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CHAPTER 2

SMALL POULTRY
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
PROCESSING PLANTS
1 GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Planning

The reasons for planning a small scale poultry processing plant in the tropics usually
come about as a
consequence of a desire to make improvements on an existing
system. The first stage of planning
therefore, is to collect information regarding the
exact nature of the project in terms of numbers of
slaughterstock to be processed,
management system required, costs of materials, services and
labour, attitudes of the
local population, markets to be served, type of product to be prepared,
methods of
waste disposal, availability of building materials, equipment and spare parts,
specialised
labour requirements, indeed everything required to complete a feasibility
study. The feasibility study is
usually conducted by technical and financial
personnel. The expertise may be available locally but if
not, can be commissioned
internationally.

Economics

The economics of establishment and operation of the venture are usually among the
first
considerations when designing poultry plant. Small scale plants set up to the
highest standards may
not be financially viable operations. If this is so, some
attempts should be made to quantify the social,
hygiene and environmental benefits
of the project to make an economic case for its establishment.

The following is a summary of the more important capital and operating costs of a
poultry processing
plant which should be taken into account when consideration is
given to such a project:

Capital costs:

Land

Buildings

Plant and equipment

Installation

Contingencies

Working capital

Operating costs:

Personnel

Maintenance and spares

Water and sewage

Electricity

Fuel oil

Short life operating equipment (2–3 years)

Packaging materials

Insurance
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Sundries (stationery, detergents etc)

The size and equipment to be used in the factory will depend not only on the scale
of operation to be
undertaken but also on the degree of productivity and nature of
the end product. Consider the two
examples which are given for operations of
similar scale:

a. labour - intensive production of a wide range of products

b. high technology production of a narrow range of products.

Although the capital costs in the first example may be lower than those in the second
(due to lower
technology of the equipment), the recurrent costs, particularly those of
labour) may be higher. Also,
the buildings may need to be proportionally bigger to
accommodate staff.

Because more people are employed, the first example has a requirement for a higher
training input of
production line workers than the second but the second has a
greater requirement for highly skilled
engineers to keep the factory working.

Because of the increased use of human resources, the first example introduces the
possibility of
greater variations and inconsistencies of product than the second,
especially with respect to
wholesomeness of the end product, its appearance and shelf
life. The high technology example
should produce material of consistent commercial
quality. However, the need for maintenance and
hygiene of the equipment
introduces the need for maintenance and cleaning schedules of particular
detail to
ensure that complicated machinery is made ready for the next day's production.

Management

The exact management system which is to be operated must be established early in a

building
project as this will have a bearing on its design and the equipment to be
installed. It should be clear
from the outset if the project is to operate within the
system established for the Public Service, along
the lines of a commercial abattoir
(whether in the Public Service or not), or if it is to be wholly private.
The system of
management of staff must be considered from the outset. The system of labour to be
employed must be determined eg employed staff (time, piece, bonus rated etc)
contracted staff, as a
public facility etc or a mixture of systems.

To assist with the design of the facilities, management information should include:

The number of birds to be slaughtered, their type and weight and over what
time period

The availability of slaughterstock and its seasonality

The ownership of the birds at each stage eg will the abattoir buy the birds
from producers, will it
slaughter for producers or wholesalers, will it sell the
birds to wholesalers or through its own
outlets. These factors influence the
carcase identification systems and office requirements

The nature of the product to be prepared (New York Dressed, whole hot
poultry carcases,
whole chilled carcases, whole frozen carcases, chilled or
frozen joints etc)

What parts of the carcase are considered as edible and inedible. eg chicken
feet, unused in
many parts of the world are considered a delicacy in others.
This will assist with by - products
and effluent plant design

The slaughter system to be considered appropriate eg will the birds move

along and overhead
railway system to the processing machines or will the staff
carry the birds to the machines

The level of technology to be employed

All the above factors will influence the technology and economics of the systems
finally employed.

Location of Plant

In an ideal situation, poultry should be produced in feed production areas, usually to

be found in rural
districts. The poultry should be slaughtered nearby and preserved
so that the product, when it is of
highest value and lowest weight is carried to the
market. In this way, transport costs and bird mortality
are kept to a minimum and
economical use can be made of slaughter by - products in agricultural
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production. In
practice this is not always possible eg where birds are produced in small numbers
under an extensive system (not necessarily in the rural areas); the market requires
fresh, unchilled
meat; transport, with its refrigeration, is unreliable. For many
reasons, poultry may need to be
slaughtered nearer to the market.

The site for a poultry processing plant should be chosen with care. Primarily,
consideration should be
given to the provision of services. Adequate water,
electricity, gas, oil and telephone should be to
hand. Labour to manage, operate and
maintain the plant is also essential. These staff need not
necessarily be drawn from
an existing labour pool of experienced slaughter staff since training in
production
methods must be given on modern equipment. Maintenance staff will need access to
tools, materials and spare parts. The site should have good vehicle access, for road
communications
and, if appropriate, rail and river connection. Access by emergency
services should also be
considered.

The space requirements of the poultry processing plant is important. Ample areas
should be available
for parking, turning, waste disposal systems, and ancillary
buildings and functions is required. As a
general rule, the buildings should occupy
about 20% of the total ground area. An eye should be given
to future expansion of
the building and its facilities.

The best sites are those situated on a gentle slope which, if this is not to be a
completely rural site,
should be to the lee of any built - up areas. Care must be taken
if the poultry processing plant is to be
built on an industrial “estate”. Contamination
of the poultry may occur from the odours, fumes, smoke,
steam or particulate matter
eg flour millings, sawdust etc from other manufacturing processes as
could
contamination by the poultry of other industrial processes eg dairy or confectionery
industries.
Proximity to other abattoirs or meat processing factories is best avoided.
However, the potential for
sharing the poultry and other meat processing facilities eg
by - products processing, effluent disposal
etc, may be a factor in the economics of
establishment of the poultry plant. In this case, especial care
should be taken to
prevent cross contamination of one product by the other.

The ground of the chosen site should have good load - bearing characteristics to
support the building
itself and adequate drainage. The drainage is necessary for
rainwater to run off. It is not to be used
as a substitute for a proper effluent
disposal system. The effluent disposal system should be designed
so that the ground
water or other water source used for residential, industrial or, indeed, the poultry
processing plant itself is not contaminated. Nevertheless, one of the most important
services to the
plant is effluent disposal and its effective handling is facilitated
through an adequate gradient and soil
type. This is discussed later in this chapter.

Whatever site is chosen, the proposal to build a poultry processing plant, no matter
how small, should
be discussed with the local dignitaries and population to seek their
approval. Some obvious sites may
have to be rejected as it may be consecrated, used
for local recreation etc.

Facilities Required

Consideration should next be given to the type and number of facilities required.
This may include
reception area, slaughterhall, dressing rooms, chilling and freezing
facilities, processing rooms, chill,
frozen and dry storage rooms, dispatch areas, by-product processing rooms, laundry, ice production
rooms, offices, changing rooms
and toilets, messing facilities, first aid rooms, crate and vehicle wash
areas, effluent
treatment, workshop, boiler and refrigeration rooms. Depending on the system of
operation, not all will be required but more than one will be needed in others. The
system of
management may also include facilities to operate a shop, wholesale market
etc.

Flow Diagram

Using this information, a flow diagram should be drawn up, bearing in mind the
management system
to be employed. A typical system is given in Annex 1. Some of
the services have been included to
illustrate the growing complexity of the system.
To each of the processes, the number and sizes of the
rooms should be added.

Equipment and Machinery

The machinery to be used in the plant should be decided on the level of technology
best suited to the
management system chosen and the estimated maximum
throughputs envisaged for the foreseeable
future. Equipment is usually bought to
last for ten years after which time it is worn out, obsolete or
redundant but this will
depend on:
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the likelihood of having funds to expand further in ten years' time. If it is

unlikely that the plant
will be able to re - equip in ten years, the time frame
may be expanded. This will also depend
on:

the history of the poultry production and processing industries. The time
frame can be adjusted
to address the confidence shown in these industries, its
continuing economic viability and the
economics brought about by the
purchase of new equipment.

the history of equipment maintenance and breakages etc. in other processing

industries. If
maintenance is known to be good, the time frame can be
extended. If not it may be reduced
and the level of technology adjusted to
suit the circumstances.

The manufacturers' specifications should be checked to determine:

the designed throughput of the equipment

the space requirements to operate the equipment

the robustness of the equipment

its specification in terms of power ratings and consumption, pressures, speeds,

temperatures
etc

that the equipment meets the legal and safety requirements laid down in law
or, in its absence,
that of straightforward common sense

Hygienic Principles of Design

Clean and dirty areas

The architectural drawings should give attention to the hygienic principles in design.
Points to watch
are that “clean” and “dirty” operations are kept separate and carried
out in dedicated facilities. This
means that separate rooms are required for:

reception of birds,

slaughter, scalding and defeathering

evisceration, washing and giblet processing

chilling

cutting and packing

freezing and storage

dispatch

by - product processing

A diagram showing separation principles is given in Annex 2.

Product flow

The plans should show a smooth flow of product along the processing line, with
minimum distances
between all operations including those which require other
materials to be used in the process eg the
ice harvester should be near to the chiller
tank, the packaging materials should be close to the
packaging machine. There
should be minimum interference between other operations and cross
flows of
operations and operators should be kept to the absolute minimum.

Equipment

The general guide - lines for equipment design, manufacture, installation and
operation are long and
detailed. The equipment generally available is usually of
sufficient standard if obtained from a
reputable manufacturer. The following
description outlines the general principles to be followed,
particularly where local
manufacture or fabrication is planned.

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The equipment to be used in a small scale poultry processing plant in the tropics
must be strong and
effective enough to last for at least 5 years. Replacement is
often difficult (usually through lack of
funds) so it should be obtained with a view
to longevity easy maintenance and repair. The equipment
must be maintained to a
schedule, which should be established before installation and based on the
manufacturers information. In the tropics, it will almost certainly be used on birds
of different sizes
and weights, if not different species from that chosen for the
original project, so equipment should be
selected with a view to adaptability as far as
possible. The equipment must conform to local
standards of construction and safety.
It should have proper safety guards, maintained in full working
order. The
equipment must be designed to be cleaned properly after use. It must have smooth
surfaces, clean welds, an absence of bolts and irregular protuberances, made
preferably in stainless
steel or at least galvanised steel which has been hot - dipped
after manufacture. The use of paint and
mild steel is not recommended as it will
easily flake in the atmosphere and contaminate the carcases.

In the interests of hygiene, stairways, overhead gangways, platforms, steps etc should
be made of
aluminium alloy checkerplate which can be cleaned much more easily
than iron grills. Wash hand
basins, which should be made in stainless steel rather
than china, should be provided with cold and
hot water at 82°C and operated by
foot, knee or arm. Sterilizers for knives and hand tools and
equipment should be
used. They may be attached to the wash hand basin and these also should run
at
82°C.

Sterilizer unit

Mobile equipment or that used part - time or irregularly should be stored in proper
facilities out of the
way when not in use.

All equipment should be installed at a sufficient distance away from walls to permit
installation,
operation, cleaning and maintenance. If not sealed to the floor, it should
be raised 200mm to facilitate
cleaning underneath.

Drains

Floors should have falls in the region of 1:60 so that waste water flows away rapidly
but not so
steeply that it causes difficulty in walking, movement of other traffic or
positioning of static equipment.
Drains, which may be open channels covered with a
well fitted grill, should flow from clean to dirty
areas. Drainage pipes should be at
least 150mm in diameter so that they will run freely and not block
with the large
weights of feather, fat and faeces which pass over the floor. Drains should be
screened
at the exist to the building. Effluent disposal systems should be designed to
suit the nature of the
waste and its volume. This will depend on the system of
operation and management chosen above.

Floors, walls and ceilings

There is a temptation to economise on the quality of wall and floor structure and
finishes. This is false
economy. Poultry blood, fat and other tissues are very
corrosive. The work involved is heavy and
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intensive. Any economies made will

rapidly show and constant maintenance will be required if good
hygienic standards
are to be maintained. The floors and walls must be easy to clean, smooth,
impermeable and acid resistant. The floors must be non-slip to prevent accidents
and should be
coved with the walls. The walls should be coved and rounded to each
other to prevent accumulation
of dirt and water. The walls and floors may be
finished in tile but this should be completed in materials
of very high quality and
laid with excellent standards of workmanship. A simple granolithic screed,
spread
across the floor and up the walls is relatively cheap, durable and hygienic but lacks
visual
appeal. The temptation to finish walls in domestic paint should be avoided as
this discolours and
flakes, thereby contaminating the poultry product. There are
suitable epoxy resin finishes in white
which may be applied if appearance is
important. These are sometimes referred to as a “liquid tile”.
Walls should be
finished to a height of three metres. Where product or equipment comes into regular
contact with the walls or floors, reinforcement will be needed. This should be
established before
operation commences since it may be difficult to fix hygienically
after production has been underway
for several weeks.

Ceilings should cover the undersides of the roof structure, exposed pipework,
electricity cabling and
other service runs. They should be smooth and impermeable
to water, free from condensate and
unpainted so that they will not flake. True,
suspended or false ceilings should be at least 500mm
above the highest piece of
equipment to allow for installation, maintenance and cleaning. Care must
be taken to
inspect the space above the ceiling for accumulation (and removal) of dirt, insects,
birds
etc and their nests.

Doors and windows

Windows should be encased in non-corrosive material eg metal alloys, not wood, and
should have
sloping sills so that items of clothing, knives, bottles etc cannot be
stored. Doors should have alloy
frames and impermeable surfaces. The whole
building should be proofed against insects, rodents
and birds.

Service runs

Service runs and ducting need special attention. Pipework runs should be simple and
straight,
preferably buried in the walls or floors, or run down an outside wall before
it passes into the room in
which it is required. Pipes buried in the wall should be in
stainless steel where they emerge into the
room as they tend to corrode at this point
making repair very difficult and expensive. Pipes which run
inside a production
room should be stainless or galvanised and mounted in wall spacers so that they
are
50mm from the wall. Suspended pipework should not be located over product lines.
Should they
attract condensation, leak, need repair etc, production and product
quality will be affected. If
necessary, pipework and ducting should be suspended
from trapeze hangers. Electrical runs should
also be buried or run in conduit.
Switches, lighting fixtures and other electrical fittings and fixtures
should be of
waterproof standard, able to withstand the unintentional play of a hose pipe or steam
lance if they cannot be situated outside production areas.

Lighting

This has to be of a standard for both general work and for meat inspection purposes.
Daylight is the
cheapest form of lighting but it is sometimes difficult to provide
sufficient in all areas. In Europe,
windows are not favoured as they let in dirt and
insects, and let out heat. In the tropics it would be
churlish not to use the light
which is so amply available. Lighting should be about 220 lux in working
areas and
540 lux in inspection areas at a height of 1.2m from the floor. Note the advice
regarding the
need for waterproofing electrical fittings given above.

Ventilation

Adequate ventilation is essential in tropical meat processing rooms. The air

temperature and humidity
of the air can be very high and its extraction imperative if
comfortable working conditions are to be
maintained. Condensation is a problem
which must be addressed. The Venturi effect, where one wall,
heated by the sun,
causes an updraft of air which is voided through a slot in a pitched roof is
preferred
but care must be taken to prevent entry of birds, insect and rodents. Artificial
extraction of
air is expensive but may be necessary especially in countries where
temperatures fall considerably
overnight and open ventilation systems would be
inappropriate. The equipment used for ventilation
should be considered as internal
equipment and conform to the standards set out above. In general
rooms, six changes
of air every hour are sufficient for comfort but in processing rooms, particularly
where there is steam production, this may need to be increased to 20 or more.

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Facilities Required in Specific Areas

General Building

The building

The building and its roof should be an adaptation of local architecture so that it fits
in with its
surroundings and causes no visual offence. The adaptation should
consider the climate and other
environmental characteristics of the region while
addressing the hygiene concepts of its operation.
For example, in earthquake zones,
the building should be strengthened to locally recommended
levels with reinforced
concrete ring beams and no tiling to the walls. Desert areas will need special
dustproofing. In areas subject to very wide variations of temperature and humidity,
the buildings will
have to be suitably adapted, perhaps with heating and ventilation.

Roof

In humid equatorial zones, the building should be adapted to the problems of sharp
cloud-bursts, with
sloping roofs, wide eaves, deep gutters and downpipes, and
substantial storm drains to take away
rainwater rapidly. High apex roofs are
considered best for hot areas. Flat roofs are unsuitable
generally, even though they
may be cheaper than the alternatives. Thatched roofs are also not
suitable since they
house birds and insects and are a fire risk. By the same token, an asbestos roof is
considered a health risk and cannot be used either.

Walls

The nature of the materials used in construction of the outside wall should reflect the
climate and
environment. In the humid tropics, a damp proof course may be
necessary. The outside walls may
need to be made in a low absorbent material like
highly fired brick, marble or other local stone rather
than soft blockwork with a
cement render which will stain and decay rapidly.

Insects

Insect levels are high in many tropical countries and particularly so around abattoirs
where there is
often an abundance of static water and nourishment for their survival.
Buildings must incorporate
suitable screening, remembering that insects, having
gained entry should not find difficulty in finding a
way out. The screens used must
be hygienic, and cleaned frequently if necessary. Inside the building,
particularly in
production areas, electrical insect attractants with an electrified grid to kill flying
insects
are particularly useful.

Wood

Some insects live on wood which soon decays and is therefore unsuitable for outside
use. Wood and
other absorbent materials are not to be used anywhere inside the
building for any purposes.

Water and steam

All water entering the abattoir should be of potable quality. Ideally, water should
meet the guide-lines
set by the World Health Organisation. These are long and
involved. For practical purposes, it sets a
bacteriological quality (of zero faecal and
other coliforms/100ml sample), a chemical quality for nine
inorganic and 18 organic
substances and a recommendation about aesthetic and organoleptic
qualities. The
water supply should be chlorinated so that there is a residual concentration of 0.5ppm
free chlorine after 20 minutes contact time. It should be supplied at a minimum
pressure of 15psi (1
Bar). There should be sufficient water stored for one normal
days production, should there be an
interruption of normal water supply. Water
consumption may be calculated at 25–35 litres/bird
slaughtered.

In small plants, it is possible to heat water for scalding and cleaning by electricity,
gas or by solar
heaters at the place where it is to be used. Savings in water and
energy can be effected by provision
of low volume, high water pressure systems
(LVHP) for product cleaning and plant sterilization. A
high pressure system of
suspended hose lines at strategic points in the factory will assist high product
standards and minimal water consumption provided they do not touch the floor and
do not leak. A
mobile steam cleaner is very effective in cleaning small plants,
particularly where cleaning agents can
be added to the water flow. In larger plants
this may not be economical and operation of a boiler
house to generate steam is
desirable. For this, a separate boiler house should be build and provision
for fuel,
water and steam storage will be necessary. An adequate number of steam hose points
and
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steam lances should be provided at appropriate points in the factory so that

flexible hosepipe runs are
no more than 15m long.

Drainage

The abattoir should have at least three systems of drainage.

Storm water drains, used for that purpose only, may be open in places and
should flow into the
appropriate outlet. They should be designed to
withstand the maximum expected precipitation.
The meteorological office or
local architectural offices will usually be able to provide details. The
drains
should be designed to be kept clear and they should be cleaned regularly. In
areas
where rainfall is frequent, heavy and relatively non-seasonal, this
usually presents no problems.
Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons,
storm drains should be specially managed to
ensure that they function
efficiently before the first rain is expected.

Drains carrying human waste, again used only for that purpose, should pass
by closed 150mm
pipe, through a series of gullies and manholes where
necessary, into the town sewerage
system, where it should be properly treated.
If no town sewers exist, the waste is probably best
treated by means of a
septic tank and soakaway along the lines of domestic waste treatment.
In
small abattoirs, elaborate treatment systems are probably not necessary.

Effluent treatment is a specialised topic which will be discussed later in this

document. At this
point, it is sufficient to say that the drains should flow
from clean to dirty areas within the
building. Blood and large particles
should have been removed before they leave the building.
Once the drainage
system leaves the building it should be in 150mm or greater pipework and
pass through a series of gullies and manholes until further treatment, some
distance from the
building.

Outside Areas

The area outside the building should be sealed to a distance of at least 3m from the
building. Beyond
this, a clear, non-dusting finish should be used to 10m.
Overhanging trees and vegetation should be
cleared to 10m. Potential bird and
animal habitats and resting places should be avoided such as
trees, wires and the
eaves of buildings. Any plantations made to provide a function, service or
landscape
should be of a type unattractive to local wildlife. For example, bats and monkeys
are
attracted to fruit and this type of tree should not be chosen. Trees which are
particularly unattractive
to hawks, crows, vultures and other carrion feeders are
recommended.

If the plant is to operate at night, consideration must be given to external lighting.

While this is needed
for functions performed outside, the lights will attract many
night insects. Lighting should therefore be
situated on the fence directed towards
the building rather than on the building and directed out.

Livestock Reception Area

Like all areas in the poultry processing room, the design of the reception area must
reflect its function
and management. Livestock is considered dirty. Poultry has a
mixture of dirt, faeces, mites and
insects embedded in its feathers. The poultry
itself may have a microbiological infection. The vehicle
and the containers are
usually dirty from travel and previous use. The person bringing the stock may
be
unclean from travel and he/she may have brought his/her family, including the dog
from home to
the abattoir. It is good practice, therefore, to provide a separate
entrance for livestock. Access to the
rest of the building by the persons bringing the
birds should be prevented. Washing facilities for
vehicles and other livestock carriers
should be provided. Hot water under pressure and drainage
should be supplied. The
area should have the geography and space to allow vehicles to manoeuvre
and store
both full and empty crates or livestock containers. The birds must be stored under
cover to
await slaughter.

Reception Loading Area

The reception area may also double as the loading area; in small processing plants
this is most
suitable. Space must be allowed to label and sort stock, man-handle
livestock containers and store
them when empty. Access to the equipment to hang
birds immediately before slaughter should be
provided. Livestock handlers should be
provided with wash hand basins in the reception area.

The Slaughterhall
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The slaughterhall has the potential for being among the dirtiest of rooms in the
abattoir. It may contain
flapping birds (they do not all settle), steaming scald tanks,
flails or whirling rubber fingers removing
feathers, dirt, faeces and insects from the
newly dead carcases. This situation forms an effective,
contaminating acrosol which
settles on all the structures, equipment and personnel. When viewed in
this light, its
design and management principles become apparent. The room must be separated
from
the rest of the processing rooms as must the staff who work in it.

The room must be big enough to accommodate all the equipment and personnel with
adequate
circulation space. The layout, using the principles set out above, should
allow 12 or more seconds for
the birds to settle before low voltage stunning and
sticking, two and a half minutes bleeding and up to
three minutes scalding at 53°C
before defeathering.

Blood released from the birds must be properly handled. It has a high Biological
Oxidation Demand
and should not pass into the effluent disposal system. If the
quantity of blood is small, it can be
scooped up and disposed of directly. Other
systems involve the use of pumps of vacuum to a tank in
the offal room.

The arrangement of the defeathering area must relate to the management system and
number and
type of equipment in use. If the defeathering machinery is based on a
series of pluckers operating on
birds suspended from an overhead rail, the length of
rail involved will relate to the number of birds to
be plucked in a given time, the
speed of the rail and the efficiency of the plucker. Such detail is
usually worked out
by the manufacturer. In systems where scalded carcases are held against a
rubber
drum with fingers, the position of these will depend on the system to be operated
and the
number of machines to be used. This relates to the capacity of the machines
and the number of birds
to be plucked in a unit time. For example, to defeather 200
birds/hour can be achieved by using two
pluckers each with an operational capacity
of 110/hour or four with a capacity of 60/hour. (These are
maximum capacities and
allow for some production and unexpected shortfalls). There are
advantages to using
more machinery of lower capacity in the tropics where throughput may vary
considerably from day to day and the number used and staffing levels can match the
day's
throughput. Also, should one machine be out of service, there are three others
(in this case) to help
achieve three quarters of the daily throughput as opposed to
half with the higher capacity system. Of
course four operators will be required to
use the lower capacity system and a large building will be
required to accommodate
the equipment. The risks and economics of the situation must be assessed
when the
system is chosen.

The floor in this area must be smooth and well drained. Feathers which have been
removed from the
birds and fall to the floor must be screened from the drains to
prevent blockage. This is best achieved
by fitting a grill over the channel drain.
Wet feathers are particularly difficult to manage but it is
essential that they are
confined and placed in drained containers on a regular basis in the interests of
hygiene and safety.

The defeathering area should leave space for an operative to remove the pin and
other remaining
feathers by hand and singe the carcase to remove the last feathers
and hair.

Defeathering is followed by spray washing in cold water. This area should be

properly drained.

If chilled, the carcases are now known as New York Dressed and may be marketed as
such. There is
much to be said for marketing poultry in this condition at the start of
any processing venture. The
product is more hygienic than a badly produced
eviscerated carcase, will keep for a day or so if kept
cool or may appeal as a product
only a little removed from that sold by other marketing methods (live
or fresh killed
but not plucked).

The room will require full ventilation to prevent condensation build-up. A complete
change of air each
minute is required.

Evisceration and Chilling Room

This must be a separate room. Clean carcases are opened to expose their viscera
which contain
spoilage and, perhaps, pathogenic bacteria. Great care must be taken
not to contaminate the carcase
when they are removed. Special facilities are
required.

In larger abattoirs, evisceration is performed automatically by machines designed for

the purpose. In
small processing plants, carcases hanging from overhead rails or
hooks are eviscerated by operators
using hand tools. About 1 metre/person must be
allowed to permit workers to operate on this line.
Inspection takes place in this room
also and about 3 metres must be allowed for this.
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The offal should be dropped into a trough of about 1 metre wide which slopes
backwards to the
beginning of the line. Offal flow is assisted by the end of line
carcase washer.

In the smallest abattoirs, evisceration is performed either on a carousel which

operates a little like an
overhead rail and offal trough or on tables. This method
must be carried out with great care as there
is considerable scope for contamination
of the carcases and their cross-contamination if the tables
are not properly organised.

As evisceration involves removal of material containing considerable numbers of

micro-organisms,
contamination of the carcases is possible. This may lead to
reduction of shelf life. Cutting carcases
while they are hot is not considered
practical so for both reasons, it is essential to cool them rapidly
and hold them under
chilled or frozen storage.

A cold spray to remove gross contamination is followed by one of several methods of

cooling. The
usual method is one of immersion in a tank of water which is cooled
(perhaps with ice) and
chlorinated. The volumes and temperatures of cooled water
used in cold water chilling systems are
usually calculated by the manufacturers of the
equipment. The USDA regulations demand that there
should be a minimum of 2.251
of overflow for each bird. Calculations of the ice, water and chlorine
requirements
of that system are difficult. Although there are empirical formulae to calculate
them, the
results usually underestimate the quantities required and the carcases often
finish up insufficiently
chilled or left for too long in the tank. As a guide, 0.4kg to
1 kg of ice per 1 kg of poultry is used to chill
carcases, usually towards the higher end
of the range in the tropics. For estimating purposes, 2kg
ice/bird slaughtered should
be allowed. Use of an insulated slush ice tank will reduce ice
consumption.

There are several designs of chiller for hot carcases. These include the continuous
drag chiller, slush
ice chiller, concurrent tumble system, counterflow tumble system
and rocker vat system. Although of
differing designs, principles remain broadly
similar. The chill system is designed so that ice or ice cold
water is fed into the end
of the tank or system that the carcases leave. The cooling medium is set to
flow
towards the carcase entry so that it is in counterflow to the product. There may be a
series of
tanks through which the birds pass rather than one tank. Often there is
some mechanism, eg an
auger or the overhead railway system itself which propels
the bird from its entry into the coolant to its
exit. The ice melts and overflows into
the drain at the carcase entry point. The water must be
completely changed at least
every four hours as it becomes contaminated with blood and carcase
material.
Chlorine must be added regularly to maintain a total residual level of 50ppm.

As an alternative method of chilling, carcases may be cooled in air at ambient with a

forced draught of
about 1m/sec followed by spray chilling in water chilled to 2–4°C.
Approximately 2.51/bird is required
to chill the carcases to 7°C.

The evisceration room should have sufficient space to allow workers and equipment
to move around.
Personal hygiene facilities are required eg wash hand basins and
paper towels or hot air blowers. As
the carcases are in a cleaned state, all metal
work in the room should be in stainless steel with a
specification as set out in the
paragraph describing equipment above. The room will be hot and
humid, so
adequate ventilation is important. A complete change of air each minute is
recommended.

In the diagrams in the annexes, the chilled birds emerge in or immediately adjacent
to the packing
area; this is in the “clean” area.

Packing Room

Poultry which has been chilled by a wet process must be packed rapidly and either
dispatched rapidly
or frozen. Chilled poultry leaving the ice tank must be hung and
allowed to drain for several minutes,
preferably into a suspended trough to prevent
unnecessary moisture on the floor. The room should be
air-conditioned, constructed
and finished to full hygienic standards.

Poultry may be graded by class, weight and appearance. They may be packed whole
(with or without
giblets) or cut into halves, quarters, pieces or deboned partially or
completely before packing or
processing further. The process employed will depend
on the market to be satisfied. Account must be
taken of regional preferences eg feet
and/or heads may be left on (not recommended) or wings and
feet packed separately.
Cutting and further processing may be carried out either by simple hand tools
or
machinery within a full range of sophistication. All machinery must be hygienically
constructed and
capable of being properly cleaned.

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The packing room must have sufficient space to stand packing tables and equipment,
immediate
storage of packing materials and trolleys for moving material into the
chillers or freezing system. Its
size will depend on throughput and the nature of the
operations to be performed. The room should be
light, quiet, well organised so that
grading, weighing, cutting, wrapping, marking, packing into
secondary containers (eg
cardboard cartons) are easily achieved. Passage to the cold storage should
be rapid,
thereby preventing the carcase from warming unduly. The room should contain
hygiene
facilities for staff (eg wash hand basins and towels) and adequate drainage
for washing down.

Chilling Rooms

Packed poultry may be stored in chill rooms for early dispatch or frozen and stored
for dispatch as
required.

Poultry which has been eviscerated and chilled in slush ice, followed by chill storage
above freezing
has the shortest shelf life of all methods of production. Chilled
poultry can be stored at 2–4°C for one
or two days at maximum before dispatch to
retail outlets. Poultry may be kept a day or so longer if
stored at -1°C. Poultry
kept in frozen storage (-20°C) may be kept for up to 6 months. Sufficient
storage
space must be provided for the system of operation to be used. It must include
adequate
circulation space for staff and vehicles.

As turn-round is fairly rapid in chill storage, single height stores are adequate. The
ceiling height need
be little more than 3.5m. Consideration must be given to the
foundations of the building which must
bear great weights, stresses and strains. The
installation must have adequate insulation to withstand
high external temperatures an
adequate vapour barrier and protection from physical damage by
equipment. A curb
between the inside walls and pallets of 150mm should be provided to facilitate air
movement and to prevent damage by materials handling equipment and the packaged
products. Air
curtains should be provided at the doors to help contain the cool air
within the chill room.

The product should be stored with adequate dunnage to take advantage of an air
flow of about 1m/s.
There should be adequate light to read labels and boxes but not
so much that it causes significant
heat generation. The room should have facilities
for easy storage of the product on pallets or shelves.
Stock control should be very
well organised. There should be floor drainage so that the room may be
frequently,
regularly and adequately washed down.

The cold stores should be arranged so that the product may pass easily to the
dispatch bay or freezer
rooms.

Freezing Rooms

Poultry may be frozen by one of several ways. The usual system is to place the
wrapped carcases or
portions into metal trays and place them in a blast freezer for
2–3 hours at -40°C. The air flow is
maintained at about 2–4m/s. The process is
followed by storage in a freezer store at -20°C or below
for a period up to six
months.

There are alternative methods of freezing. Regular packages lend themselves to plate
freezing. In
this system, “bricks” of meat packages are sandwiched between two
plates. There are several plates
and each will sandwich several packs of poultry.
The plates are brought down into direct contact with
the pack and refrigerant is run
through so that the packs reach -18°C in about 1 1/2 hours. The packs
are then
removed, placed in boxes and stored at -20°C.

Other freezing methods include adding refrigerant directly to the pack. The two best
known examples
are liquid nitrogen and solid carbon dioxide. They are not used
frequently in the tropics because of
their poor availability, irregularity of supply and
high recurrent costs, which may be up to three times
as expensive as conventional
refrigeration. Nevertheless, it is mentioned as there are circumstances
which suit this
freezing method and the capital outlay is much less than conventional systems.

The frozen product should be stored at -18°C or below. Although single height
stores of up to 3.5m
high may be adequate in small scale processing plants, in larger
factories the freezer stores may be
up to four pallets high. Consideration must be
given to the foundations which must bear greater
weights, stresses and strains than
the chill rooms. The installation must have adequate insulation not
only to withstand
high external temperatures but prevent freezing the soil underneath. This can cause
frost heave and physical damage to the store. The store must have an adequate
vapour barrier,
protection from physical damage by equipment and a curb of 150mm
on the inside walls to facilitate
air movement and prevent damage by materials
handling equipment and the packaged products.

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Freezer stores should have an alarm

system to attract help should staff be locked into the store
accidently. Air curtains
should be provided at the doors to help contain the cool air within the room.

Loaded pallets should have adequate dunnage to take advantage of a light air flow.
As the room is
kept well below freezing temperatures, there will be the inevitable
build-up of ice throughout the store,
and around and just inside the door,
particularly in humid climates. The fabric of the store should be
such that this ice
can be removed easily and without damage, so that doors can be closed completely
to
maintain a constant temperature. There should be adequate light to read labels and
boxes but not
so much that it causes significant heat generation. The room should
have facilities for easy storage of
the product on pallets or shelves. Stock control
should be very well organised. Freeze stores are
emptied most infrequently so there
is no need to provide a formal drainage system. However, when
the stores are
emptied, the opportunity should be taken to clean them. A considerable volume of
melt
will be produced, which may contain drip from product, rubber from wheeled
and human traffic, dirt
from packaging and pallets etc. The design of the stores
should ensure that this melt is hygienically
removed.

The freeze stores should be arranged so that the product may pass easily to the
dispatch bay.

Dispatch

The dispatch bay should be located near to the storage area and arranged so that
loading is
conducted speedily. This will prevent unnecessary rise in temperature of
the product. Refrigerated
dispatch bays are unnecessary in small scale plants. The
system of dispatch of product needs careful
consideration at the design stage. Should
dispatch be planned by means of pick-up, large vehicle,
private vehicle or as
individual packs from a retail shop, the facilities should be designed accordingly.
Considerations should include the slope of the site, height of floor pan of vehicle,
use of fork lift
vehicle or pallet truck, hand loading, gravity, conveyor etc. Numbers
of vehicles collecting poultry at
any given time will affect its size eg a bay to
accommodate one vehicle twice each day to remove the
whole days production for
dispatch to a wholesale market will be smaller than a bay used by 20 small
pick-up
trucks, one from each supermarket in the town, all wanting to collect poultry at 0800
each
morning in time to open shop at 0900. Consideration should also be given to
parking and
manoeuvreing of collection vehicles.

Dry Stores

Bulk supplies of wrapping materials should not be stored in poultry processing rooms.
They should
have separate facilities in a room off the packing room, and preferably
with a door to the outside for
deliveries.

The size of dry stores will depend on the type of product prepared, type, size and
number of
boxes/materials to be stored and their delivery schedules. This is
important in the tropics where
cartons may be produced in batch operations by a
factory dependant on the availability of raw
materials or where packaging materials
are imported in large quantities on an infrequent or irregular
basis. Space must be
provided in the store for personnel to identify, sort, collate and collect the
materials
needed for the occasion.

Provision must be made to manage the dust associated with storage of dry materials.
Extractor fans
and airlocks are suggested for some areas of the world where dry dust
may become airborne easily.
In humid climates, the nature of the packaging
materials to be used, box designs, adhesives etc must
be carefully considered. A
soggy box which is poorly glued will not hold the product. Much damage
may result
from poor storage conditions and, under certain circumstances, the provision of an
air
conditioned room or one with a modified atmosphere should be considered. The
room should be
proofed against entry of insects. Packaging materials make excellent
breeding grounds and homes
for insects if the stores are not well managed.
Adequate lighting and stock control are necessary.

Offal Room

The offal room is probably the dirtiest room in the factory and must be designed to
address the
problems. Inedible offals, in the form of feathers, heads, feet, viscera
etc and condemned carcases
must be disposed of in facilities especially designed for
the purpose. The room should be located next
to the defeathering and evisceration
areas. Waste products should pass into the offal room from
these clean rooms and
pass directly out of the building without passing through any other. Offal
usually
arrives in the room along trenches and chutes with considerable quantities of water.
Water

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and offal are separated before the offal is placed into some form of container
before its disposal. The
water drains to the floor before it passes to the effluent
treatment plant.

The room must be properly isolated from the rest of the building, properly finished,
impervious to
water to 3m or more from the floor and adequately drained. The floor
must be maintained to a high
standard and not be slippery. The doors must have
bulwarks to prevent waste water from leaving the
room. It should be adequately lit
and ventilated.

Staff employed in this room should not be permitted to enter any other processing
room.

Staff Facilities

Staff facilities comprise changing areas, toilets, showers, washing facilities, lockers
and bins for dirty
laundry. Separate dining facilities for the consumption of food
may be necessary in some locations
but probably not in small processing plants.

The design of staff facilities needs much consideration. Separate facilities are
required for men and
women. Live bird and by-products handlers should also have
separate facilities. This is not always
possible in small processing plants. In either
case, the factory should be designed so that these
personnel have direct access
between their changing facilities and work areas without passing
through the clean
areas of production.

The layout of facilities should comply with local legislation. This should include
conditions regarding
access to operational rooms. Staff arriving for work and leaving
at the end of the shift should be able
to enter the changing facilities directly and not
pass through production areas. Although the rooms
should be sited near to the area
of greatest number of working personnel (usually the evisceration
room), staff not
permitted to pass through the nearby room should be able to get to work by a short,
logical route. The staff facilities should not open directly onto a production area.
There should be
some form of air lock.

Changing facilities should comprise a locker for each member of staff and sufficient
toilets, showers
and wash hand basins for the number of staff employed. The toilets
and changing rooms should be
separated by a partition from floor to ceiling. The
use of paper towels is to be encouraged and proper
dispensers should be provided.
Benches and storage for footwear must be provided.

The room should be light, well ventilated, insect proofed and fitted with an extractor
fan to exhaust air
to the outside. Sufficient hot and cold water should be provided
for staff to wash their hands and face
frequently and shower once each shift. Litter
bins should be provided.

Factory workers must neither eat nor smoke in meat production areas. There should
be provision
made for these activities which do not contravene the spirit of hygienic
principles. An area, perhaps
designated a recreation area, could be provided outside
but under cover, with wash hand basin,
tables, chairs, ashtrays, litter bins etc so that
eating and smoking is contained.

Hand and Boot Wash

Before entry into the processing rooms, and usually just outside the staff facilities
often in a corridor, a
boot wash facility should be provided. This need be little more
than a tap to which short hose with a
car-wash-type brush is attached hanging over a
stainless bar, itself over a drained trough. The worker
lifts and places his foot on
the bar, which is about 300mm from the floor, to clean his boot. It is
customary to
provide a wash hand basin next to the boot wash with hot and cold water, paper
towels
and a litter bin.

Laundry

All workers should change their protective clothing at least once each day. In small
processing plants,
staff are often expected to launder their own clothes. Managers
face difficulties if staff have no clean
protective clothing. Provision should be made,
therefore, for all laundry to be washed by paid staff or
under contract to ensure total
cleanliness. In the tropics it would not be unusual for a relative of one of
the
production staff to undertake the task. This should be carried out on site but away
from the main
building. A small room or lean-to should be provided with a sink,
hot and cold water, clothes line etc.
Requisites such as soap powder and scrubbing
brushes should be provided. It is not unusual to see
the family laundry on the line
with working clothes and, provided this is not to excess, can be part of a
management arrangement to attract suitable staff.
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Offices

Offices and their furniture should be provided for the manager, office staff,
veterinarians and so on,
according to the local custom and legislation. The number,
type, style and size of office
accommodation will depend on the nature of the
business, the numbers of birds slaughtered, the
number of clients, both supplying
and being supplied and the culture of the region. It is important to
provide
accommodation which is comfortable for the office staff so that personnel of the
right calibre
will work in what is a relatively unattractive industry.

Inedible by-Products and Waste Disposal Facilities

Solid by-products

Broiler carcase yield is approximately 65% of liveweight which means that

approximately 35% of the
liveweight of poultry comprises feathers, blood, viscera,
feet, head and trim which is available for solid
by-products. The liveweight of the
bird will vary with the production systems employed and the market
demand.
Similarly the weight of solid by-products will vary with the degree of dressing
required by the
market or, where birds are slaughtered for an owner rather than
purchased by the processing plant,
the weight of material the owner may wish to
take or leave after slaughter. This section will assume
that the average liveweight of
the bird is 1.5kg and 35% of this weight will require disposal.
Additionally, the
feathers contain about 75% water. As the dry feather weight is about 4% of
liveweight, the quantity of by-products produced by the three model plants is
calculated as follows:

• 50 birds/day 30kg/day
• 200 birds/day 120kg/day
• 350 birds/hour or 2500/day 1400kg/day

It should be noted that in the first model, the birds will be New York Dressed, so
that only blood and
feathers will be available. This will amount to about 10% of
body weight or 7.5kg/day.

By-products material should be handled carefully. It should follow marked routes in

the plant and be
contained. This containment includes troughs, pipes and trunking,
bins and bags, skips etc. Waste
materials should not be left on the floors, swept into
a corner or piled outside. Once it has left the
factory, its containment should
continue. These materials left lying on the ground, whether the
pavement is sealed
or not, is unhygienic and attracts vermin, birds and other wildlife.

Inedible material is divided into two classes; that which is condemned as unit for
consumption in any
form and that which is otherwise healthy. Inedible material
should arrive at a disposal point in
separate containers. Condemned material should
be kept in special containers, appropriately marked.
It should be incinerated, if such
equipment exists locally, or buried with lime and/or disinfectant to a
depth of at
least 2m, at some distance from the abattoir but within the compound. Under no
circumstances should it be left open and disposed of in such a way that it remains
available to
humans, dogs, animals or birds.

For the first two models, the total weight of solid by-products is too small to justify,
either physically or
economically, serious capital investment to process this material
further. Its disposal, nevertheless,
presents a problem which needs proper
management. There are three main methods of disposal:

Burial or incineration as if it were condemned

Cooking and feeding as swill to pigs

Cooking, drying, grinding and using as fertiliser.

Before any of these methods is used however, the cost of the intended process should
be examined
closely as they are very inefficient in the use of fuel.

Poultry waste should be cooked in a purpose built room separate from the main
building where the
poultry is kept and slaughtered. It must have its own floors,
walls, roof, services and entrance and be
constructed so as to keep animals, birds,
insects and vermin at bay. The rooms should have a clean
rendered finish and be
capable of disinfection and cleaning. The building should have separate rooms
for
the reception of the waste and another for cooking and storage of the swill
afterwards.

Raw offals should be handled separately from feathers. Feather meal is more
difficult to handle and
use. Considering the amounts available, ie 5 & 20 kg/day for
the first two models, perhaps direct
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burial is the most suitable disposal method.

Swill must be prepared daily and immediately after slaughter. Raw offals should be
boiled at 100°C
for at least one hour before allowing them to cool. Fat should be
skimmed from the surface and
stored in clean drums until sufficient has accumulated
for sale. The equipment for this operation for
Models 1 & 2 is very simple. A
properly made, thick, open pot, the size of a 44 gallon oil drum will
suffice as a
cooking vessel. The volume produced daily in Model 2 would half fill the vessel.
After
cooling, the swill may be fed directly to pigs, or minced and fed as a slurry,
after vitamin fortification. It
is a variable product but this will be reduced if only
poultry offal from the processing plant is used. In
some countries, offal may be
treated off the compound, although this is not an advisable practice. In
these
circumstances, other materials may be used in the swill but its composition will be
variable.

In dry climates, the minced product may be sun dried on open concrete beds and
used as a fertilizer.
Care must be taken to ensure that the product is not
contaminated by insects, birds and mammals.
The dried product should be broken
up or ground before bagging, marketing and final use.

Model 3 presents a dilemma as the weight of the waste amounts to a quantity

approaching a
commercial operation in some countries but not in others. At a
production weight of less than 1.5
tonnes/day, economic viability is not assured,
indeed daily batch weights of three to five tonnes are
not always economically
successful.

There is no reason why swill cannot be prepared at the throughput generated from
Model 3 but it is
very expensive on fuel and, like the product above, has a very
short shelf life. The offal produced is
equivalent to filling completely seven, 44
gallon oil drums. The equipment needed for this operation
could be a series of 14
drums as described for use in the first two models. It may be necessary to
invest in
a proper cooking vessel from the manufacturers of such equipment. There are three
varieties to chose from. The first is a steam jacketed vessel which cooks the material
in its own
moisture. It is a “dry” cooking method. The second system injects steam
into product and is a “wet”
cooking method. The third combines the two processes.
None of the systems will raise the
temperature above about 97°C so the cooking
period will have to be extended beyond one hour. The
process requires a steam
generator. As the equipment has taps and valves to run off generated water
and fat
a whole range of vessels, pipework and other equipment will be required to service
the main
cooker. The volumes produced call for an organised distribution and sales
system.

The alternative is to cook the offal in an industrial offal rendering plant (melter) to
sterility (about 2.5 –
3 hours). The system is vented to remove moisture, the fat
drained off and the product centrifuged or
pressed by screw to remove the remaining
fat. The dry product is then milled and bagged. Energy is
used more efficiently
than open cooking but the capital cost of the equipment is very high both to
purchase, maintain and keep in spare parts. The smallest conventional melter has a
charge capacity
of 3.5 tonnes but smaller ones can be made to specification, at a cost.
A throughput of 10 000
birds/day should generate sufficient waste to charge fully
the smallest plant. The equipment requires
skilled operation staff.

There are other methods of commercial by-product manufacture (eg continuous and
recycling
systems, each claiming savings on energy and resource inputs) but all have
the same drawbacks in
terms of capital outlay, maintenance and staffing
requirements. At the throughputs mentioned, some
producers find burial the most
cost effective solution to offal disposal problems. A novel system
proposed in the
early 1980's is to mince the offal through a 4mm plate, acidify with 3% formic acid
and store at tropical temperatures mixing daily for about seven days. The resultant
viscous liquid may
be fed to pigs after formulation with other nutrients. The
acidified material will store almost indefinitely.

Effluent treatment

Waste water treatment is a study in itself and beyond the scope of this document. It
is mentioned here
to give some idea of the range of systems used for environmental
protection.

The effluent produced by the three processing factories in this document will vary
with the nature of
the product. The first plant will produce effluent mainly from
bird droppings, blood, washdown of the
dry-plucked bird, washdown of the plant
and staff facilities. The second and third examples of
processing plant will produce
effluent from the defeathering operations, evisceration, cooling, carcase
wash, factory
washdown, refrigeration plant, staff facilities etc. Each plant will have its own type
of
effluent quantity and quality. Table 7 gives an idea of the quantity and quality
which might be expected
from each of the plants chosen for this document:

The volume of the first two plants is such that the effluent should be screened
through a comb to
remove gross particles and subjected to settlement/flotation in a
baffled tank (see Annex 7). This
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should remove about 40% of the BOD5 from the

liquor by producing floating and sedimentary matter.
The resultant liquid can then
pass into either sewage discharge (if available) or a septic tank system
followed by a
ground soakaway, provided that the soil is able to accept such quantities of water.

TABLE 7
Effluent characteristics of
the three plants
No Birds/day 50 200 2500
Flow, m3/day* 1.5 7 100
COD, mg/1 2500 3200 3200
BOD5, mg/1 2000 2500 2500
SS, mg/1 1000 1500 1500
TS, mg/1 1500 2000 2000
FOG, mg/1 200 600 600
Temp, °C 25 25 25

Effluent from the largest plant presents a problem which requires much more
processing than the
other plants, mainly because such a volume would be difficult to
dispose of other than in a sewer,
water course or irrigation system. Effluent should
be screened using a stationary, rotary cylindrical,
brushed or vibrating screen to
remove gross solids. The fats should then be removed in a fat trap or
settlement/flotation tank as described above. It may be desirable to install a system
using dissolved
air flotation (DAF) with or without chemical flocculation where there
is a shortage of land**. The fats
are separated from other suspended matter by
floating to the surface of the liquor attached to fine air
bubbles. This forms a scum
which can be separated later. The use of flocculants, for example, iron
salts, alum,
sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, lignin sulphonic acid, sodium lignosulphonate
etc
is that the process is easier to control than DAF on its own. The effluent is now
ready for discharge
into a sewer or agricultural land as part of an irrigation scheme.

Further treatment of the effluent is necessary if it must be discharged to a water

course or the quality
does meet standards set by the appropriate authorities. Effluent
will need to be treated by micro-
organisms, either by an anaerobic or aerobic system.

Anaerobic systems are conducted in a closed container where there is an enforced

absence of
oxygen. In this system, the solids break down to form water, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia gasses and volatile fatty acids.
The volatile fatty acids undergo further
reaction to form methane and carbon dioxide
gasses. This is the principle behind the biogas plant,
which produces inflammable
gasses used for cooking and light in warm countries. The anaerobic
system is not
recommended in poultry plants as the effluent is low in carbohydrates and high in
nitrogenous compounds. Reaction containers are therefore malodorous and not very
productive.

Aerobic treatment is also conducted in a reactor but air containing oxygen is either
forcibly
administered by pump or the effluent passes down a trickling filter so that it
comes into contact with
atmospheric oxygen. The system encourages the growth of
micro-organisms and the carbohydrates
are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water.
The nitrogenous wastes are converted to nitrates and
sulphates. The incoming
effluent displaces treated material which flows over a weir to settling tanks.
Some of
the solids are returned to the oxygenation vessel to maintain the microbial culture in
peak
condition while the sludge is disposed of after further treatment, if necessary.
The effluent should then
be of a quality to be discharged into a water course. This
may be done providing permission is first
sought from the appropriate local
authorities. They may wish to conduct regular analyses of the
treated effluent to
maintain quality standards. The sludge may then be disposed of in land fill sites,
dried and incinerated or spread on agricultural land. Land disposal carries the risk
of infection of
grazing stock. Grazing should be avoided for 3 months from
spreading.
* Flow:!Volume of effluent to be treated
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

SS Suspended Solids

TS Total Solids

Grease
FOG Fat, Oil and

** The plant is expensive to buy and operate.

Where there is space and a warm climate, secondary treatment is sometimes carried
out in an
aerobic or oxidation pond system. These ponds can be used for both
secondary and tertiary effluent
treatment for “polishing” to a level where it may
reach drinking water standards. Ponds are generally
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long and narrow. Effluent

enters quietly at one end and leaves from the other. The flow is such that
there are
no dead areas. The ponds are lined with an impervious layer and about 1.5m deep.
Algae
are encouraged to grow by removal of scum, debris and overgrowth. The
algae produce oxygen
which oxidises the solid materials rather like the aerobic
processes mentioned above. A quality
gradient is set up along the length of the pond
and fish are introduced at the outflow end. The system
is delicate and not open to
serious abuse. Inflow quality should be reasonably constant and the
loading should
be less than 450 kg BOD5/ha/day. The pond size should allow for a residence time
of
at least seven days. Tertiary ponds for “polishing” should be loaded at no more
than 70 kg
BOD5/ha/day.

Finally other forms of waste effluent should be treated separately. Storm water
should be directed to
surface drainage, water courses or whatever is appropriate for
the locality. Human effluent wastes
should be treated as domestic waste, since the
volumes are likely to be small. This may involve
disposal to a mains sewer or septic
tank before disposal by soakaway.

2 PLANT LAYOUT AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

Introduction

The poultry industry is very highly integrated in many countries. The date on which
the next batch of
day-old chicks are required is conveyed to the hatchery. Broiler
production has almost standardised
on the number of birds/broiler house so the
number of day olds for the order is known. Feed
manufacturers provide exactly the
right amount of the right type of feed for the venture on time. The
growth time for
the chicks is known so the date of slaughter is contracted automatically. The clear
out/clean up time for the broiler house is programmed for the next batch of day-olds
to be delivered
and in production with no idle time. At the poultry packing house,
standard sized birds are delivered
according to a contract date and time. They are
suspended almost immediately on arrival and
slaughtered and processed without
delay. Processing speeds are variable but 2500 to 4000
birds/hour are not out of the
ordinary. There is evisceration machinery which works at over 6000
birds/hour, and
slaughter lines which work at 12 000/hour.

Considering the scale mentioned above, the throughput which forms the basis of this
document takes
on a new significance. Manufacturers of equipment for poultry
processing on a very small scale are
few and far between since poultry producers are
very much aware of the economies of scale (and are
involved in a fiercely
competitive industry) and the manufacturers have more interest in the very large
scale of opertions.

Development of the Models

Three scales of operation have been chosen to described the construction and operation
of small
scale poultry processing plants. The first, 50 birds/day, is intended to be an
improvement on backyard
slaughter. It presents a plan to improve hygiene and
product quality on existing systems of small
scale production. It can be equipped to
process up to 100 birds/hour. The second, 200 birds/day,
assumes that the system of
operation of the first has led to an increase in demand for the product and
there is a
need for expansion of operations. It also presents an opportunity to describe other
types of
equipment and operational systems which can be scaled up to 500
birds/hour. Model 3 is the smallest
practical on-line system and offers an alternative
to the “manual” production methods described in the
first two models. The three
models are based on buildings which exist today in developing countries.
They show
full operational facilities. Other plans, found in Annex 8, show standard layouts of
the
slaughter facilities only but serve to demonstrate the wide range of facilities
which may be required to
fit most circumstances overseas where small scale poultry
processing factories are required.

Model 1 Very Small Scale Abattoir - 50 birds/day

Economic viability at a production level of 50 birds/day is unlikely to be achieved

and therefore social,
environmental and public health considerations should be
studied (and possibly quantified) at the
feasibility stage if the project is to proceed.
At this scale there is plenty of scope to increase
throughput with a little thought,
possibly up to 100/hour. It is difficult to design a smaller plant. A plan
of the
processing plant is given in Drawing 1. The equipment used, its specification and
the staffing
requirements are given in Annex 3.

It is the intention that all poultry produced within the plant will be slaughtered, sold
and eaten the
same day. It is assumed that the area has no history of processed
poultry, so the plant is designed to
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produce New York Dressed birds using a dry

plucker. Expensive ice production or refrigeration
capacity are neither required nor
installed. Dry plucking has several advantages over wet methods.
The birds may by
plucked “hot” or cold and the microbiological problems associated with scalding and
increased surface moisture are not encountered. In New York Dressed birds,
contamination and
spoilage by visceral microflora is greatly reduced and the shelf
life of the carcase is greater than it
would be had it been eviscerated and not
refrigerated. Dry plucked birds can be kept at tropical
ambient temperatures for a
few hours only but a couple of hours longer than eviscerated carcases.

As the viscera are left intact, waste materials comprise feathers and waste water only.

The plant is designed as part of a progressive package to be adapted as the market

expands.

Model 2 Very Small Scale Abattoir/Processing Room - 200 birds/day

In this model, it is assumed that the locality has a marketing history of processed
poultry and is now
ready for eviscerated carcases. Reference to Drawing Nos 1 & 2
shows Model 2 to be an expansion
of Model 1. Economic viability is not assured.

As the throughput and type of operation has expanded the machinery is changed to
include a soft
scald system with a bowl plucker, although dry plucking could have
continued. Evisceration is carried
out and the carcases cooled in either a tank of
water cooled by a refrigerated unit attached to the tank
or a static tank containing
slush ice.

The model is drawn up to show how whole poultry carcases may be packed into bags
and chilled. At
a later stage of development, chicken portions may be prepared and
all the products frozen prior to
dispatch.

Details of the abattoir are given in Drawing 2. The equipment required, their
specifications and the
staffing levels needed to operate it are given in Annex 4. The
plan is for the birds to be brought from
one large and several small producers and
each producer choses to sell his own poultry. In this case,
there is a need to label
each bird individually and to charge each producer a slaughter fee. This is a
difficult operation and needs a larger office and more administration staff than the
system where the
abattoir management buys the birds from the producer, or the birds
belong to a few producers in large
numbers.

In this model, the feathers, heads, feet and viscera are to be removed. These
materials make up
about 25% of the weight of the bird as solid waste which needs
disposal. In the drawing, the materials
are taken away in a skip for further
processing.

Model 3 Small Scale Abattoir - 350 birds/hour

The third example of small scale poultry abattoir chosen for this document will
slaughter 350 birds
each hour. This scale may approach economic viability in some
areas of the world but if not,
environmental, social and public health considerations
should again be assessed at the feasibility
stage.

Slaughter throughputs of between 350 and 500 birds/hour can be processed on simple
“static” lines
as described for models 1 & 2. Drawings of the equipment and layout
required have been included in
Annex 6. At about 350 birds/hour, the overhead
conveyor system may be appropriate as it allows for
greater expansion of the
throughput should this be desired at a later stage. Details of the design of
the
abattoir are given in Drawing 3. Model 3 has been drawn up to show a system of
slaughter using
an overhead conveyor. The equipment required, their specifications
and the staffing levels needed to
operate it are given in Annex 5.

The processing plant will slaughter poultry, chill carcases prior to cutting them into
portions for
freezing. Daily dispatch is planned, as installed freezer capacity is
sufficient for only 1 1/2 days
production. There is some scope for the preparation of
chilled poultry. The birds will be bought by the
factory and sold either to
wholesalers or buyers of at least 20% of the days production. This reduces
the
administrative load to manageable levels.

Concerning operation, two types of plucker are proposed, either a bowl or a

drum/flail system
following soft scalding at 52°C. Evisceration is carried out on an
overhead rail system. Since the
weight of the by-products will amount to about
750kg/day, feathers, heads, feet and viscera pass to a
truck for disposal rather than
undergo further processing. However, some suggestions are made later
about the
possibilities for offal use.
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Three carcase chilling systems are proposed. The first is to chill in cooled
(refrigerated) water, the
second in slush ice followed by drainage on a rack. The
third system involves cooling the birds on a
rack in an air chiller. The systems are
fundamentally different and will require economic analysis
before the best system
can be advised. Factors to be considered include the capital and recurrent
costs of
the equipment, its maintenance and spares, the regularity of use, the size of the load
regularly slaughtered, microbiological status of the carcase and the weight changes
which take place
during the two different methods of processing.

Notes on the Drawings

There are some points to note about all sets of drawings. The number of doors to
the outside have
been reduced to the minimum in the interests of security. In Model
2, a door could be constructed to
the outside in the evisceration room in those
regions where security is not of great concern.

The dirty and clean operations are separated. “Clean” and “Dirty” workers are
separated and there
are “windows” through which product passes but personnel
cannot. The staff facilities are separated
by a corridor and processing rooms do not
open directly to the outside. Staff facilities share plumbing
runs with others, the
laundry in one case and the crate wash in the other. The dry stores are
accessible
both to deliveries and for the packing room. The machine room is separated from
product
rooms. Maintenance and service engineers do not need to enter clean
production rooms
unnecessarily.

The product flows smoothly through the rooms which are separated into reception;
slaughter, scalding
and defeathering; evisceration, washing and giblet processing;
chilling; cutting and packing; chilling
and freezing; dispatch.

The equipment, given in the lists in Annexes 3, 4 and 5, is mainly from a specialist
equipment supplier
but some items are of local fabrication. The general
manufacturing principles to follow are given
earlier.

Note that the drains flow from clean areas to dirty. Note also the position of service
points, particularly
wash hand basins, water, steam, electricity, lighting, fans for
ventilation and ice.

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