ATOMIC STRUCTURE & THE PERIODIC TABLE

1. An Atom is the smallest particle of an element that still behave like the chemical properties of element. Element
discusses thing from the point of view of substances. Atom discusses thing from the point of view of size. Atom is
indivisible particle of an element. Atom are the particles which take part in chemical reaction. The size of an atom is
extremely small, approximately 10-12 cm in diameter. Be visible only by using electron microscope.

2. Model atom Dalton :

I. All elements are made up of small particles called atoms that cannot be divided into anything smaller.
II. There are only limited number of different kinds of atoms.
III. Atoms of the same element are exactly the same. Atoms of different elements have different sizes and masses.
IV. Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds.

Ilustrasi dari model atom Dalton :

3. Model atom baru yang menggantikan model atom Dalton:

 The atom has a small center or nucleus. The nucleus consist of protons and neutrons.
 Almost all the mass of an atom is contained in its nucleus. This is because of the electrons have a very tiny
mass as compared to the protons and neutrons.
 Most of the atom is made up of empty space.
 Surrounding the nucleus is a ‘cloud’ of electrons. The electrons move at nearly the speed of light.
 In normal atoms, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Therefore the atom is electrically
neutral.

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 4. Atomic Structure

Hydrogen, H Helium, He Lithium, Li

Structure

Number 1 2 3
of
protons
Number 1 2 3
of
electrons
Number 0 2 4
of
neutrons
Overall neutral neutral neutral
charge

5. Proton number (atomic number) is the number of protons in an atom.

Nucleon number (mass number) is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Nomor atom = jumlah proton = jumlah elekron

Nomor massa = jumlah proton + jumlah neutron

Nomor massa tidak sama dengan massa atom

Atomic number  ( b )
Relative atomic mass  ( a )
Atomic symbol or Element symbol (X)

1 sma ( satuan massa atom) / amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.6 x 10 -24 gram
1 atom hydrogen  1 sma
1 atom besi  56 sma
Massa electron = 1/1840 sma

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 Example :

Proton number = 17 (centre of the atom)

Electron number = 17 (shells around the nucleon)
Neutron number = 35 – 17 = 18 (centre of the atom)

6. Isotopes :
- Isotopes of the same elements have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers.
- Isotopes of the same elements have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties such as
density, rate of diffusion, melting and boiling points.

Example :

Hydrogen has three isotopes, with nucleon number 1, 2 and 3. They all contain the same number of protons and
electrons, but different number of neutrons.

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 Protium Deuterium Tritium
Symbol

Structure

1 1 1
Number of protons
1 1 1
Number of electrons
0 1 2
Number of neutrons

Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties and form compounds with the same formula.
However, there are small differences in their physical properties. For example, the three hydrogen isotopes shown in
the table have slightly different masses. Protium has the smallest mass and tritium has the greatest mass.

Another example :

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 Carbon dating is a technique for determining the age of things made from plant or animal material. The tissue of all

living things contain the element carbon. Carbon has three isotopes : Carbon-12 ( ) which is the main isotopes

(the most carbon atom is Carbon-12), Carbon-13 ( ) and Carbon-14 ( ). The proportion of these isotopes in
living things is constant.

However, once an organism dies, the proportion changes. This is because atoms of Carbon-14, which is an unstable
isotope, slowly decay (break up) and are not replaced as they are in living things. Therefore, the amount of Carbon-14
gradually decrease. By finding out how much Carbon-14 there is in an object, scientists can determine how long ago a
piece of once-living material existed. The less Carbon-14, the older the material is.

Isotopes that decay are said to be radioactive. Most isotopes are non radioactive.
Isotopes decay is the process by which the nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting radiation.
Example of medical uses of isotopes : Treatment of cancer and sterilising medical equipment.
Example of industrial uses of isotopes : Detect leaks in pipes and X ray welds.

7. Electron arrangement in an atom

How are electrons arranged in an atom? The question above was answered in 1913 by the Denish scientist, Niels Bohr.
Bohr suggested that :
 The electrons in an atom are arranged in orbits around the nucleus of the atom.
 The orbits are also called shells.
 Each shell is numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, going outwards from the nucleus.
 Each shell can hold a certain maximum number of electrons.

Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic
or molecular orbitals.

The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a specific energy level can be found using the following formula:

Electron Capacity = 2n2

The variable n represents the Principal Quantum Number, the number of the energy level in question.

Energy Level
Shell Letter Electron Capacity
(Principal Quantum Number)
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72

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 Electron arrangement for elements
Note : Electron arrangement for element with proton number 1 to 20, the third shell holds a maximum of 8 electrons

Figure below shows the electron arrangements in three atoms. The way the electrons are arranged in an atom is called the
electron structure.

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Even O, P and Q shell can hold more than 32 electrons, it shells is never fully filled.

Example of some electron configuration of elements:

Atomic Name of K L M N O P
number element
1 H 1
2 He 2
3 Li 2 1
9 F 2 7
10 Ne 2 8
11 Na 2 8 1
12 Mg 2 8 2
18 Ar 2 8 8
19 K 2 8 8 1
20 Ca 2 8 8 2
31 Ga 2 8 18 3
36 Kr 2 8 18 8
37 Rb 2 8 18 8 1
49 In 2 8 18 18 3
56 Ba 2 8 18 18 8 1

Tips :

 Fill all the shell, then count the remaining electrons

 If the remaining electrons less then 32, then the next shell is fill with 18 electrons
 If the remaining electrons less then 18, then the next shell is fill with 8 electrons
 If the remaining electrons less then 8, then the next shell is outer shell

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 Example :

State the electron configuration of Cesium (Cs) with atomic number 55

K, L, and M shells can be fill : K = 2; L = 8; M = 18. ( 2.8.18………..)

Sum of electrons that have been distributed is 2 + 8 + 18 = 28.
Remaining electrons = 55 - 28 = 27.
Because remaining electrons is less then 32, then the N shell will be fill with 18 electrons.
(2.8.18.18………)
Now, the remaining electrons = 27 - 18 = 9 electrons.
Because remaining electrons is less then 18, then the O shell will be fill with 8 electrons.
(2.8.18.18.8……)
After that, the remaining one electron will fill P shell as the outer shell. (2.8.18.18.8.1)
So, the electron configuration of Cesium is : 2.8.18.18.8.1

8. The shell which is farthest from the nucleus is called the outer shell. It is also called the valence shell. The electrons in this
shell are known as the outer electrons (or valence electrons). These electrons form chemical bonds between atoms and are the
important electrons involved in a chemical reaction.

Example : H = 1 1 electron valensi = 1

C=6 2.4 electron valensi = 4

Al = 13  2 . 8 . 3 electron valensi = 3

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9. There are three main ways of forming chemical bonds between atoms:

I. Ionic bonding which result when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming positive and negative ions
Ion is atom that has give away or lose electrons.
 Positive charge ion (cation)
If an atom gives away electrons, then it has more proton than electrons
 Negative charge ion (anion)
If an atom takes in electrons, then it has more electrons than proton

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 II. Covalent bonding which result when atoms are joined together by sharing electrons, forming molecules.
III. Metallic bonding which is found only in metals.

10. Ionic bonding

Metal + Non-metal

The Stability of the Noble Gas Structure (group 0, Indonesia: group 8)

Scientists believe that the electronic structures of noble gas atoms, such as helium, neon or argon, are very stable. Atoms of
other elements do not have these stable electronic structure. However, these atoms become stable if they obtain the same
electronic structure of a noble gas. One way they get this is by forming ions. Ionic bonding is the force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions in a compound.

Forming Ions

In an atom, the number of protons is the same as the number of electrons. The atom is electrically neutral. If electrons are
added to or taken away from an atom, the atom is no longer electrically neutral. It becomes a charged particle. The charged
particle is an ion.

Formation of positive ions

Metal atoms have few outer shell electrons. To form ions, they lose electrons from their outer shells. This allows the atoms to
obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas. Metal atoms form positive ions because they lose electrons. Here are two
examples.

Sodium ions

The formation of a sodium ion

In a sodium atom, there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. In a sodium ion, there are 11 protons and 10 electrons. Therefore, the
sodium ion carries an overall positive charge of 1+ and is written as Na +.

Subatomic particle in a sodium atom and a sodium ion

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Magnesium ions

The formation of a magnesium ion

In a magnesium atom, there are 12 protons and 12 electrons. In a magnesium ion, there are 12 protons and 10 electrons.
Therefore, the magnesium ion carries positive charge of 2+ and is written as Mg 2+..

Subatomic particles in a magnesium atom and a magnesium ion

Formation of negative ions

Non-metals have more outer shell electrons than metals. To form ions, the atom of a non-metal gains electrons to obtain the
electronic structure of a noble gas. Non-metal atoms form negative ions because they gain electrons. Here are two examples.

Chloride ions

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 The formation of a chloride ion

In a chlorine atom, there are 17 protons and 17 electrons. In a chloride ion, there are 17 ptotons and 18 electrons. Therefore,
the chloride ion carries an overall negative charge of 1- and is written as Cl -.

Subatomic particle in a chlorine atom and a chlorine ion

Oxide ions

The formation of an oxide ion

In an oxygen atom, there are 8 protons and 8 electrons. In a oxide ion, there are 8 protons and 10 electrons. Therefore, the
oxide ion carries an overall negative charge of 2- and is written as O 2-.

Subatomic particles in an oxygen atom and an oxide ion

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Formation of ionic bonds

We saw that atoms can lose or gain electrons to form ions. All ions have the electronic structure of a noble gas.

Atoms of metals lose electrons to form positive ions. Atoms of non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions.

Ionic compounds are made up of ions. For example, sodium chloride consist of sodium ions and chloride ions. A strong
electrostatic force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions holds them together. This force of attraction is called an
ionic bond.

An ionic bond is the force of attraction between oppositely charged ions in a compound.

Example :

Ionic bonding in sodium chloride, NaCl

Sodium chloride forms when hot sodium reacts with chlorine gas. In the reaction, there is a transfer electrons from a sodium
atom to a chlorine atom.

Ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Ionic bonding in magnesium fluoride, MgF2

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Magnesium fluoride is also an ionic compound. Figure below shows how it is formed.

Ionic bonding in magnesium fluoride

Formulae and names of ionic compound

Ion = metal + non-metal

Rules for naming monoatomic ion :

1. Naming the positive ion

 Aluminum - Al+3  Copper (II) - Cu+2  Potassium - K+

 Barium - Ba+2  Iron (II) - Fe+2  Silver - Ag+
 Bismuth - Bi3+  Iron (III) - Fe+3  Sodium - Na+
 Cadmium - Cd2+  Lead (II) - Pb+2  Strontium - Sr+2
 Calcium - Ca+2  Lead (IV) - Pb+4  Tin (II) - Sn+2
 Cesium - Cs+  Lithium - Li+1  Tin (IV) - Sn+4
 Cobalt - Co+2  Magnesium - Mg+2  Zinc - Zn+2
 Copper (I) - Cu+1  Nickel - Ni+2

2. Naming the negative ion, add suffix -ide

 Bromide - Br-1
 Chloride - Cl-1
 Fluoride - F-1
 Iodide - I-1
 Nitride - N-3
 Oxide - O-2

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 Sulfide - S-2

3. Some metals form more than one kind of simple ion. To name each ion, Roman numerals indicating the number of charges
are placed after the name of the metal, e.g. iron forms iron(II) ions, Fe 2+, and iron(III) ions, Fe3+. If a metal forms only one ion,
Roman numerals are not needed.

To work out the formula of an ionic compound, the positive and negative charges in the compound must balance. For sodium
chloride, each Na+ must have one Cl- so that the numbers of positive and negative numbers are equal. Sodium chloride has the
formula Na+Cl-. This is written simply as NaCl.

Notes on naming ionic compounds

The metal ion or ammonium ion is always written first in the name of the compound and in the formula. For example,
magnesium chloride is MgCl2 and not Cl2Mg.

Example :

What is the formula of aluminium oxide?

Aluminium oxide consist of Al3+ and O2- ions.

The charge are balance if two Al3+ ions combine with three O2- ions.
o Two Al3+ ions: 2 x (3+) = 6+
o Three O2- ions: 3 x (2-) = 6-

Therefore, the formula of aluminium oxide is Al 2O3.

Other example :
K+ + Cl- --> KCl (Kalium chloride)
Ca2+ + 2Cl- --> NaCl2 (Natrium chloride)
Al3+ + 3Br- --> AlBr3 (Aluminium bromide)
NaCl : Natrium chloride

11. Covalen bonding

Instead of forming bonds by the transfer of electrons, some atoms form bonds by sharing electrons. The bonds formed are
called covalent bonds. In forming covalent bonds, each atom attains the electronic structure of a noble gas. A covalent bond is
bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons.

Covalen bonds are formed between atoms of non-metals. The bonds can be formed between atoms of the same elements(e.g.
In the molecule H2 and the Cl2) or between atoms of different elements (e.g. in the molecules CH 4 and H2O).

Thus, covalent bonds occur in substances consisting of molecules. Compounds, such as water and carbon dioxide, which contain
covalent bonds, are called covalent-compounds.

Covalent Bonds in Elements

Example :

Hydrogen molecule, H2
A hydrogen atom has one electron which is in the first shell. It needs one more electron to fill up that shell in order to obtain the
stable electronic configuration of the noble gas helium. When two hydrogen atoms join together to form a H 2 molecule, they
share two electrons. A covalent bond is formed between the two hydrogen atoms.

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 Covalent bonding in a hydrogen molecule

Chlorine molecule, Cl2

A chlorine atom has the electronic configuration 2.8.7. The atom needs one more electron to obtain the stable electronic
structure of the noble gas argon. To get this stable structure, two chlorine atoms share one electron each from their outer shells.
A chlorine molecule is formed.

Covalent bonding in a chlorine molecule (only the outer shells are shown)

Oxygen molecule, O2
All oxygen atom has the electronic configuration 2.6. To obtain a stable electronic structure, each oxygen atom shares two outer
shell electrons. Each oxygen atom now has eight outer shell electrons, that is, a full outer shell of electrons as in neon. When
two pair of electrons are shared, a double covalent bond is formed.

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 Covalent bonding in an oxygen molecule (only the outer shells are shown)

Nitrogen molecule, N2
A nitrogen atom has the electronic configuration 2.5. To obtain a stable electronic structure, each nitrogen atom shares three
outer electrons. When three pairs of electrons are shared, a triple covalent bond is formed.

Covalent bonding in a nitrogen molecule (only the outer shells are shown)

Covalent Bonds in Compounds

Example:

Methane molecule, CH4

The electronic configuration of carbon is 2.4. It needs four more electrons in its outer shell to be like the noble gas, neon. To do
this, one carbon atom shares four electrons with the single electrons from four hydrogen atoms. The methane molecule has four
C-H single bonds.

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 Covalent bonding in a methane molecule (only the outer shells are shown)

Water molecule, H2O

One oxygen atom joins with two hydrogen atoms. In the water molecules formed, each of the atoms achieved a stable electronic
configuration.

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Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2
Figure below shows how electrons are shared in a molecule of carbon dioxide. The molecule has two C = O double bonds.

Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are electrons in the outer shell which are used to form bonds between atoms.
Valency is the number of electrons an atom uses to form bonds between atoms.

Example :
Hydrogen uses its only electron to form bonds, so it has a valency of 1. Oxygen uses two electrons to form bonds (e.g. in H 2O and
O2), so it has a valency of 2. Carbon uses all of its four outer electrons to form bonds (e.g. in CH 4 and CO2), so it has a valency of
4.

12. Metallic Bonding

A metallic bond is the attractive force between positively charged ions and negatively charged free or mobile
(delocalized) electrons. In a metal, the atoms are packed tightly together in a regular pattern. In the metal, each atom
gives up its outer shell electrons to become positive ion. Each positive ion is attracted to the “sea of electron”. Metals
consist of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea of electrons’. This attractive force holds the ion and electrons in
the metal together.

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Ex: Cu 29  2 8 18 1_______ Outer shell electron

Al 13  2 8 3___________ Outer shell electrons

Layers can slipe over each other so produces a new shape and new bonds ( malleability )

Alloy is a mixture of metallic elements (metal + metal). Some alloys also contain non – metallic elements. Primary
constituent is a metal ( base or matrix ).

Example : Bronze  90% copper + 10% tin

Brass  70% copper + 30 % tin
Solder  50% tin + 50% lead

Many pure metals are too soft and weak. Layers of atoms can slide over each other very easily. In alloy of two metals,
the atoms have different sizes ( disrupts the orderly layers of atoms, makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over ).

13.

Physical properties Metals Non-metals

Melting and boiling points High Low
(except the alkali metal – Group 1 elements) (except carbon)
Physical state Solid at room temperature Either gases, volatile liquids or solids
(except mercuty  liquid) with low melting point at room
temperature
Electric conductivity Good conductor Poor conductor
(except graphite)
Thermal conductivity Good conductor Poor conductor
(except diamond and graphite)
Malleability Malleable Nor malleable, brittle (do not
(can be hammered into different shape change shape but break) if solid
without breaking)
except graphite
Ductility Ductile Not ductile
(can be drawn into wires)
Other property High densities Low density
(except Group 1) (except macromolecular structure)
Sonorous (ring when struck) Not sororous
Shiny Dull surface

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 Chemical properties Metals Non-Metals
Electron distribution and bonding 1, 2 or 3 valency electrons 4, 5, 6 or 7 valency electrons to
These are lost to form cations form anions or share electron pairs
Type of compound Form ionic compounds with non- Form covalent compounds with
metals other non-metals
Class of oxide Metal oxides are usually basic; a few Non-metal oxides are usually acidic;
are amphoteric a few are neutral
Reaction with acids Many react with dilute acids to give Do not react with acids to give a salt
a salt and hydrogen and hydrogen

Property Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Elements in compound Metal + Non Metal Two or more Non Metal
Type of particle Only ions Simple molecules
Volatility High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
(melting and boiling points) because ions are held together by because intermolecular forces are
strong forces weak
Solubility Most are soluble in water but Most are insoluble in water but
insoluble in organic solvent soluble in organic solvent
Electrical conductivity Conduct when molten or dissolved In general do not conduct as solid,
in water because the ions are free liquids or in solution, cause only
to move molecules
(do not conduct as solids, cause the ions can (a few react with water and form ions so can
not move) conduct in aqueous solution  HCl)

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15. Lewis Diagram and Structure

 Lewis structure are diagrams that conveniently show this sharing electrons.
 In the Lewis representation the outer electrons (valence electrons) are shown as dots arranged around the atomic
symbol.
 The octet rule states that the noble gas configuration will be achieved if the Lewis structure show eight electrons
around each atom.
 Hydrogen is an exception; its ”octet” is two electrons (duplet), corresponding to the two outer electrons in the noble
gas helium.

What is a Lewis Diagram?

Lewis diagrams, also called electron-dot diagrams, are used to represent paired and unpaired valence (outer shell) electrons in
an atom. For example, the Lewis diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and carbon are

where the symbol represents the element (in this case, hydrogen, helium, and carbon) and the dots represent the electrons in
the outer shell (in this case, one, two, and four). These diagrams are based on the electron structures learned in the Atomic
Structure and Periodic Table chapters.

What is a Lewis Structure?

The Lewis structure is used to represent the covalent bonding of a molecule or ion. Covalent bonds are a type of chemical
bonding formed by the sharing of electrons in the valence shells of the atoms. Covalent bonds are stronger than the electrostatic
interactions of ionic bonds, but keep in mind that we are not considering ionic compounds as we go through this chapter. Most
bonding is not purely covalent, but is polar covalent (unequal sharing) based on electronegativity differences.

The atoms in a Lewis structure tend to share electrons so that each atom has eight electrons (the octet rule). The octet rule
states that an atom in a molecule will be stable when there are eight electrons in its outer shell (with the exception of hydrogen,
in which the outer shell is satisfied with two electrons). Lewis structures display the electrons of the outer shells because these
are the ones that participate in making chemical bonds.

How to Build a Lewis Structure?

For simple molecules, the most effective way to get the correct Lewis structure is to write the Lewis diagrams for all the atoms
involved in the bonding and adding up the total number of valence electrons that are available for bonding. For example, oxygen
has 6 electrons in the outer shell, which are the pattern of two lone pairs and two singles. If the electrons are not placed
correctly, one could think that oxygen has three lone pairs (which would not leave any unshared electrons to form chemical
bonds). After adding the four unshared electrons around element symbol, form electron pairs using the remaining two outer
shell electrons.

        
   
Incorrect Structure             Correct Structure
are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The Lewis structure of each of these atoms would be as follows:

One good example is the water molecule. Water has the chemical formula of H 2O, which means there

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We can now see that we have eight valence electrons (six from oxygen and one from each hydrogen). With few exceptions,
hydrogen atoms are always placed on the outside of the molecule, and in this case the central atom would be oxygen. Each of
the two unpaired electrons of the oxygen atom will form a bond with one of the unpaired electrons of the hydrogen atoms. The
bonds formed by the shared electron pairs can be represented by either two closely places dots between two element symbols
or more commonly by a straight line between element symbols:

             

Example: Write the Lewis structure for methane (CH4).

Answer: Hydrogen atoms are always placed on the outside of the molecule, so carbon should be the central atom.

After counting the valence electrons, we have a total of 8 [4 from carbon + 4(1 from each hydrogen] = 8.

Each hydrogen atom will be bonded to the carbon atom, using two electrons. The four bonds represent the eight valence
electrons with all octets satisfied, so your structure is complete.

Example: Write the Lewis structure for carbon dioxide (CO 2).
Answer: Carbon is the lesser electronegative atom and should be the central atom.

After counting the valence electrons, we have a total of 16 [4 from carbon + 2(6 from each oxygen)] = 16.

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Each oxygen atom has two unshared electrons that can be used to form a bond with two unshared electrons of the carbon
atom, forming a double bond between the two atoms. The remaining eight electrons will be place on the oxygen atoms, with
two lone pairs on each.

There is another type of molecule or polyatomic ion in which there is an electron deficiency of one or more electrons needed to
satisfy the octets of all the atoms. In these cases, the more electronegative atoms are assigned as many electrons to complete
those octets first and then the deficiency is assigned to the central atom.

Example: Draw the Lewis structure for boron trifluoride, BF 3.

Answer: The electronegativity of fluorine is greater than that of boron—so the boron atom is placed in the center of the
molecule.

The total number of electron is 24 [3(7 from each fluorine) + 3 from boron] = 24. Using a single bond between the boron and
each of the fluorine atoms and filling the remaining electron as lone pairs around the fluorine atoms to satisfy the octets
accounts for all 24 electrons.

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The boron atom is two electrons shy of its octet. You may ask about the formation of a double bond (and even resonance). But,
fluorine and boron are not in the list that can form double bonds (C, N, O, P, S) and so the compound is electron poor.

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