cement is a complex mixture of dicalcium silicate (C2S)

tricalcium silicate (C3S) tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetra

calcium aluminoferrite(C4AF) used in civil construction activities.

It is a powdery substance made with calcined lime (Calcarious

material) basically provides calcium oxide and clay (argillaceous
material) provides silica, alumina, and iron oxide as major
ingredients.

In cement manufacturing, raw materials of cement are obtained

by blasting rock from quarries or by boring the rock and setting off
explosives. These fragmented rocks are then transported to the
plant and stored separately in silos. They are then delivered,
separately, through conveyor belts to crushers where they are
then crushed or pounded to chunks of ∼1/2 inch–sized particles.
Depending on the type of cement being produced, required
proportions of the crushed clay, lime stones, and any other
required materials are then mixed by a process known as pre-
homogenization and milled in a vertical steel mill by grinding the
material with the pressure exerted through three conical rollers
that roll over a turning milling table.
The rotary kiln

General layout of a rotary kiln

The rotary kiln consists of a tube made from steel plate, and lined
with firebrick. The tube slopes slightly (1–4°) and slowly rotates on
its axis at between 30 and 250 revolutions per hour. Raw-mix is
fed in at the upper end, and the rotation of the kiln causes it
gradually to move downhill to the other end of the kiln. At the
other end fuel, in the form of gas, oil, or pulverized solid fuel, is
blown in through the "burner pipe", producing a large concentric
flame in the lower part of the kiln tube. As material moves under
the flame, it reaches its peak temperature, before dropping out of
the kiln tube into the cooler. Air is drawn first through the cooler
and then through the kiln for combustion of the fuel. In the cooler
the air is heated by the cooling clinker, so that it may be 400 to
800 °C before it enters the kiln, thus causing intense and rapid
combustion of the fuel.
A typical process of manufacture consists of three stages:

 Grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or shale to make a

fine "raw--mix"
 Heating the raw-mix to sintering temperature (up to 1450 °C) in
a cement kiln;
 Grinding the resulting clinker to make cement
Dry process of cement manufacturing is the process where the
raw materials are not washed by water , and dried raw materials
are grinded to make powder and then heated up to make cement.
But in the wet process of cement manufacturing, The raw
Materials are washed and then ground and mixed with limestone ,
then heated up in the cement kiln.
In dry process low energy is consumed and the cost is also low in
this process. Final outcome is also of low quality product.
Generally this process is not used.

In wet process energy consumed is high and high cost is involved

because of drying. product of high quality is obtained. Mostly all
the cement manufacturing companies use this method.
 Difference between dry and wet process in table form:-

Dry process Wet process

1. Mixing of Raw materials in

1. Mixing of raw material in dry
wash mill with 35 to 50%
state in blenders.
water.
2. Materials exiting the mill
2. The dry materials exiting the
are called “slurry” and have
mill are called “kiln feed”.
flowability characteristics.
3. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 3. Fuel consumption is high
100 kg of coal per tonne of i.e., 350 kg of coal per tonne
cement produced of cement produced
4. Cost of production is less. 4. Cost of production is high
5. Capital cost (Cost of
5. Capital cost is high due to
establishment) is
blenders.
comparatively less
6. Size of the kiln needed for 6. Size of the kiln needed for
manufacturing of cement is manufacturing of cement is
smaller. bigger.
7. Difficult to control mixing of 7. Raw material can be
Raw materials, so it is difficult to mixed easily, so a better
obtain a better homogeneous homogeneous material can
material. be obtained
Approximate composition of the cement clinker

Compound Formula Notation wt.%

Celite (tricalcium Ca3Al2O6 C3A 10
aluminate) [3CaO·Al2O3]
Brownmillerite Ca4Al2Fe2O1th C4AF 8
(tetracalcium [4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3]
aluminoferrite)
Belite (dicalcium Ca2SiO4 C2S 20
silicate) [2CaO·SiO2]
Alite (tricalcium Ca3SiO5 C3S 55
silicate) [3CaO·SiO2]
Sodium oxide Na2O N
Potassium oxide K2O K ≤2
Gypsum (calcium CaSO4·2H2O CSH2 5
sulphate dihydrate) [CaO·SO3·2H2O]
Additionally, horizontal mills inside which the material is
pulverized by means of steel balls are also used. It is then
homogenized again and calcined, at 1400°C, in rotary kilns for the
raw material to be transformed to a clinker, which is a small, dark
grey nodule 3-4 cm in diameter. the clinker is discharged from the
lower end of the kiln while it is red-hot, cooled by various steps,
ground and mixed with small amounts of gypsum and limestone,
and very finely ground to produce cement. In the calcination
process, in the kiln, at high temperatures, the above oxides react
forming more complex compounds. For instance, reaction
between CaCO3, Al3(SiO3)2, and Fe2O3 would give a complex
mixture of alite, (CaO)3SiO2; belite, (CaO)2SiO2; tricalcium
aluminate, Ca3(Al2O3); and ferrite phase tetracalcium
aluminoferrite, Ca4Al2O3Fe2O3 with the evolution of CO2 gas in
the Portland cement clinker. However, there can be many other
minor components also since natural clay also contains Na, K,
and so on. In the chemical analysis of cement, its elemental
composition is analyzed (e.g., Ca, Si, Al, Mg, Fe, Na, K, and S).
then, the composition is calculated in terms of their oxides and is
generally expressed as wt.% of oxides.

For simplicity, if we assume that the clinker contains the above

four main oxides, they can be simply represented by the Bogue
formulae where CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and SiO2 are denoted as C,
A, F, and S, respectively. In this notation, alite (tricalcium silicate)
[(CaO)3SiO2], belite (dicalcium silicate) [(CaO)2SiO2], celite
(tricalcium aluminate) [Ca3Al2O6 = 3CaO·Al2O3], and brown
millerite (tetracalcium aluminoferrite) [Ca4Al2Fe2O3=
4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3] are represented by C3S, C2S, C3A, and
C3AF, respectively. If we analyze the elemental composition of
Ca, Al, Fe, and Si, usually from X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy,
then we express them as wt.% of their respective oxides. For
example, if the experimentally determined clinker composition is
CaO is 65.6%, SiO2 is 21.5%, Al2O3 is 5.2%, and Fe2O3 is
2.8%, then Bogue calculations would give C3S is 64.7%, C2S is
12.9%, C3A is 9.0%, and C4AF is 8.5%, respectively. However,
cement contains water (H2O), sulphate (SO3), sodium oxide
(Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), which
are denoted as H, S, N, K, and CSH2, respectively. Note that
gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate) is considered as
CaO·SO3·2H2O and hence its notation is CSH2. As such,
approximate composition of the cement clinker is different from
the above values and is depicted in Table 1.

There are several different types of cements of which

 Portland cement

 Siliceous (ASTM C618 Class F) Fly Ash

 Calcareous (ASTM C618 Class C) Fly Ash

 slag cement

 silica fume are the major types.

They differ from their chemical composition. Table 2 gives the

compositions of the above cement types in terms of SiO2,
Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, and SO3, and the remaining can be
 other materials such as Na2O and K2O. Note that SO3 stands
for oxide of S, where S is derived from gypsum CaSO4·2H2O).

Composition of components as wt.% used to make different types

of cements.

Component Portland Siliceous Calcareous Slag Fume

cement fly ash cement cement silica

SiO2 21.9 52.0 35. 0 35. 0 85–97

Al2O3 6.9 23.0 18.0 12.0 00
Fe2O3 3.9 11.th 6.th 1.th 00
CaO 63.th 5.th 21.th 4th. 00
MgO 2.5 00 00 00 00
SO3 1.7 00 00 00 00
SSA (m2 0.37 0.42 0.42 Blaine 0.4th 15–30B
·g−1 ) Blaine Blaine Blaine ET
SG 3.15 2.38 2.65 2.94 2.22
SSA is specific surface area; SG is specific gravity

Given in Table 2 are also important physical properties such as

specific surface area (surface area per unit mass, SSA) and
specific gravity (SG) of these different types of cements. General
use of the Portland cement, Siliceous (ASTM C618 Class F) Fly
Ash, Calcareous (ASTM C618 Class C) Fly Ash, slag cement,
and silica fume in concrete is as primary binder and property
enhancer, respectively.
Types of Portland Cements Their Composition and Uses
There are over ten different types of cements that are used in
construction purposes, and they differ by their composition and
are manufactured for different uses.

These are

 Rapid hardening cement (RHC)

 Quick-setting cement (QSC)

 Low heat cement (LHC)

 Sulphate-resisting cement (SRC)

 Blast furnace slag cement (BFSC)

 High-alumina cement (HAC)

 White cement (WC)

 Coloured cement (CC)

 Pozzolanic cement (PzC)

 Air-entraining cement (AEC)

 Hydrophobic cement (HpC).

RHC (rapid hardening cement): Has increased the lime content
compared to the Portland cement (PC). Purpose of having high
lime content is to attain high strength in early days. It is used in
concrete when formwork is to be removed early. Since hardening
of cement is due to the formation of CaCO3 by absorbing
atmospheric CO2 by CaO, increased CaO results in increased
CaCO3 formation even at the early stage to result in rapid
hardening.

QSC(quick-setting cement) is produced by adding a small

percentage of aluminium sulphate as an accelerator and reducing
the amount of gypsum used with fine grinding. this cement is used
when the work is to be completed very quickly as in static and
running waters.

LHC(low heat cement) has reduced the amount of C3A, which is

used to produce massive concrete constructions like gravity
dams. LHC has compressive strength to heat of the hydration
ratio of at least 7 at the age of 13 weeks. The usual wt. ratio of
CaO to SiO2 is between 0.8 and 1.5, but Al2O3 wt.% is less than
10%. This is prepared by grinding the CaO, SiO2, and Al2O3
materials, melting the mixture, quenching the melt, and grinding
the quenched matter to have mainly amorphous material of the
above composition. Alumina is a hydratable material and reduced
alumina gives reduced hydration to produce less heat of
hydration. This is important in the construction of large structures
to avoid possible thermal cracking during concrete setting.
Sulphate attack on concrete is a chemical breakdown
mechanism, where sulphate reacts with C3A and/or Ca(OH)2
components of the hardened cement forming ettringite, which is
hexacalcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate [(CaO)6(Al2O3) (SO3)
32H2O = C6ASH32]. Sulphate ions can react with C3A and/or
Ca(OH)2 in hardened concrete in the presence of water forming
gypsum. These newly formed ettringite and gypsum crystals
occupy empty spaces of concrete, and as they grow, they tend to
damage the paste by cracking. The most important parameters
determining the sulphate attack are C3A, C3S/C2A ratio, and
C4AF. It has been reported that the addition of pozzolonic
admixtures such as fly ash reduces the C3A content of cement
when sulphate is present in water and soil used; in places like
canal linings, culverts, retaining walls, and siphons, it is important
to use SRC(Sulphate resisting cement).

SRC(Sulphate resisting cement): SRC Is prepared by

maintaining C3A content below 6%.

BFSC(blast furnace slag cement) : It is prepared by grinding the

clinkers with ∼60% slag. BFSC resembles properties of the
Portland cement and is used for works in which economic
considerations are predominant.

HAC is obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and

grinding the mixture with the clinker. Since it contains high
alumina content, it is rapid-hardening cement with initial and final
setting times of about 3.5 h and 5 h, respectively .

HAC (high-alumina cement)is used in works where concrete is

subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic conditions.

WC (white cement) : WC is prepared from raw materials free

from iron oxides. Keeping Fe2O3 below 0.5% is desirable to
make WC (white cement), and as such, kaolin and sand are
used instead of other clays in making WC. Oxides of other
transition metals such as Cr, Mn, Cu, V, and Ti the colouring
effect takes the order Cr2O3 > Mn2O3 > Fe2O3 > V2O3 >CuO >
Ti2O3. As such, the amounts of these transition metal ions,
particularly Cr3+, Mn3+, and Fe3+, should be minimized to form
white cement. Usually, Cr2O3, Mn2O3, and Fe2O3 are kept
below 0.003%, 0.03%, and 0.35%, respectively, in the clinker.
Cheap quarried raw materials usually contain Cr, Mn, and Fe. For
example, lime stones and clays usually contain 0.3–1%
Fe2O3and 5–15% Al2O3.
Usually the sand is ground separately using ceramic grinding
media to avoid chromium contamination. The abrasiveness of
sand particles with size less than 45 micrometer also ensures less
wearing of chrome-steel grinding mill used to grind raw materials,
which would otherwise contaminate the mixture with Fe and Cr.
WC is costly and hence used in aesthetic applications such as
precast curtain wall and facing panels and terrazzo surface.

Coloured cement (CC) Contrary to WC, CC is prepared by

deliberately adding mineral pigments to cement. CCs are widely
used in decorative works on floors. Iron oxides are used to get
red, yellow, and black base colours, and several mixed colours
such as brown-sterracotta-tuscany-sepia-beach. Standard green
and blue pigments are chrome oxide and cobalt aluminium oxide,
respectively. TiO2 is the usual white pigment.

PzC (pozzolani cement) is prepared by grinding the pozzolanic

clinker with the Portland cement. It is used in marine structures,
sewage works, and for laying concrete under water such as in
bridges, piers, and dams.

Air-entraining cement (AEC) is produced by adding air-

entraining agents that are surfactants such as alkali salts of wood
resins, synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate type,
calcium lingo-sulphate derived from the sulphite process in paper
making, and calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in
the treatment of animal hides, animal and vegetable fats, oil and
their acids, wetting agents, aluminium powder, and hydrogen
peroxide, during the grinding of the clinker. They are added in
0.025–0.1% in either solid or liquid form. At the time of mixing,
AEC produces tough, tiny, discrete noncoalescing air bubbles of
10–500 µm in diameter in the body of the concrete. These
bubbles can compress to some extent, and hence, they can
absorb stress created by freezing.

HpC (hydrophobic cement) is prepared by adding water-

repellent chemicals. They are prepared particularly for use in
high-rainfall regions to prevent water absorption during storage.
Particles of HpC are coated with non-polar substances, usually by
adsorbing oleic acid, stearic acid, and so on, to cement particles.
When adsorbed, these surfactant molecules self-assemble by
coordinating with surface cations through their carboxylic acid
groups thereby allowing the nonpolar hydrocarbon chain to
extend from the particles. When a water drop falls on them, they
are stuck on hydrocarbon chains and stay as spherical particles
as does by the lotus leaf. the cement particles are then not
wetted, and water drops roll off when slightly slanted. these
hydrophobic coatings prevent the attacks by chloride and
sulphate ions, and hence, they resist to deterioration of concretes
by these ions.

Pollution : Cement is produced by utilizing an extensive amount of

raw materials treated and reacted at extreme conditions such as
high temperatures. 0e high-temperature processes are called
pyroprocessing processes where raw materials are heated at high
temperatures for solid-state reactions to take place, which utilize
fuel sources such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas, tires, hazardous
wastes, petroleum coke, and basically anything combustible [32].
Some cement manufacturing plants utilize the organic waste
generated in other industries such as rubber processing
industries. As such, cement industry contributes to a significant
extent of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, which is in the
range of 5–7% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions
[33]. In the clinker burning process, in order to produce 1 tonne of
clinkers, 1.52 tonnes of raw materials are used on average. 0e
balance of 0.52 tonne of raw materials is converted mainly to
carbon dioxide by the processes such as CaCO3 → CaO + CO2.
0is is a serious global environmental problem since increase in
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has direct consequences on
global warming. In addition to CO2, other key polluting
substances emitted to air by the cement industry include dust,
other carbon oxides such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxides (NOxs), sulphur oxides (SOxs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-
dioxins, dibenzofurans, total organic carbon, metals, hydrogen
chloride, and hydrogen fluoride, which are serious health-
hazardous substances and some are hilariously odorous [34].
However, the type and amount of air pollution caused by the
cement industry depend on various parameters, such as inputs
(the raw materials and fuels used) and the type of process used in
the industry. As for water pollution, the contribution from cement
industry may be insignificant through the storage and handling of
fuels that may contribute to soil and groundwater contaminations
[35]. In order to reduce the amount of raw materials, particularly in
the manufacturing of specialized cement types as described
above, supplementary cementitious materials such as coal fly
ash, slag, and natural pozzolans such as rice husk ash and
volcanic ashes are used. 0is will not only reduce the waste
materials generated for landfilling but also the cost of cement
production [36]. However, cement is an essential material for
human survival nowadays. As such, there is no alternative, but
the production of cement is mandatory. At the same time,
controlling pollution created by cement industry is also very
important. In the next section, we discuss ways and means of
controlling pollution resulting from cement industries. 4. Pollution
Control in Cement Manufacturing 0e air pollution occurs in the
excavation activities, dumps, tips, conveyer belts, crushing mills,
and kilns of cement industry. Minimizing air pollution is a
mandatory legislative requirement, which also contributes to
minimizing wastage and survival of the industry [37]. Dust
particles emitted at sites other than kilns can be captured using a
hood or other partial enclosure and transported through a series
of ducts to the collectors. 0e dust collected can be fed to the kiln
provided that it is not too alkaline not exceeding 0.6% as per the
Na2O (N) content. However, if the alkalinity is higher than this
value, then the dust must be either discarded or pretreated before
feeding to the kiln. Flexible pulse jet filters, electrostatic
precipitators, wet scrubbers, and baghouse method can be used
to collect dust from flue gas [38]. 0e US Environmental Protection
Agency has reviewed the available and emerging technologies for
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from Portland cement
industry. 0e primary greenhouse gas emitted in the cement
industry is carbon