for the

synthesis. This includes literature, keywords, and inclusion criteria for the articles that were

chosen. The data for this synthesis was obtained through literature searches from Drake

Memorial Library at The College at Brockport. The studies were derived primarily from Eric

(EBSCO) and SPORTDiscus.

Physical education was the first keyword used for the search. It produced 46,451 hits. To

narrow this down, curriculum and choice were added as keywords to produce 403 hits. With

many aspects of choice in physical education, multiple searches were used to receive a larger

scope for the critical mass. The keywords of the next searches were physical education, self-

determination, and choice. This search produced 10 hits. Self-determination theory provides a

theoretical framework to study student motivation. Deci and Ryan (2000) research article on self-

determination was used in the introduction for background information on what motivates

students in school. The third search used the keywords physical education, autonomy, and

engagement which resulted with nine hits. Physical education was used in all three searches

because the purpose of this synthesis is to examine student choice and engagement for secondary

students.

The inclusion criteria for this synthesis include 1) physical education, 2) choice

(curriculum, activities, and tasks), 3) secondary students, (middle school to college students) and

4) articles taken from 2000 to present.

 15

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS

Fourteen articles were chosen as the critical mass for review to complete this synthesis.

Based on the inclusion criteria mentioned in the methods, Results from the critical mass provided

details on the impact of student choice on engagement by children in physical education. The

purpose of this section is to provide results for the discussion that immediately follows. This

section will provide results that pertain to physical activity preferences of students as well as

their physical activity levels. The link of autonomy to self-determination will also be discussed.

Finally, results of single gender versus coeducational classes will be explained. Self-

determination, physical activity choice, and gender are the main topics within this synthesis. The

results from each area are represented in table 1.

TABLE 1

Summary of Results from Critical Mass (N = 14).

Study Physical Activity Choice Self-Determination Gender

Hill & Hannon, 2008 Basketball, Football, Bowling, B-Football, Basketball, Bowling,
Swimming, Archery Table Tennis, Hockey

G- Skating, Volleyball,
Gymnastics, Soccer, Yoga

Halvari, Ulstad , Bagoien, & PA ↑ when perceived competence As competence and S-D M/F students
Skjesol, 2009 is high for high and low motivation ↑, PA ↑ at a higher
autonomously motivated students rate for higher autonomous
students

Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011 74 % prefer fitness activities over Females reported wanting health
sport related activities promoting, fun, varied, non-
competitive lifetime activities
 16

(Table 1 Cont.)

Study Physical Activity Choice Self-Determination Gender

Bryan & Solmon, 2012 Perception of the PE climate is a Pedometer counts were higher in
stronger influence on students’ males than females due to “male-
attitudes than on their levels of dominated” activities in their PE
self-determination curriculum

Ward, Wilkinson, Graser, & PA levels remained same Autonomy supportive 7th/8th Female
Prusak, 2008 between 2 groups environments ↑ student S-D

Prusak, Treasure, Darst, & Providing choices significantly

Pangrazi, 2004 increased the situational
motivation and lessened the
contextual amotivation of the
participants

Liu & Chepyator-Thompson, FD ↓ PA levels than FI students Middle school students; males &
2009 females

Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011 Interests in PE based on Middle school students; males &
opportunities to participate and females
perceived competence

Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2007 Females ↑ PA in single gender ↑teacher verbal interactions in
classes single gender settings for females

Males ↑PA in coed classes

Gibbons & Humbert, 2008 Females reported perceived Middle school students; female
competence, choice and variety,
lifestyle activities, and gender
equity most important in PE

Gibbons, 2009 Females reported lifetime Senior high; Female

activities, involvement in
curriculum and gender as a
course design most important in
PE

Mouratidis, Sideridis, High autonomously motivated Both males & females reported
Vansteenkiste, & Lens, 2011 students benefited significantly more interest and enjoyment in a
more from need-supportive need-supportive environment vs.
environments control

Carroll & Loumidis, 2000 Children of high perceived

competence participated in
significantly more physical
activity (quantity and intensity)
outside school than those of low
perceived competence, but there
was no difference in enjoyment
levels and quantity of physical
activity
 17

Autonomy/Self-Determination

Environments that support autonomy were found to increase participants self-

determination (Halvari, Ulstad, Bagoien, & Skjesol, 2009; Mouratidus, Sideridis, Vansteenkiste,

& Lens, 2011; Prusak, Treasure, Darst, & Pangrazi, 2004; Ward et al., 2008). Ward et al. (2008)

performed a study comparing a choice to a no-choice group. Students participated in two, seven

day fitness units. Each student had an opportunity to be in choice and no-choice groups. Choice

groups got to choose what activity they would participate in each day and with what students

they would participate with. After the no-choice group received the choice treatment, students

became significantly more self-determined which suggests that adding choices may be a

powerful approach to foster motivation. Results also stated that once the choice group had their

autonomy revoked, their self-determined inventory score plummeted.

Situational Motivation Scale

As the critical mass in this synthesis developed, it was found that a portion of the studies

used the Situational Motivation Scale, or SIMS, to determine student motivation. The SIMS is a

16-item self-report inventory that assesses intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external

regulation, and amotivation (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000). Sample statements from the

SIMS are “Because I think this activity is interesting” (intrinsic motivation); “Because I think

this activity is good for me” (identified regulation); “Because I feel like I have to do it” (external

regulation); and “There may be good reasons to do this activity, but personally I don’t see any”

(amotivation) (Bryan & Solmon, 2012).

 18

Providing choice in physical education class fosters a sense of autonomy, one of the

critical components of self-determination. Bryan & Solmon (2012) provided surveys to assess

self-reported physical activity levels, attitude, and motivation. Perceptions of a learning-climate

and student attitudes decreased from sixth grade to eighth grade. It was recommended that

physical education teachers provide a range of choices within their classes to promote autonomy

and increase levels of self-determination of their students. Pruzak et al. (2004) performed a study

comparing a choice versus no-choice group walking unit. Students in the choice group got to

choose from three activities held simultaneously. They also got to choose the students in their

groups. No-choice groups followed a traditional walking unit directed by their teacher. It was

found that providing choices significantly increased the situational motivation and lessened the

contextual motivation of the participants. This suggests that when students are given choice and

autonomy in selecting learning activities, they are more apt to be motivated. These results

support a thoughtfully designed curriculum that allows choice while at the same time holding

students to a higher level of accountability (Pruzak et al., 2004).

Perceived Competence

When an activity is autonomously motivated, its functional significance is related to

perceived challenge and interest. However, feeling autonomous in doing an activity or task may

not be enough to be effective at increasing student levels of self-determination (Halvari et al.,

2009). According to Self-Determination Theory, students also need to perceive themselves as

being competent. Perceived competence is being able to manage your training in order to

perform. In other words, feeling that you are good at something provides a sense of perceived

competency. A high autonomy support is associated with the highest involvement for highly
 19

competent students. Conversely, among students with low competence, a high autonomy support

is associated with the lowest involvement (Halvari et al., 2009). This suggests that supporting

autonomy alone may not be important for all students. Students low in competence may feel

insecure and fear of failure if their physical education teacher tries to autonomously be involved

in activities that they do not have perceived competence in.

When determining factors that influenced individual interest in physical education, it was

found that perceived competence emerged as a main theme in multiple studies (Garn, Cothran, &

Jenkins, 2011; Halvari et al., 2009). The majority of students surveyed reported that being good

at a sport or activity dictated individual interest and they were unlikely to have interest toward an

activity in which they perceived themselves as low skilled. In Garn et al. (2011) “I’m not a big

fan of soccer because I am not very good at it and don’t have much experience. It’s discouraging

when you are not the best at something. I feel like there is no point in trying.” (p.231). The

results of this study suggest that perceived competence was highly important in the development

of individual interest in physical education, even for highly skilled students.

Physical Activity/Gender

Physical education is more likely to survive if it includes activities that students find

desirable since curriculum has been found to be the most important consideration for both males

and females in determining their attitude toward physical education (Hill & Hannon, 2008).

Gender also influences students’ choice of activities as shown in the following section.

Among the fourteen articles reviewed, five of the studies researched activity preferences

of secondary students taking physical education. Of these five studies, three of the studies found
 20

that secondary female students prefer lifestyle physical activities over traditional sport activities

(Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011; Gibbons & Humbert, 2008; Gibbons, 2009). Males prefer more

traditional activities such as basketball, football, bowling, swimming, and archery, while females

prefer non-contact/competitive activities such as ice skating, gymnastics, yoga, and walking.

There are several factors that may influence student selection of certain activities. These factors

include societal and environmental influences, gender, student age, student skill level (perceived

competence), and level of student physical activity outside of physical education (Hill &

Hannon, 2008).

Three studies found common themes for what interests females in physical education.

Findings included wanting fun, varied, non-competitive lifetime activities as well as having input

in designing the physical education curriculum (Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011; Gibbons &

Humbert, 2008; Gibbons, 2009). The results of Meaningful Participation of Females (2009)

stated that the major intent of physical education is to promote lifelong physical activity, so

student input seems essential to the design of the course.

Themes related to female physical activity preferences were formulated from student

questionnaires. One female student from Gibbons & Humbert (2008) stated, “Basketball,

volleyball, soccer, and stupid dodge ball, that’s all we do in PE…The teacher tells us what we

should be interested in doing, not what we really want to do.” (p.176). When comparing fitness

units to sports units, Wilkinson and Bretzing (2011) found that students prefer fitness. This is

because fitness is more accessible into adulthood, according to a majority of students. Fitness is

something that can be achieved on your own as compared to team sports where many

participants are needed.

 21

Two studies provided results for physical activity levels when choice is presented to the

students within their physical education class. Participant’s physical activity levels increased

when their perceived competence is high for high and low autonomously motivated students

(Halvari et al., 2009). Low autonomously motivated, or field dependent participants were found

to have lower physical activity levels than high autonomously, or field independent students. It

was also found that low autonomous students prefer lifetime activities, such as walking, whereas

there high autonomous counterparts prefer more traditional activities that relate to sports, such as

basketball or flag football (Liu & Chepyator-Thomson, 2009).

Physical activity levels significantly drop from sixth grade to eighth grade. Children ages

12-21 do not regularly participate in vigorous activity and their participation rate in physical

activity decreases by 50-75 percent from kindergarten to 12th grade (Bryon & Solmon, 2012).

Sixth graders also showed lower levels of amotivation than seventh and eighth graders (Bryon &

Solmon, 2012). Bryon & Solmon (2012) suggests that physical education teachers should

provide a range of choices within their classes in order to promote a sense of autonomy and

increase levels of self-determination in their classes.

Two studies used pedometers as an objective measure of physical activity during physical

education classes. Pedometers are a widely acceptable tool for measuring student levels of

physical activity (Graser, Pangrazi, & Vincent, 2009). Bryan and Solmon (2012) and Ward et al.

(2008) found no significant differences in step counts between choice and no-choice groups.

One explanation to this finding may be that when students are under the supervision of their

teacher, regardless of how motivated the students may be, step counts are likely to be very

similar (Ward et al., 2009). Both studies, however, did find significant differences in self-
 22

determination between groups. This suggests that while step counts were not significantly

increased, choice may increase the likelihood for students to develop positive lifetime physical

activity patterns because of its ability to increase motivation and self-determination.

Coed versus Single-Gender

The passage of Title IX in 1972 prohibited sexual discrimination in education. As a result

most secondary level public schools made the decision to shift from same-sex to coeducational

physical education classes. Hannon and Ratliffe (2007) performed a survey of 75 ninth-grade

female’s feelings toward coeducational physical education. Approximately one-third of the

participants said that they were discouraged by being in class with males. Almost one-fourth of

the participants said that they would feel more comfortable being in class with all females as

opposed to a coeducational setting. These statistics support the fact that coeducational classes

may not be appropriate for all units.

Previous research indicates that unpleasant experiences in physical education related to

lack of enjoyment, lack of opportunity, poor self-image, and lack of perceived competence has

been a factor negatively affecting physical activity participation (Carroll & Loumidis, 2001).

Wilkinson and Bretzing (2011) found that 74 percent of females preferred individual games and

83 percent of males preferred team games. The preference for individual activities among

females could be influenced by the lack of opportunity to participate in team sport activities

during coeducational physical education due to dominance and preference given to males.

Hannon and Ratliffe (2007) found that male students in the single gender setting had

significantly fewer touches per game of flag football and soccer versus males in the
 23

coeducational setting. Female students in the single gender setting had significantly more

touches per lesson during flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer versus females engaged in

coeducational game play (Hannon & Ratliffe, 2007). The increase of female students’

participation in the single gender setting may be due to the elimination of male dominance and

the creation of a non-threatening supportive environment. Results also revealed that physical

education teachers provide a higher rate of group verbal interaction to female students in single

gender settings.

Summary

A summary of findings from the critical mass can be found in Table 1. Environments that

support autonomy were found to increase participant’s self-determination. One key finding was

that students with a low perceived competence struggle to become more self-directed learners

compared to peers with a higher self-competence. Students need to feel successful in their skill

development and often will avoid physical activity all together to save themselves from

embarrassment. When students were provided opportunities for choice, they were found to be

more motivated to pursue physical activity because they were in charge of their learning. This

synthesis has confirmed the link between autonomy and self-determination. While physical

activity levels were not found to have a significant difference between choice and no choice

groups in two studies, a significant difference was found between males and females. Males were

found to be more active during physical education classes than females. Part of this could be due

to the activities that were chosen. The environment that students participate in can affect their

participation in physical education. Results also state that females may have more chances to

participate in PE when they are grouped with other females. A contrast in activity preferences
 24

were found between males and females. Providing single-gender and coeducational classes,

depending on the unit may be beneficial for all students.

 25

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION

Findings from the critical mass will be discussed concerning the effect that choice has on

student’s engagement in physical education. First, a model for understanding choice is provided

in figure 2. Then nature of choice will be discussed, including activity and gender choices. Next,

the link of choice to self-determination will be discussed. Finally, future recommendations are

provided to assist physical education teachers to understand the potential impact that student

choice can have on their physical education experience.

A Continuum of Choice

Physical educators need a model to assist in providing choice to students. Further,

curriculum design is aided by placing choice on a continuum and focusing on instilling

autonomy, and promotes lifelong physical activity among children. Figure 2 illustrates a choice

continuum and its relation to student autonomy and self-determination.

Physical Activity/Gender

The results from the critical mass indicate that students desire the opportunity to take ownership

in selecting physical activities for physical education. Males tend to enjoy more sport-related,

traditional physical activity such as flag football or basketball whereas female walking (Gibbons,

2009; Gibbons & Humbert, 2008; Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011). More often than not, team

sports are taught in PE. Since males prefer more team sports, teachers may prefer to do these

kinds of activities in order to cater to the male population of the class. Teacher students show a

preference for individual sports and lifelong activities such as gymnastics or centered
 26

environments can often further isolate students that feel intimidated by certain activities, such as

team sports that include competition.

Curriculum Design

No Choice Choice

Teacher Centered Instruction Student Centered

Traditional Non-traditional

Low Autonomy Environment High Autonomy

No Control Control of Learning

Impersonal Student Motivation Internal

Amotivational Self-determined

Figure 2. Choice Continuum Model

Hannon and Ratliffe (2007) reported that female students receive more opportunities to

participate in PE in single-gender settings as opposed to coeducational settings. Male students

were reported to have more opportunities in a coeducational setting versus a single-gender

setting. By eliminating male students that may dominate game play, female students gain more

opportunities to participate. Females may also feel more confident and self competent in single-

gender settings versus a coeducational setting (Hannon & Ratliffe, 2007). As previously

mentioned, perceived competence can negatively affect participation in physical education,

especially for females. If female students can receive more opportunities to participate in single-
 27

gender settings, they will be able to increase their perceived competence and feel more confident

when engaging in physical activity.

Student’s physical activity levels decrease dramatically from the transition of elementary

school into middle and high school (Bryon & Solmon, 2012). As suggested by figure 2, teacher-

centered styles of instruction and curriculum design provide little autonomy for students.

Students lose motivation when the same activities are offered year after year. Physical activity

choices provide students with options to become self-determined learners and engage in certain

physical activities because they want to, not because they are told to.

Graser et al. (2009) and Bryan and Solmon (2012) offered choice, such as activity choice

and choice of lesson presentation versus a teacher-centered class that offered no choices.

Physical activity level differences were not found to be significant in both studies. Step counts of

students were tracked using pedometers. This poses an interesting debate on whether or not using

pedometers is an accurate and valid measure of physical activity within a physical education

class. According to the pedometer counts, males were found to be significantly more active than

females. Again, this may be attributed to the nature of classes that were provided in the studies.

Flag football and capture the flag were two of the activities used in the students and are more

“male dominated” in nature. It would be interesting to see what the results may have been if a

balance of team sports and lifelong activities were offered.

Choice/Self-Determination

Students who perceive that they are in a task-oriented learning environment are more

likely to have a positive outlook on physical activity. Autonomy supported environments can
 28

lead to increased self-directed learning. Results show that choices in physical education have a

strong effect on student motivation. When choice is presented in a thoughtful manner to students,

they feel that they are in control over their learning, as opposed to a more teacher-centered

approach. Environments that support autonomy have been found to increase self-determination

in students (Halvari et al., 2009; Mauratidis et al., 2011; Pruzak et al., 2004; Ward et al., 2008).

While environments that support autonomy have been shown to increase self-

determination, it may not be enough for all students, especially secondary female students.

Perceived competence seems to play a critical role in student participation and self-determination

as mentioned by Deci and Ryan (2000). Students may not feel physically competent because

they lack the fundamental skills needed to participate in a variety of physical activities. Gibbons

and Humbert (2008) found that female’s value perceived competence as very important in their

ability to perform in physical education. Students do not want to feel isolated or embarrassed in

physical education, especially in front of their peers. This suggests the importance of the physical

educators’ role in providing an environment that fosters skill-development to ensure students feel

competent in their physical abilities.

Participants in Halvari et al. (2009) were found to have an increase in physical activity

levels for both high and low autonomously motivated students. However, student levels physical

activity increased even more for students with high perceived competence (Halvari et al., 2009).

This further illustrates the importance of perceived competence within the secondary physical

education setting. While choice provides autonomy for students, they still need to feel that they

can adequately perform their skills in physical education.

 29

Recommendations

Based on the synthesis of this information, providing choice within a physical education

curriculum has a positive effect on student’s self-determination. As self-determined learners,

students will have an internal motivation to be physically active in PE as well as outside of the

school setting. There are many reasons why students choose to participate in PE. For some, it is

an internal or intrinsic motivation for physical activity. For others, it is more of an impersonal or

external motivation, such as needing to pass PE in order to graduate. The physical educator’s

primary goal should be to provide a supportive and safe physical education environment that

promotes autonomy. In doing so, students will learn what activities they enjoy the most and

might continue to pursue into adulthood.

Each PE class is different from the next. Many factors can affect how or if choice is

presented in a PE curriculum. These include facility space, equipment, class size, number of

physical education teachers, and makeup of the class. Several curriculum models were listed

during the introduction of this synthesis. Regardless of which model is used, choices of units,

activities, and gender grouping are just some of the ways to give ownership. The following

recommendations can help provide an autonomy supportive environment:

1. Physical educators should provide surveys to students to gain information on their activity

interests, preference of gender makeup, and class structure.

2. PE Teachers should provide a wide range of activities, including lifelong activities, to keep all

students engaged.
 30

3. Teachers can allow students to choose levels of intensity while participating by grouping

students according to desired level of participation.

4. PE teachers need to work together when planning their curriculum to plan for facility usage

and assign teachers to their most proficient content area.

Not all schools can have an elective program or have choice for every lesson. Some

physical education programs do not have the facilities to support multiple activities at once.

However, with some thoughtful planning and creativity, choice can be successfully included.

Student surveys can be used to get feedback on students. The following can be included: activity

preference, gender preference (single-gender versus coed), learning style, as well as feedback on

how they are motivated in physical education. Based on survey results, physical educators can

group students into sections. These sections could vary from unit to unit or continue throughout

the school year. This is an excellent way to provide autonomy for very diverse settings.

Including a unit where students create their own activities and teaching it to the class is another

way to provide autonomy for students. Students who feel that they are in control of their learning

are more self-determined than students in teacher-centered environments (Gibbons, 2009).

Future Research
The current critical mass has investigated a variety of topics including self-determination,

gender grouping, and activity preferences of secondary students. One finding that seems to be

consistent throughout research is that giving choice to students gives them a sense of autonomy

in their learning. However, results have not shown a significant difference in physical activity

levels between choice and no choice groups. Future research needs to look at physical activity

patterns of secondary males and females during traditional and choice units. Pedometers were
 31

used in some studies motoring step counts, which only tracks the amount of movement. Heart

rate monitors could be used to monitor intensity of exercise. Time on task could also be used to

see if students are able to tolerate certain activities more when they are in control of which

activities they choose.

Conclusion

Autonomy can encourage students to become more self-determined learners. Self-

determination in physical education is about reshaping class environments to promote active

lifestyles independent of size, shape, or abilities (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This link is critical

because of the decline in physical activity as students enter high school and into adulthood. The

goal of quality physical education programs should be to provide a safe environment for students

and to allow students to take ownership of their health and physical activity. A self-determined

PE student participates in physical activity because he/she wants to, not because they need credit

or to avoid negative attention from a teacher. Choice has been shown to have a positive effect on

student’s motivation and increases self-determination.

 32

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 36

APPENDIX

Coding Table From Critical Mass

 37

APPENDIX

CODING TABLE FROM CRITICAL MASS

Study Statement Subjects Measures Findings Results/Effect

An Analysis of Middle To determine which 881 students Demographic survey Females preferred non- Incorporating more student
School Students Physical physical education contact activities (skating, choice may keep students
Education Physical activities middle school 7-9 grade students gymnastics, yoga) more fully engaged in
Activity Preferences students would like to lessons
have included in the 491 males Males preferred competitive
yearly curriculum activities (Football, hockey, Ensure that curriculum is
389 females team handball) not gender biased
Hill & Hannon, 2008
1 unidentified

Autonomy Support and its To test a self- 190 adult students, Sport Climate Students’ perceived To increase physical activity
Links to Physical Activity determination model in volunteers Questionnaire, Self- competence increases at a in our young population,
and Competitive relation to involvement Regulation higher rate with high autonomy supportive
in physical activity and
Performance Questionnaire, autonomy support contexts seem to play an
competitive performance
among students Perceived Competence important role
Scale, Huhls Action
Control Scale
Halvari, Ulstad &
Bagoien, 2009

High School Females’ To answer (1) Which do 88 high school Questionnaire and 74% preferred fitness units High school physical
Perceptions of Selected females prefer, fitness females field notes education teachers need to
Fitness Activities units or sports units and 18% preferred sports units include fitness activities as
(2) what are the reasons options in their high school
for the females’ unit 8% preferred a combination curriculum which can
preferences of both fitness and sports increase females
Wilkinson & Bretzing, units engagement in physical
2011 education class
Females found fitness
activities easier to learn and
prefer the non-competitive
lifetime activities

Are Choice-Making To understand student 419 college students; Multidimensional Students feel more self- To maximize student
Opportunities Needed in motivation, learner 17-46 years old Situational Motivation directed in their learning motivation, educators need
the Classroom? empowerment, and how Scale, measured on a when the class is student- to be consistent in the
freedom in the college 295 female 7-point likert scale driven (voluntary attendance choice-making opportunities
classroom shapes and assignment choices) or that they offer their students
students’ enthusiasm for 122 male teacher-driven (mandatory
Brooks & Young, 2011 learning attendance and no assignment Students prefer
choices) and not a mix predictability in
expectations
 38

Study Statement Subjects Measures Findings Results/Effect

Student Motivation in To investigate student 114 students; 6-8 27-item Questionnaire, Perception of the PE climate Physical educators need to
Physical Education and motivation in PE by grade Situational Motivation is a stronger influence on offer activities that are
Engagement in Physical examining relationships Scale, and The students’ attitudes than on appealing to both genders or
Activity among perceptions of 57 male Physical Activity their levels of self- provide a choice of activities
the motivational climate, Questionnaire for determination to increase the likelihood of
attitudes, levels of self- 57 female Children active engagement in
determination, and the Pedometer counts were higher physical education classes
Bryan & Solmon, 2012 engagement of physical in males than females due to
activity “male-dominated” activities
in their PE curriculum

Effects of Choice on To examine the effects 122 students Pedometer, Situational Autonomy has a positive More research should be
Student Motivation and of increased autonomy Intrinsic Motivation correlation with self- done to measure physical
Physical Activity Behavior on self-determination 7th & 8th grade Scale, and the Sport determination activity levels on students
in Physical Education and physical activity females Motivation Scale that have choose their
levels Physical activity levels did physical activity over
Ward, Wilkinson, Graser, not increase due to choice in students that do not have
& Prusak, 2008 activities choice

The effects of Choice on To examine the 1,110 students Sport Motivation Scale Providing choices The challenge is to
the Motivation of motivational responses and a modified significantly increased the determine how much choice
Adolescent Females in of adolescent females in 7th & 8th grade Situational Motivation situational motivation and students should be offered:
Physical Education the P.E. setting to females Scale lessened the contextual ranging from total choice to
having choices of amotivation of the choice within a choice
walking activities participants

Prusak, Treasure, Darst, &

Pangrazi 2004

Field-Dependence- To investigate and 138 middle school The Rod-and-Frame FI participants tended to FD students demonstrated
Independence and Physical compare physical students Test, Physical Activity choose activities that were much lower physical activity
Activity Engagement activity levels as well as Checklist, and a more related to sports levels and were less engaged
Among Middle School organized sports 72 females, 66 males Demographic Survey (basketball, weightlifting, in organized sports than the
Students participation between football) and FD students top FI students
field-independent (FI) activities had less association
and field-dependent with sports (walking) Lifestyle physical activity
(FD) middle school and other non-competitive
Liu & Chepyator- students activities might be good
Thompson, 2009 choices for FD students to
enhance their physical
activity levels
 39

Study Statement Subjects Measures Findings Results/Effect

Garn, Cothran, & Jenkins, To examine how 8 middle school Formal/informal Opportunities to participate Small sided games can
2011 students view the students interviews and perceived competence create more opportunities
relationship between were the main factors to and will allow for more skill
individual interest and 4 male Field note observations developing individual interest development to increase
learning in PE perceived competence
4 female Survey data

Opportunities to To compare high school 67 high school A modified version of Female students in single- Some units may provide
Participate and Teacher aged females and males students the Observational gender physical education more opportunities for males
Interactions in Coed opportunities to Recording Record of settings may receive more and females to be engaged
versus Single-Gender participate and interact 32 male Physical Educator’s opportunities to participate as in activity if single-gender
Physical Education with teachers during flag Teaching Behavior and well as receive more teacher
Settings football, soccer, and 35 female recording sheets interaction Teacher can provide choices
ultimate Frisbee game of coed or single-gender
play in a coed and classes to provide students
single-gender setting with more opportunities to
Hannon & Ratcliffe, 2007 participate and engage in
physical activity

What are Middle-School To identify physical 90 females Focus group 4 themes were found: For female students to have
Females Looking for in activity preferences and interviews positive experiences in PE,
Physical Education? patterns of middle- 6/7 grade 1) Variety and choice for a they must have a safe
school females and One-on-one interviews lifetime environment and valued by
Gibbons & Humbert, 2008 identify barriers toward both the teacher and
participation in PE Written questionnaires 2) Perceived competence students and allowed to
participate in meaningful
3) A healthy body is a physical activities
moving body

4) Emerging sense of gender

equity

Meaningful Participation To examine course 22 school districts in Document analysis 6 themes emerged: Incorporating student input
of Females in Senior materials and gather British Columbia seems essential to the design
Physical Education information from Individual interviews 1) Focus on lifetime activities of a successful PE course
Courses teachers and students
from senior elective PE Written Questionnaires 2) Value-added options Focus on lifetime physical
Gibbons, 2009 courses activities was the most
3)Student involvement in common theme found
course development

4) Gender as a course design

feature

5) Authentic assessment

6) Positive and respectful

class environment
 40

Study Statement Subjects Measures Findings Results/Effect

On the assessment of To develop and validate Multiple studies Situation measures – Students who, in general, Results of the studies
situational intrinsic and a situational (or Perceived competence perform their provided preliminary
extrinsic motivation: The state) measure of school activities out of choice support for some of the
motivation, the Academic Motivation and pleasure will also show a psychometric
Situational Motivation
Situational Motivation tendency to perform properties of the SIMS
Scale (SIMS) Scale
Scale (SIMS) a situational school activity
with these same motivational
Guay, Vallerand, & processes
Blanchard, 2000

Carroll & Loumidis, 2000 To examine the 922 sixth grade Questionnaires Moderate positive and Children of high perceived
relationship of students significant relationships competence participated in
children’s perceived between enjoyment in PE and significantly more physical
competence in physical perceived competence in PE activity (quantity and
education to their for the whole sample intensity) outside school
enjoyment in the than those of low perceived
subject, and how males competence, but there was
and females scoring no difference in enjoyment
high and low in levels and quantity of
enjoyment and physical activity
perceived competence
differed in their levels
of physical activity