What is earthquake engineering?

Earthquake Engineering definitions ranged from the perspective in socioeconomic effects to

development as a branch of engineering with the estimation of earthquake consequences and the
mitigation of these consequences (Elnashai and Sarno, 2015). Bozorgnia and Bertero (2006) define
earthquake engineering (EE) as an integration of multidisciplinary knowledge in several areas of
basic sciences and science-based engineering with the ultimate goal of reducing the seismic risks to
socioeconomically acceptable levels. In earthquake engineering a wide range of knowledge that
includes geophysics, geology, seismology, vibration theory, structural dynamics, materials dynamics,
structural engineering, and construction techniques are necessary. More specifically, earthquake
engineering is the application of this knowledge to the single objective of building structures that are
safe against earthquakes (Okamoto, 1973). Earthquake engineering broadly encompasses all non-
technical, as well as technical efforts directed toward minimizing the harmful effects of earthquakes
(Housner, 1984).
Casualties of earthquakes
Figure 1-1 depicts the loss of lives caused by earthquakes averaging 10,000 people each year from
1900 to 1980. Effects on socioeconomic impacts in a UNESCO study that reported damage losses
amounting to $10,000,000,000 from 1926 to 1950 from earthquakes.
The motivation for the Scientific Study of Earthquakes
The motivation for the scientific study of earthquakes came from the extensive fieldwork of the Irish
engineer, Robert Mallett. He set out to explain how the mass of stone and mortar was dislocated in
terms of mechanical principles and establishes basic vocabulary such as seismology, hypocenter,
and isoseismal. From then on seismology and engineering close links have continued ever
since. Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes.
Earthquake Prediction
Prediction of the strong motion earthquake is expected for the large amplitude-long duration shaking
observed in damaging earthquakes. The great seismological advances occurred in studying waves
from distant earthquakes using very sensitive seismographs but not much fundamental work was
done by seismologists on the rarer large earthquakes of engineering importance because of the
deficiency of the usual seismograph before.
After the 1971 San Fernando earthquake several factors emerged such as topographic amplification
and the construction of realistic models of fault-rupture and travel-path that could explain the strong
motion patterns, variation in ground motions, a harvest of strong-motion recordings were obtained in
the latter earthquake and availability of digital recorders and fast computers that both seismologists
and engineers can tackle more fundamental and realistic problems of earthquake generation and
ground shaking.
Advancement in earthquake engineering
Strategic location for sited strong-motion accelerographs in seismic areas of the world enabled
knowledge of strong ground shaking. Seismic records had been digitized and were available for use
in research or practice, use of appropriate analysis such as quantitative dynamic analysis for the
structural design of structures in earthquake-prone regions, the requirement for seismic intensity and
input motions, or spectra of defining parameters. Predicted seismograms (time-histories) for dynamic
modeling in structural design or vulnerability assessments are often needed.
Seismicity is a description of the relationship of time, space, strength, and frequency of earthquake
occurrences within a certain region, and its understanding is the foundation of earthquake
study. Since there is still no practical way to control earthquakes, one can only try to understand and
follow their nature wisely to prepare for possible strong earthquakes through prediction, earthquake
engineering, and society or governmental efforts of disaster reduction (Bangash, 2011). Dowrick (2009)
defined seismicity as the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes per unit area in a given region and is
illustrated in non-numerical terms by the seismicity map of the world shown below in Fig 1.1.
Earthquake focus is the point from which the waves first emanate. The point on the ground surface
directly above the focus is called the earthquake epicenter.
Foci are classified into two namely shallow and deep focus. earthquakes with foci from 70 to 300
kilometers deep are called intermediate
focus and those below this depth are termed deep focus. Some intermediate and deep focus
earthquakes are located away from the Pacific
region, in the Hindu Kush, in Romania, in the Aegean Sea, and under Spain. The shallow-focus
earthquakes (< 70 Kms depth) is the most deadly and contribute about three-quarters of the total
energy released in earthquakes throughout the world.
Aftershocks are numerous earthquakes, usually smaller that follow most moderate to large shallow
earthquakes in the ensuing hours and even in the next several months. Aftershocks are sometimes
energetic enough to cause additional damage to already weakened structures. A few earthquakes are
preceded by smaller foreshocks from the source area, and it has been suggested that these can be
used to predict the main shock.

Seismology
The cause and nature of earthquakes is the subject of study of the science of seismology, and further
background may be obtained from the books by Richter, Bolt and Lay and Wallace (Dowrick, 2009).
Bangash (2011) defines Seismology as the study of earthquakes and the structure of the Earth by
both naturally and artificially generated seismic waves (Manohar and Madhekar, 2015). Bozorgnia
and Bertero (2006) recounted that In fact, Robert Mallet invented the word seismology, which is
derived from Greek words meaning shake-knowledge; he also coined the term epicenter (Housner,
1984). According to Housner (1984), “Robert Mallet can be called the primeval earthquake engineer.”

Seismicity
Seismicity is the distribution and frequency of earthquake events. Seismic is relating to or caused by
an earthquake or earth tremor (Microsoft Encarta, 2009). Whether we are designing a structure or
predicting the magnitude of the earthquake event, knowledge of seismicity is imperative.
Understanding of seismicity depends heavily on aspects of geology, which is the science of the
earth’s crust, and also calls upon knowledge of the physics of the earth as a whole (Dowrick, 2009) .
Seismicity is defined as the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes per unit area in a given region,
and is illustrated in non-numerical terms by the seismicity map of the world presented in the figure
below (Dowrick, 2009). The first seismicity map of the world was published by Mallet in 1860, and in
1872 Gilbert reported (Otani 2003) that earthquakes are usually centered on a fault line (Manohar
and Madhekar, 2015). The seismicity factor Z relates to severity of the ground motion at the site of
the structure (NAVFAC, 1982, Julio, 2008) and for an effective seismic-resistant design it is important
to know the seismicity of the area under study (Khan, 2013).
Causes of earthquakes
Plate Tectonic Theory
Understanding the tectonic causes of earthquakes and identifying the seismogenic geological
features in a region, enable the formulation of distribution patterns of potential sources (Dowrick,
2009). Bangash (2011) discussed the development of plate tectonics on the hypothesis of sea-floor
spreading during the past few decades. According to this concept, the rigid lithosphere, consisting of
six major plates, drifts on the rheological asthenosphere, like a ship on the ocean, but with a very
slow speed. The six plates are the Eurasian, Pacific, American, African, Indian and Antarctic. Each
plate may then be subdivided into smaller plates. The relative movements of the plates are roughly
few centimeters per year and has continued for at least 200 million years. The theory can be
described as follows: (1) Material flows out from the upper mantel through the lithosphere at ocean
ridges where the crust is thin and pushes the lithosphere, whose thickness is a few kilometers, (2)
drifting horizontally on the asthenosphere, which shows rheological properties under high
temperature, high pressure and permanent horizontal pushing. When two tectonic plates collide, one
thrusts under the other and comes back to the lithosphere, which forms a deep ocean trench and
subduction zone at the junction of two plates and volcanoes and mountains on the plate which
remains on the Earth’s surface. A reference is made to the basics given in the figure below.
Earthquake Fault Sources
When two earth's masses move with respect to one another, elastic strain energy due to tectonic
processes is stored and then released through the rupture of the interface zone. The distorted blocks
snap back towards equilibrium and an earthquake ground motion is produced. This process is
referred to as ‘elastic rebound’. The resulting fracture in the Earth’s crust is termed a ‘fault’. During
the sudden rupture of the brittle crustal rock seismic waves are generated. These waves travel away
from the source of the earthquake along with the Earth’s outer layers. Their velocity depends on the
characteristics of the material through which they travel (Elnashai and Sarno, 2015 ).
Faults - offsets of geological structure; may range in length from a few meters to many kilometers and
are drawn on a geological map as continuous or broken line
1.Movement of faults

• Slow slip - produces no ground shaking

• Sudden rupture - due to earthquake, most famous is the San Andreas fault Shallow focus
earthquakes - much shorter and shows much less offset.
• Fault rupture - majority of earthquakes does not reach the surface
• Geological mappings and geophysical work - show that faults seen at the
• surface sometimes extend to depths of tens of kilometers in the Earth’s crust

Faults - offsets of geological structure; may range in length from a few meters to many kilometers and
are drawn on a geological map as continuous or broken line
1.Movement of faults

• Slow slip - produces no ground shaking

• Sudden rupture - due to earthquake, most famous is the San Andreas fault Shallow focus
earthquakes - much shorter and shows much less offset.
• Fault rupture - majority of earthquakes does not reach the surface
• Geological mappings and geophysical work - show that faults seen at the
• surface sometimes extend to depths of tens of kilometers in the Earth’s crust

2. Inactive faults
•
o Most plotted on geological maps are now inactive faults
o New discovery are also discovered from fresh ground breakage during an
earthquake
o Thus, Delineated by a line of cracks

3. Active faults

• Primary interest in seismology and earthquake engineering

• Rock displacement - expected to occur
• Exists in a well defined plate-edge regions of the earth
• Sudden fault displacement

4. Fault displacement

• almost entirely horizontal – San Francisco earthquake along the San Andreas fault
• Large vertical motion occurrence as shown in the figure
Seismic Waves

Fault ruptures cause brittle fractures of the Earth’s crust and dissipate up to 10% of the total plate‐
tectonic energy in the form of seismic waves. Earthquake shaking is generated by two types of elastic
seismic waves: body and surface waves. The shaking felt is generally a combination of these waves,
especially at small distances from the source or ‘near‐field’ (Elnashai and Sarno, 2015 ).

Bolt (2008) on the other hand discussed three basic types of elastic waves that make up the shaking
that is felt and causes damage in an earthquake.

Primary or P wave – the faster body wave. Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave, in that, as
it spreads out, it alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock (see Figure 1-11).
These P waves, just like sound waves, are able to travel through both solid rock, such as granite
mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma or the water of the oceans.
Secondary wave – the slower body wave. As an S wave propagates, it shears the rocks sideways at
right angles to the direction of travel (see Figure 1-12). Thus, at the ground surface S waves can
produce both vertical and horizontal motions. The S waves cannot propagate in the liquid parts of the
Earth, such as the oceans and their amplitude is significantly reduced in liquefied soil.
Surface wave - third general type of earthquake wave. Such waves correspond to ripples of water
that travel across a lake. Most of the wave motion is located at the outside surface itself, and as the
depth below this surface increases, wave displacements become less and less.
Surface waves in earthquakes can be divided into two types.

1. Love wave - Its motion is essentially the same as that of S waves that have no vertical
displacement; it moves the ground side to side in a horizontal plane parallel to the Earth’s
surface, but at right angles to the direction of propagation, as can be seen from the
illustration in Figure 1-13.
2. The second type of surface wave is known as a Rayleigh wave. Like rolling ocean waves,
the pieces of rock disturbed by a Rayleigh wave move both vertically and horizontally in a
vertical plane pointed in the direction in which the waves are travelling.

Ways Earthquakes can Damage Structures

1. by inertial forces generated by severe ground shaking.
2. by earthquake induced fires.
3. by changes in the physical properties of the foundation soils (e.g. consolidation, settling, and
liquefaction).
4. by direct fault displacement at the site of a structure.
5. by landslides, or other surficial movements.
6. by seismically induced water waves such as seismic sea waves (tsunamis) or fluid motions in
reservoirs and lakes (seiches).
7. by large-scale tectonic changes in ground elevation.
Earthquake Intensity
The oldest useful yardstick of the “strength” of an earthquake is earthquake intensity(1-1). Intensity is
the measure of damage to works of man, to the ground surface, and of human reaction to the
shaking. Because earthquake intensity assessments do not depend on instruments, but on the actual
observation of effects in the meizoseismal zone, intensities can be assigned even to historical
earthquakes. In this way, the historical record becomes of utmost importance in modern estimates of
seismological risk (Bolt, 2008) .

The word ‘‘intensity’’ may be defined qualitatively as ‘‘the quality or condition of being intense’’ or
quantitatively as ‘‘magnitude, as of energy or a force per unit of area or time’’. The term earthquake
intensity was introduced to be a physical quantity, but through qualitative or fuzzy definitions. In the
earthquake engineering field, some consider it a qualitative rating through the intensity scale, but
many engineers consider it an equivalent of ground peak acceleration intensity (Bangash, 2011).

Earthquake Magnitude
If sizes of earthquakes are to be compared world-wide, a measure is needed that does not depend,
as does intensity, on the density of population and type of construction. A strictly quantitative scale
that can be applied to earthquakes in both inhabited and uninhabited regions was originated in 1931
by Wadati in Japan and developed by Charles Richter in
1935 in California (Bolt, 2008).

The first known seismic instrument, the Houfeng seismometer, made in the year AD 132 in the Late
Han dynasty by the ancient Chinese scientist Heng Zhang, successfully recorded an earthquake in
AD 138. The modern type of seismograph
started in the eighteenth century and includes three subsystems: sensor, amplifier and recorder. For
the special requirements of the seismologist, the seismograph records usually the displacement of
the ground motion due to an earthquake (Bangash, 2011).

The subject of source models is an area of study for seismologists, the results of which are fundamental to our
understanding of the nature of ground motion. From amidst the complexities of this major study area a number
of key parameters are evident as being of interest to earthquake engineers, some of which have already been
introduced, such as fault length, fault width, fault displacement (or slip), stress drop on a fault, and, of course,
earthquake magnitude. Some regional differences in fault length have been noted in Section 1.8 (Bolt, 2008) .
A few further features of source models are briefly described below, and for further reading specialist textbooks
should be consulte, d, such as Kasahara (1981) (Dowrick, 2009).

Because of the difficulties involved in seismic hazard evaluation, earthquake design criteria in
different areas of the world vary, from well codified to inadequate or non-existent. Hence, depending
on the location and nature of the project concerned, seismic risk evaluation ranging from none
through arbitrary to thoroughgoing may be required (Dowrick, 2009).
Regional seismicity or risk maps recommended by seismic design codes usually do not attempt to
reflect geological conditions nor to take into account variations due to soil properties. It is necessary,
therefore, for critical construction in populated regions to make special geological-engineering studies
for each site, the detail, and level of concern which is used depending on the density of occupancy as
well as the proposed structural type. In inhabited areas, more casualties are likely to result from a
failed dam or a damaged nuclear reactor, for example, than from a
damaged oil pipeline (Bolt, 2008).
Bolt (2008) reported three factors which must be considered in assessment of seismic risk of a site
have been well-defined in recent times. Here a brief summary of these factors is listed. Please

see Modular 1 Download Modular 1reference for the summary of these factors:

1. Geological Input - Provision of a structural geologic map, Compilation of active faults in the
region and the type of displacement (e.g., left-lateral, strike-slip, etc.).
2. Seismological Input - Procedures for the estimation of ground shaking parameters for
optimum engineering design are still in the early stages and many are untested.
3. Soils Engineering Input - When there is geological indication of the presence of structurally
poor foundation material (such as in flood plains and filled tidelands), a field report on the
surficial strata underlying the site is advisable.

Earthquake and Ground Motion Prediction

The most important seismological aspect of hazard mitigation is the prediction of the strong ground motion
likely at a particular site (see Reiter 1990; Bolt 1996). Nevertheless, the aspects of earthquake prediction that
still receive the most publicity are the prediction of the place, size and time of the earthquake. Of course,
prediction of the region where earthquakes are likely to occur has long been achieved by seismicity studies
using earthquake observatories. In addition, useful probability estimates of long-term hazard can be inferred
from geological measurements of the slip rate of faults (see, e.g., Sieh 1978), regional strain changes, and so
on.