Course Schedule – Day 2

157

5. Loadflow
 Loadflow Theory
 Loadflow Assumptions
 Solution Methods
 Solving New Networks
 Solving Networks during Studies
 Powerflow Flow Reports

6. Powerflow Data Modification & Verification

7. PSS/e Graphics

8. Loadflow Hands-On Examples

 IEEE 14
4 Bus Example
p
 SAPP Case file
 Loadflow in PSS/e
158
 Loadflow Theory
 Loadflow
L dfl A
Assumptions
i
 Solution Methods
 Solving New Networks
 Solving Networks during Studies
 PowerFlow Solutions
 Power Flow Reports
 Bus Admittance Matrix or Ybus
159

 First step in solving the power flow is to create what

is known as the bus admittance matrix, often call the
Ybus.
 The Ybus gives the relationships between all the bus
current injections, I, and all the bus voltages, V,
I = Ybus V
 The Ybus is developed by applying KCL at each bus in
the
h system to relate
l the
h b
bus current iinjections,
j i the
h
bus voltages, and the branch impedances and
admittances
 Ybus Example
160

Determine the bus admittance matrix for the network

shown below, assuming the current injection at each
bus i is Ii = IGi - IDi where IGi is the current injection into the
bus from the ggenerator and IDi is the current flowingg into the
load
 Ybus Example, cont’d
161
By KCL at bus 1 we have
I1 IG1  I D1
V1  V2 V1  V3
I1  I12  I13  
ZA ZB
1
I1  (V1  V2 )YA  (V1  V3 )YB (with Yj  )
Zj
 (YA  YB )V1  YA V2  YB V3
Similarly
I 2  I 21  I 23  I 24
 YA V1  (YA  YC  YD )V2  YC V3  YD V4
 Ybus Example, cont’d
162
We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4
Th results
The l can then
h be b expressedd in
i matrix
i form
f
I  Ybus V
 I1  YA  YB YA YB 0  V1 
 I   Y YA  YC  YD YC YD  V2 
 2  A  
 I 3   YB YC YB  YC 0  V3 
I   0 YD YD  V4 
 4  0

For a system with n buses, Ybus is an n by n

symmetric matrix (i.e., one where Aij = Aji)
 Ybus General Form
163

The diagonal terms, Yii, are the self admittance

tterms, equall tto th
the sum off th
the admittances
d itt off all
ll
devices incident to bus i.

The off-diagonal terms, Yij, are equal to the

negative of the sum of the admittances joining the
t
two b
buses.


With large
g systems
y Ybus is a sparse
p matrix (that
is, most entries are zero)

terms, such as with the  line model

Shunt terms model, only
affect the diagonal terms.
 Modeling Shunts in the Ybus
164

Ykc
Si
Since I ij  (Vi  V j )Yk  Vi
2
Ykc
Yii   Yk 
Yiifrom other lines
2
1 1 Rk  jjX k Rk  jX
j k
t Yk 
Note
N   2
Z k Rk  jX k Rk  jX k Rk  X k2
 Two Bus System Example
165

Bus i Bus j

0.03+j0.04
1 2
j0.1 jj0.1 2
1

(V1  V2 ) Yc 1
I1   V1  12  j16
Z 2 0.03  j 0.04
 I1  12  j15.9 12  j16  V1 
 I    12  j16 12  j15.9  V 
 2   2
 Using the Ybus
166

If the voltages are known then we can solve for

the current injections:
Ybus V  I
If the current injections are known then we can
solve for the voltages:
1
Ybus I  V  Zbus I
where Z bus is the bus impedance matrix
 Solving for Bus Currents
167
For example, in previous case assume
 1.0 
V 
 0.8  j 0.2 
Then
12  j15.9 12  j16   1.0   5.60  j 0.70 
 12  j16 12  j15.9  0.8  j 0.2    5.58  j 0.88
    
Therefore the power injected at bus 1 is
S1  V1I1*  1.0  (5.60  j 0.70)  5.60  j 0.70
S2  V2 I 2*  (0.8  j 0.2)  (5.58  j 0.88)  4.64  j 0.41
 Solving for Bus Voltages
168
For example, in previous case assume
 5.0
50
I 
 4.8 
Then
1
12  j15.9 12  j16   5.0   0.0738  j 0.902 
 12  j16 12  j15.9   4.8   0.0738  j1.098
     
Therefore the power injected is
S1  V1I1*  (0.0738  j 0.902)  5  0.37  j 4.51
S2  V2 I 2*  (0.0738  j1.098)  (4.8)  0.35  j 5.27
Power Flow Requires Iterative Solution
169

In the ppower flow we assume we know Si and the

Ybus . We would like to solve for the V's. The problem
is the below equation has no closed form solution:
*
 n  n
Si  Vi I i*  Vi   YikVk   Vi  Yik*Vk*
 k 1  k 1
Rather, we must pursue an iterative approach.
 Gauss Iteration
170
There are a number of different iterative methods
we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.

With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our

equation
q in an implicit
p form: x = h(x)
( )

x x ((0)) ,
To iterate we first make an initial guess of x,
and then iteratively solve x (v +1)  h( x ( v ) ) until we
ˆ such that xˆ  h(x).
find a "fixed point", x, ˆ
 Gauss Iteration Example
171

Example: Solve x - x 1  0
x ( v 1)  1  x (v)
Let k = 0 and arbitrarily guess x (0)  1 and solve
k x (v ) k x (v)
0 1 5 2.61185
1 2 6 2.61612
2 2.41421 7 2.61744
3 2.55538 8 2.61785
4 2.59805 9 2.61798
 Stopping Criteria
172
A key problem to address is when to stop the
i
iteration.
i With
Wi h the
h Guass
G iteration
i i we stop when
h
x ( v )   with x ( v ) x ( v 1)  x ( v )
If x is a scalar this is clear, but if x is a vector we
need to generalize tthe
he absolute value by using a norm
x ( v ) 
j
Two common norms are the Euclidean & infinity
n
x 2   i
x 2
x   max i x i
i 1
 Gauss Power Flow
173
We first need to put the equation in the correct form
*
 n  n
Si  Vi I i*  Vi   YikVk   Vi  Yik*Vk*
 k 1  k 1
n n
*
Si  *
Vi I i  Vi *
 YikVk  Vi *
 YikVk
k 1 k 1

S*i n n

Vi*
  YikVk  YiiVi   YikVk
k 1 k 1,k i

1  S*i n 
Vi   *   YikVk 
Yii  V k 1,k i


i
 Gauss Two Bus Power Flow Example
174

A 100 MW,, 50
5 Mvar load is connected to a
generator
through a line with z = 0.02 + j0.06 p.u. and line
charging of 5 Mvar on each end (100 MVA base).
Also, there is a 25 Mvar capacitor at bus 2. If the
generator voltage is 1.0
1 0 p.u.,
p u what is V2?
 Gauss Two Bus Example, cont’d
175

The unknown is the complex load voltage, V2 .

To determine V2 we need to know the Ybus .
1
 5  j15
0.02  j 0.06
5  j14.95 5  j15 
Hence Ybus   
  5  j15 5  j14.70 
( Note B22  - j15  j 0.05
0 05  j 0.25)
0 25)
 Gauss Two Bus Example, cont’d
176
1  S*2 n 
V2   *   YikVk 
Y22  V2 k 1,k i 
1  -1  j 0.5 
V2    (5  j15)(1.0
15)(1 00) 
5  j14.70  V2 *

Guess V2((0))  11.0
00 (this is known as a flat start)
v V2( v ) v V2( v )
0 1.000  j 0.000 3 0.9622  j 0.0556
1 0.9671  j 0.0568 4 0.9622  j 0.0556
2 0.9624  j 0.0553
 Gauss Two Bus Example, cont’d
177

V2  0.9622  j 0.0556  0.9638  3.3

Once the voltages are known all other values can
be determined,, such as the generator
g ppowers and the
line flows
S1*  V1* (Y11V1  Y12V2 )  1.023
1 023  j 0.239
0 239
In actual units P1  102.3 MW, Q1  23.9 Mvar
2
The capacitor is supplying V2 25  23.2 Mvar
 Slack Bus
178

 In previous example we specified S2 and V1 and then

solved for S1 and V2.
 We can not arbitrarily specify S at all buses because
total generation must equal total load + total losses
 We also need an angle
g reference bus.
 To solve these problems we define one bus as the
"slack" bus. This bus has a fixed voltage magnitude
and angle, and a varying real/reactive power
injection.
 Gauss with Many Bus Systems
179
With multiple bus systems we could calculate
new Vi ' s as ffollows:
ll

1  S*i n 
Vi(v 1)   ( v )*   YikVk( v ) 
Yii  V   
 i k 1, k i 
 hi (V1( v ) ,V2( v ) ,...,Vn(v ) )
But after we've determined Vi( v 1) we have a better
estimate of its voltage , so it makes sense to use this
new value. This approach is known as the
Gauss-Seidel iteration.
 Gauss-Seidel Iteration
180
Immediately use the new voltage estimates:
V2( v 1)  h2 (V1 ,V2( v ) ,V3( v ) ,,Vn( v ) )
V3( v 1)  h2 (V1 ,V2( v 1) ,V3( v ) ,,Vn( v ) )
V4( v 1)  h2 (V1 ,V2( v 1) ,V3( v 1) ,V4( v ) ,Vn( v ) )

Vn( v 1)  h2 (V1 ,V2( v 1) ,V3( v 1) ,V4( v 1) ,Vn( v ) )
The Gauss-Seidel works better than the Gauss, and
y easier to implement.
is actually p It is used instead
of Gauss.
 Three Types of Power Flow Buses
181

 There are three main types of power flow buses

– Load (PQ) at which P/Q are fixed; iteration solves for voltage
magnitude and angle.
– Slack at which the voltage magnitude and angle are fixed;
iteration solves for P/Q injections
– Generator (PV) at which P and |V| are fixed; iteration solves
for voltage angle and Q injection
 special coding is needed to include PV buses in the
G
Gauss-Seidel
S id l iiteration
i
 Gauss-Seidel Advantages
182

 Each iteration is relatively fast (computational order

is proportional to number of branches + number of
y
buses in the system
 Relatively easy to program
 Gauss-Seidel Disadvantages
183

 Tends to converge relatively slowly,

slowly although this can
be improved with acceleration
 Has tendency to miss solutions
solutions, particularly on large
systems
 Tends to diverge
g on cases with negative
g branch
reactances (common with compensated lines)
 Need to program using complex numbers
 Newton-Raphson Algorithm
184

 The second major

j power
p flow solution method is
the Newton-Raphson algorithm
 Key idea behind Newton-Raphson is to use
sequential linearization

Generall form
G f off problem:
bl Find
Fi d an x suchh that
th t
f ( xˆ )  0
 Newton-Raphson Method (scalar)
185
(v)
1. For each guess of xˆ , x , define
x ( v )  xˆ - x ( v )
2 Represent f ( xˆ ) by a Taylor series about f ( x )
2.
(v)
df ( x ) (v)
f ( xˆ )  f ( x ) 
(v)
x 
d
dx
2 (v)

1 d f (x
2 dxd 2
)
 x 
(v) 2
 higher
g order terms
 Newton-Raphson Method, cont’d
186
3. Approximate f ( xˆ ) by neglecting all terms
except the
h first
fi two
(v)
df ( x ) (v)
f ( xˆ )  0  f ( x ) 
(v)
x
dx
4. Use this linear approximation to solve for x (v )
1
 df ( x )  (v )
x  
(v ) (v)
 f (x )
 dx 
5. Solve for a new estimate of x̂
( v 1)
x  x (v )
 x (v)
 Newton-Raphson Example
187

Use Newton-Raphson to solve f ( x)  x 2 - 2  0

The equation we must iteratively solve is
1
 df ( x ) 
(v )
x (v )
   f ( x (v )
)
 dx 
x (v )  1  (v ) 2
   ( v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
( v 1)
x  x (v)
 x (v )

x ( v 1)
 x (v)  1  (v) 2
  ( v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
 Newton-Raphson Example, cont’d
188

x ( v 1)
 x (v )  1  (v) 2
  ( v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
Guess x (0)  1. Iterativelyy solvingg we get
g
v x(v ) f ( x(v) ) x ( v )
0 1 1 05
0.5
1 1.5 0.25 0.08333
2 1.41667 6.953  103 2.454  103
3 1.41422 6.024  106
 Sequential Linear Approximations
189

At each
it ti th
iteration the
N-R method
uses a linear
approximation
to determine
Function is f(x) = x2 - 2 = 0. the next value
Solutions are points where for x
f(x) intersects f(x) = 0 axis
 Newton-Raphson Comments
190

 When close to the solution the error decreases quite

quickly -- method has quadratic convergence
 f(x(v)) is known as the mismatch
mismatch, which we would like
to drive to zero
pp g criteria is when 
 Stopping f(x
( (v))  < 
 Results are dependent upon the initial guess. What
if we had guessed x(0) = 0, or x (0) = -1?
 A solution’s region of attraction (ROA) is the set of
initial guesses that converge to the particular
solution.
l i Th
The ROA iis often
f h
hardd to d
determine
i
 Multi-Variable Newton-Raphson
191

Next we generalize to the case where x is an n-

dimension vector, and f (x) is an n-dimension function
 x1   f1 (x) 
x   f ( x) 
x   2
f ( x)   2 
   
x   f ( x) 
 n  n 
Again
A i ddefine
fi the l i xˆ so f (xˆ )  0 andd
h solution
x  xˆ  x
 Multi-Variable Case, cont’d
192

The Taylor series expansion is written for each fi (x)

f1 (x) f1 (x)
f1 (xˆ )  f1 (x)  x1  x2  
x1 x2
f1 (x)
xn  higher order terms
xn

f n (x) f n (x)
f n (xˆ )  f n (x)  x1  x2  
x1 x2
f n (x)
xn  higher order terms
xn
 Multi-Variable Case, cont’d
193

This can be written more compactly in matrix form

 f1 (x)
f1 (x)

f1 (x) 
 x
x2 xn 
 1 
f ( x )  1
  x1 
 f (x)   f 2 (x)
f 2 (x)

f 2 (x)  
 x 
f (xˆ )   2    x1
x2 xn   2 
      
 f ( x)       
 
 n   f (x)f n (x) f n (x)   n 
x
 n  
 x1
x2 xn 
 higher
hi h order
d terms
t
 Multi-Variable Example
194
 x1 
Solve for x =   such that f (x)  0 where
x2 
f1 (x)  2 x12  x22  8  0
f 2 (x)  x12  x22  x1 x2  4  0
First symbolically determine the Jacobian
 f1 (x) f1 (x) 
 x x2 
J (x) =  
1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x) 
 x1 x2 
 Multi-variable Example, cont’d
195

 4 x1 2 x2 
J (x) = 
 2 x1  x2 x1  2 x2 
Then
1
 x1   4 x1 2 x2   f1 (x) 
 x     2 x  x x1  2 x2   f 2 (x) 
 2  1 2
1
Arbitrarily guess x (0)
 
1
1
1  4 2   5  2.1
x (1)
        
1  3 1  3 1.3 
 Multi-variable Example, cont’d
196

1
 22.11 8.40 2 60   2.51
8 40 2.60 2 51 1.8284
1 8284 
x (2)
        
  
1.3 5.50  0.50   1.45  1.2122 
Each h iteration
i i we checkh k f (x) to see if it
i is
i below
b l our
specified tolerance 
0.1556 
f (x )  
(2)

 0.0900 
If  = 0.2 then we would be done. Otherwise we'd
continue iterating.
 NR Application to Power Flow
197

We first need to rewrite complex

p power
p equations
q
as equations with real coefficients
*
 n n
Si  Vi I i*  Vi   YikVk   Vi  Yik*Vk*
 k 1  k 1
These can be derived by defining
Yik Gik  jBik
ji
Vi Vi e  Vi  i
 ik i   k
Recall e j  cos  j sin 
 Real Power Balance Equations
198
n n
Si  Pi  jQi  Vi  Yik*Vk*   Vi Vk e jik (Gik  jBik )
k 1 k 1
n
  Vi Vk (cos ik  j sin  ik )(Gik  jBik )
k 1
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
 Newton-Raphson Power Flow
199

In the Newton-Raphson power flow we use Newton's

method to determine the voltage magnitude and angle
at each bus in the power system.
We need to solve the power balance equations
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
 Power Flow Variables
200

Assume the slack bus is the first bus (with a fixed

voltage angle/magnitude). We then need to determine
the voltage
g angle/magnitude
g g at the other buses.
 2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 
     
   
 n   Pn (x)  PGn  PDn 
x   f ( x)  
V2 Q (x)  QG 2  QD 2 
   2 
     
   
 n 
V  Qn (x)  QGn  QDn 
 N-R Power Flow Solution
201

The ppower flow is solved usingg the same p

procedure
discussed last time:
Set v  0; make an initial guess of x, x(v )
While f (x(v ) )   Do
( v 1) ( v ) 1
x  x  J (x ) f (x
(v ) (v )
)
v  v 1
End While
 Power Flow Jacobian Matrix
202

The most difficult part of the algorithm is determining

and inverting the n by n Jacobian matrix, J (x)
 f1 (x) f1 (x)

f1 (x) 
 x x2 xn 
 1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x)

f 2 (x) 
J (x)   x1 x2 xn 
 
     
 f (x) f n (x) f n (x) 
 n  
 x1 x2 xn 
 Power Flow Jacobian Matrix, cont’d
203

Jacobian elements are calculated by differentiating

each function, fi (x), with respect to each variable.
p if fi (x) is the bus i real ppower equation
For example, q
n
fi ( x)   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1

fi ( x) n

 i
  Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik )
k 1
k i

fi ( x)
 Vi V j (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik ) ( j  i )
 j
 Two Bus Newton-Raphson Example
204

For the two bus power system shown below, use the
Newton-Raphson power flow to determine the
voltage magnitude and angle at bus two. Assume
that bus one is the slack and SBase = 100 MVA.
Line Z = 0.1j

One 1.000 pu Two 1.000 pu

0 MW 200 MW
0 MVR 100 MVR

2    j10 j10 

x    Ybus   
 V2   j10  j10 
 Two Bus Example, cont’d
205
General power balance equations
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cosik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
Bus two power balance equations
V2 V1 (10sin  2 )  2.0
20  0
V2 V1 ( 10cos  2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
2
 Two Bus Example, cont’d
206
P2 (x)  V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0
Q2 (x)  V2 (10 cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
2

Now calculate the p

power flow Jacobian
 P2 (x) P2 (x) 
  V 2 
J ( x)   2

 Q 2 (x) Q 2 (x) 
   V 2 
 2

10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2 

 
10 V2 sin  2 10 cos 2  20 V2 
 Two Bus Example, First Iteration
207
0 
Set v  0,, gguess x (0)
 
1 
Calculate
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   2.0 
f(x )  
(0)
  1.0 
 V2 (10 cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0
2
1 0   
10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2  10 0 
J (x )  
(0)
   0 10 
i  2 10 cos 2  20 V2 
10 V2 sin  
1
0  10 0   2.0   0.2 
Sol e x
Solve ((1))
   1.0    
  
1 0 10     0.9 
 Two Bus Example, Next Iterations
208

 0.9 ((10 sin((  0.2))

))  2.0   0.212 
f(x )  
(1)
 
 0.9(  10 cos(  0.2))  0.9 2
 10  1.0   0.279 
 8.82  1.986 
J (x )  
(1)

  1.788 8.199 
1
  0.2
0 2   8.82
8 82  11.986
986   0.212
0 212    0.233
0 233 
x 
(2)
       
 0.9    1.788 8.199   0.279   0.8586 
 0.0145
.    0.236
. 
f(x )  
(2)
 x (3)
  0.8554 
 0.0190   
 0.0000906 
f(x (3)
)  D
Done!
! V2  00.8554
8554   13 52 
13.52
 0.0001175 
 Two Bus Solved Values
209

Once the voltage

g angle
g and magnitude
g at bus 2 are
known we can calculate all the other system values,
such as the line flows and the generator reactive
power output

200.0 MW -200.0 MW
168.3 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -100.0 MVR

One 1.000 pu Two 0.855 pu -13.522 Deg

200.0 MW 200 MW
168.3 MVR 100 MVR
 Two Bus Case Low Voltage Solution
210
This case actually has two solutions! The second
"l voltage"
"low lt " isi found
f d byb using
i a low
l initial
i iti l guess.
 0 
Set v  0, guess x (0)
 
 0.25 
Calculate
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   2 
f(x )  
(0)
   0.875
 V2 (10 cos 2 )  V2 (10)
2
( )  1.0   
10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2   2.5 0 
J (x )  
(0)
   0 5
10 V2 sin  2 10 cos 2  20 V2   
 Low Voltage Solution, cont'd
211
1
 0   2.5 0   2   0.8 
Solve x  
(1)
       
 0.25   0  5   0.875   0.075 
1.462  (2)  1.42   0.921
f (x )  
(2)
 x   x 
(3)

 0.534   0.2336   0.220 
Low voltage solution
200.0 MW -200.0 MW
831.7 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -100.0 MVR

One 1.000 pu Two 0.261 pu -49.914 Deg

200.0 MW 200 MW
83
831.7 MVR 100
00 MVR
 PV Buses
212

 Since the voltage

g magnitude
g at PV buses is fixed
there is no need to explicitly include these
voltages in x or write the reactive power balance
equations
ti
– the reactive power output of the generator varies to
maintain the fixed terminal voltageg ((within limits))
– optionally these variations/equations can be included by
just writing the explicit voltage constraint for the
generator bus

|Vi | – Vi setpoint = 0
 Three Bus PV Case Example
213

For this three bus case we have

 2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 
x   3  f (x)   P3 (x)  PG 3  PD 3   0
   
 V2   Q2 (x)  QD 2 
L in e Z = 0 .1 j

0 .9 4 1 p u
O ne 1 .0 0 0 p u Tw o -7 .4 6 9 D e g

1 7 0 .0
0 MW 200 MW
6 8 .2 M V R 100 MVR
L in e Z = 0 .1 j L in e Z = 0 .1 j

Three 1 .0 0 0 p u

30 MW
63 MVR
 The Loadflow Problem Statement
214

 Given the load power consumption at all buses of the

electrical system and the generator power production
at each power plant, find the power flow in each line
and transformer of the interconnecting network and
the voltage at each bus.
 The
Th load
l d fl
flow problem
bl pertains
i to a bbalanced
l d steady
d
state operation of the power system.
 Because it considers balanced operation in which all
negative and zero sequence voltages are zero, the
power flow calculation deals with the positive
sequence model of all system components.
 Input & Output Data
215

Input
p Data for Loadflow
 Transmission line impedances and charging admittances, (PI Model)
 R, X, B, and thermal ratings of branches (PI Model)
 Transformer impedances and tap ratios (PI Model)
 Admittances
Ad itt off shunt
h t connected
t d devices
d i such
h as capacitors
it and
d reactors
t
 Load power consumption at each bus of the system, modeled by:
 Constant power (Load Types)
 Constant impedance
p
 Constant current
 Real power output of each generator or generating plant
 Voltage magnitude at each generator bus
 Maximum
M i and
d minimum
i i reactive
ti power capability
bilit off each
h generating
ti plant
l t
Quantities to be Determined
 The voltage magnitude and angle at every bus
 The real and reactive power flow in every branch (Current flow)
 General Loadflow Assumptions
216

 All load flow routines give an indication of how the solution is

converging
i .
 All load flow routines can be interrupted by using the interrupt
button . From PSS/E Rev 26 this button has been removed and
replaced with the F10 function key.
key
 All PSS/E routines use the existing voltages in working case as
initial estimate, unless activity FLAT start is specified or option flat
is used in the solution routine.
routine
 Start with a Gauss-Seidel (SOLV)type routine until biggest per unit
voltage change, (real and imaginary part) has been reduced to about
0.01 or 0.005.
 Change over to a Newton-Raphson type routine (FNSL) until
convergence has been reached, or until generator reactive power
p shows signs
output g of failure - in this case switch back to a Gauss-
Seidel type routine.
 Always use flat start after divergence.
Solution Methods
217
Solution Selection Guide 1
218
Solution Selection Guide 2
219
Solution Selection Guide 3
220
 Approach
221

GENERAL APPROACH
 Start with a Gauss-Seidel type routine until biggest per unit voltage change,
(real and imaginary part) has been reduced to about 0.01 or 0.005.
 Change over to a Newton-Raphson type routine until convergence has been
reached, or until generator reactive power output shows signs of failure - in
this case switch back to a Gauss-Seidel type routine.
 Always use flat start after divergence.

SUGGESTIONS FOR NON-CONVERGENCE
NON CONVERGENCE
 Use a GAUSS-SEIDEL type routine and inspect results
 Scale loads down
 Ignore VARVAR-limits
limits
 If still no solution can be obtained then insert fictitious generators around
the network to aid convergence and then analyse results. This will highlight
weak areas in the network and/or data errors
 Solving
g Options
p
222

 It is p
possible for two users to solve identical networks yyet g
get differing
g
answers. The question is who is correct.
 Firstly, PSS/E has an iterative process and use initial ‘guess-estimates.’
This process is susceptible to numeric problems. For instance, in a raw data
g to 0.0pu
file set the actual voltage p and attempt p to solve the network. A 332-
bit run time error will be given.
 Secondly, tapping, switching of shunt devices, flat starts and generator
settings all play a significant role in solving networks.
 The Flat start sets all voltages to 1.0
1 0 pu and an angle of 00.0.
0 This is the best
starting point for any solution method.
 The solution tolerance of Iterative Solution Method may be changed by the
user, however results may not be valid there after.
 A diverging network will always BLOW UP. UP This indicated a major data
error and should be rectified before continuing.
 The number of iterations may be set in the options activity. A network
requiring only one iteration to converge is not “better” solved than one
requiring 7 iterations.
iterations
 If a network has not solved within 50 iterations, there is a good chance it
will never solve until some fine tuning has taken place.
 Solving a New Network
223

 1. Set all transformer tap ratios to 1.0pu. If a large number of transformers exist,
then an IPLAN program will speed up the operation.
 2. Solve the network using SOLV and MSOLV.
 Lock all transformer taps.
 Use FLAT start
 Enable shunt switching
 Ignore
g g
generator VAR limits
 This should switch in/out all required shunts placing the network voltages within acceptable limits. No
transformers will tap.
 3.If converged re-Solve the network using SOLV and MSOLV.
 Ensure NON - FLAT start
 Enable all transformer taps start
 E bl shunt
Enable h switching
i hi
 Enforce generator limits
 The solution will enforce the generator limits. Further switching of shunts may occur. If the network diverges,
then there could be a problem with the voltage controlling of the generators vers the controlling of the shunts.
 4. If converged re-Solve the network using FNSL or FDNS.
 Ensure NON - FLAT start
 Enable all transformers tapping using stepping
 Enable shunt switching start
 Enforce generator VAR limits
 The solution will tune the network using the transformer taps. If any shunts are switched then the voltage band
widths do not correspond. This must be corrected and re-solve. If all goes well the network should be correctly
sol ed
solved.
 5.The user should be able to solve the network will all options enabled and no
tapping or switching should take place.
 Solving a Network during Studies
224

 Lets assume that the base case has been correctly solved. The user would now like to
do studies.
d di The h majority
j i off the
h time
i the
h network
k will
ill converge with
i h the
h ffollowing
ll i
simple steps. However, if a large network change has taken place the steps for
solving an initial network must be followed.
 1.Solve the network using FDNS or FNSL.
 Lock all transformer taps.
taps
 Use FLAT start
 Enable shunt switching
 Enforce generator VAR limits
 This should switch in/out all required shunts placing the network voltages within acceptable
limits. No transformers will tap.
 2.If converged re-Solve the network using FNSL or FDNS.
 Ensure NON - FLAT start
 Enable all transformers tapping using stepping
 Enable shunt switching start
 Enforce generator VAR limits
 The solution will tune the network using the transformer taps. If any shunts are switched
then the voltage band widths do not correspond. This must be corrected and re-solve. If all
goes well the network should be correctly solved.
 Additional Hints for Solving
225

 If the user has a lot of confidence in the voltage

g limits that were set
for transformer taps and switched shunts, then the solution options
may be set to enable tapping and switching of shunts.

 The
Th user MUST always
l check
h k th
the solution
l ti reportt on th
the main
i screen
for a running report of all switching actions.

 When solving in graphics
graphics, use the ‘alt
alt tab
tab’ combinations to view the
solution report.

 Use the activity

y LIST to view case summary.
y This report
p g
gives the
losses, total generation, total load, charging of lines, and a swing
bus info plus a lot more. These parameters will indicate the validity
of the solved network

 Check & re-check the solution report.

 PowerFlow Solutions
226

 General Powerflow Solutions are accessed from icon or menu

Gauss Seidel Options
227
Newton Raphson Options
228
 NR Options
229

 ACCN - the acceleration factor

 TOL - the largest mismatch in MW and Mvar
 ITMXN - the maximum number of iterations
 DVLIM - the largest change in bus voltage
 NDVFCT - the non-divergent improvement factor
 VCTOLQ - the controlled bus Q mismatch convergence
tolerance
 VCTOLV - the controlled bus voltage error convergence
tolerance
NR Detailed Solutions
230
 Power Flow Reports
231

 Area/Zone Based Reports

 Area/Owner/Zone Totals
 Bus Based Reports
 Limit Checking Reports
 Area/Zone Based Reports
232

 The [Area/Zone Based Reports] dialog provides

options for interchange reports and tie line loading
p , of all subsystems
reports, y or selected subsystems,
y , byy
area or zone.
 INTA – Area Reports
 INTZ – Zone Reports
 TIES – Tieline Loading between areas
 TIEZ – Tieline Loading between zones
 Area/Owner/Zone Totals
233

 The [Area/Owner/Zone Totals] dialog provides options for subsystem

totals, of all subsystems or selected subsystems, by area, owner, or
zone. The area report may also include zone subtotals.
 Bus Based Reports
234

 Through the [Bus Based Reports] dialog , several power flow solution
reports may be obtained.
 The [Bus Based Reports] dialog enables the user to designate for
processing either the entire working case or a specified bus subsystem.
 A bus subsystem may be specified either via a [Bus Subsystem Selector]
dialog or by entering buses directly in the [Bus Based Reports] dialog.
 Limit Checking Reports
235

 The [Limit Checking Reports] dialog provides tabs to produce all PSSE limit
checking
h ki reports: t
 Note that each report can be restricted by Area, Owner, Zone, Base kV and Bus
according to :
 Machine Reactive Capability
 Generator Bus Limits
 Machine Terminal Limits
 Transmission Line Overloads
 Transformer Overloads • Branch Overloads
 Transmission Line Overloads
 Transformer Overloads
O erloads
 Branch Current Ratings
 Voltage Controlled Buses
 C t lli T
Controlling Transformers
f
 Out-of-limit Bus Voltage
 Power Flow Working Case Reporting
236

 Through the [List Data] dialog, the following tabulations of working case data
can be produced:
 •Categories of power flow data in tabular form (activity LIST).
 •Power flow data ggrouped
p together
g on a bus-by-bus
y basis ((activityy EXAM).
)
 •Categories of sequence data (i.e., fault analysis data) in tabular form (activity
SQLI).
 •Sequence data grouped together on a bus-by-bus basis (activity SQEX).
 •Categories of optimal power flow data in tabular form (activity LSTO).
 •Outaged network elements (activity OUTS).
 •Fixed and/or switched bus shunts (activity SHNT).
 •Extended bus names in alphabetic order (activity ALPH).
 PowerFlow Modification
237

 PSSE allows the user to modify the original network

model in a variety of ways.
 Network elements can be added and removed either
on an individual basis or in bulk. Network buses can
be renumbered.
 Transmission resistance elements can be updated.
Separate power flow files can be merged.
 Generation dispatch can be based on economic data.
 Existing network topology can be modified.
Disconnecting Busses
238
Join Bus
239
Splitting a Bus
240
Tapping a Line
241
 Removing Busses & Equipment
242

 PSS®E facilitates the users’

users ability to delete equipment items from the working
case. In the GUI, the primary means of deleting individual equipment items is
the [Spreadsheet]. In addition, the following may be removed from a specified
subsystem:
 •subsystem buses and all equipment connected to them.
 •all outaged items of a selected equipment category in a subsystem
Moving Equipment
243
Scaling Loads, Generators & Shunts
244
 Powerflow Data Verification
245

 PSS®E provides a variety of means by which data can be validated in order to

identify suspect parameters, conflicting voltage controls, unacceptable tap
controls, and isolated buses or inadvertent islands.
 The data checking is accompanied by the generation of reports at the Report
device for examination.
 The following can be utilised:
 Checking Branch Parameters
 Checking/Changing Controlled Bus Scheduled Voltages
 Checking/Changing Transformer Adjustment Data
 PSS/e Graphics & Output
246

The hands-on tutorial will demonstrate the following:

 Diagram Properties
 Diagram
g Templates
p
 Using Auto-Draw
 Displaying Results on Graphics
 Diagram Management
 Exporting of Results
 Tutorial 3 & 4
247

 Tutorial 3 – IEEE 23 Bus File

 Tutorial 4 - SAPP Case File