Conceptual Integrated Science

Chapter Summary
Chapter 22

Unit 5: Earth Science – Summary & Test Study Guide

Explain why Earth science is an integrated science?

GEOLOGY

Earth is a rocky sphere.

3/4ths WATER

EARTH SCIENCE, an integrated science YOU NEED physics, chemistry,

biology, and astronomy. That’s because our home planet is a
complex system of living and nonliving parts and processes.

Geology is the broadest Earth science discipline. It is concerned with

the composition and structure of Earth.

Meteorology is the study of weather. Petrology is the study of rocks,

while mineralogy is the science of the minerals within those rocks.

Paleontology is the study of Earth’s early history, including the

dinosaurs and other creatures whose fossilized remains fascinate us
today.

Hydrology investigates the flow of Earth’s waters, while

Oceanography focuses on the oceans.

Volcanology is the study of volcanoes. There are many other

branches of Earth science too.

Cross-disciplinary geosciences include geophysics and

environmental
EXPLAIN THIS Why is Earth classified as one of the solar system’s three
“rocky” planets?

If you SLICED Earth open and analyzed its chemical composition, you
would find that it is layered like a hard-boiled egg. We recognize
three main layers in an egg: the shell, egg white, and yolk. Similarly,
Earth has three main layers: the crust, mantle, and core (Figure 22.2).
Each of these layers consists of different materials.
The Crust
Earth’s crust has two parts:
--continental crust, which makes up the landmasses, and
Continental crust is mostly lighter, less dense, granitic rock.
Yosemite Half Dome in Picture
--oceanic crust, which underlies the oceans. The oceanic crust is
made of mostly dense, dark gray or black, fine-grained rock called
basalt.
(a) Basalt is a fine-grained, dark rock rich in silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium.
Theoceanic crust is composed almost entirely of basaltic rock.

(b) The continental crust is composed of chiefly light-colored, low-density granitic rock. Half
Dome in Yosemite, shown here, is a classic example of the granitic rock of the continental
crust.

(c) Oceanic rock is found on land as well as under the sea. This
basalt formed on the seafloor but was uplifted to a high altitude by
tectonic forces. Earth science is so integrated

CRUST IS MADE OF Earth’s surface layer. Like an eggshell, it is thin

and brittle and can crack. The crust is composed mainly of rocks
that minerals rich in silicon and oxygen. You might be surprised to
learn that the most common element in the crust is actually oxygen.
So, you see, oxygen not only fills the air, but it is a major ingredient of
solid Earth, too!
Both the oceanic crust and the continental crust are composed
mainly of silicon and oxygen with smaller amounts of other elements.
The basaltic rock of the ocean floor contains a higher proportion of
the dark minerals iron and magnesium than granitic rock. This
accounts for basalt’s striking dark color. The above right photo
shows the rock when it is lifted from the sea by tectonic forces.

As Figure 22.4 shows, mountains are like tips of icebergs. They are mostly buried
beneath the surface. The mountaintops you see above ground are sup- ported
by deep “roots”—huge masses of continental crust that reach far into the
mantle.
THE SIZE The oceanic crust is only 7 km thick on average, a distance
you could walk in about an hour. Continental crust is thicker—on
average, it’s about 40 km from the top to the bottom.

When the tops of mountains are worn away by erosion, the roots
move upward, poke above Earth’s surface, and keep rising as the
mountain loses mass at the top. So, as mountains wear down, they
are continually replenished from below. The reason this happens is
that the crust “floats” or buoys up and down in the mantle like a
boat in the ocean. (Like all floating objects, the crust floats at the
level where the buoyant force pushing it up equals the force of
gravity pushing it down.

ISOSTASY The vertical positioning of Earth’s crust due to its flotation in

the mantle is called isostasy. Isostasy explains why mountain roots rise
up (and therefore why mountains take so long to wear away—they
have reserve mass stored under- ground). Isostasy is also the reason
that the oceanic crust sits lower in the mantle than the continental
crust: The oceanic crust is made of denser rock,

Now you know that Earth’s crust moves up and down due to isostasy.
But the crust also moves in far more complicated ways.

Over geologic time, the entire crust churns, wrinkles, stretches, mixes
up, and circulates. I
t’s true that oceanic crust is mainly basaltic rock and continental
crust is mainly granitic. Still, rocks of each type are intermixed
throughout the crust.
You can find ancient sea creatures embedded in black basaltic
rock high in the mountains because, although these rocks formed on
the seafloor, they were uplifted by great tectonic forces you will
soon learn more about.

Likewise, continental rock can be found on the seafloor among the

basaltic rock because eroded continental sediments from the land
eventually wash to the sea. The crust is a complex assemblage of
rocks mixed over time like a very big pot of stew.

The Mantle
Hidden beneath Earth’s crust is the mantle, a thick layer of hot rock.
Geologists know much less about the mantle than they know about
the crust. We cannot see into the mantle because light does not
travel through rock. Nor can we drill into the mantle because rock is
so hard that drilling equipment breaks before it reaches the bottom
of the crust. Scientists would like to drill all the way to the mantle
someday because most of Earth—82, of its mass and 65, of its
volume—is mantle.

The mantle’s thickness is 2900 km from the bottom of the crust to the
top of the core. Geologists have sampled molten (melted) rock that
travels through volcanic vents in the ocean floor. Chemical analysis
of this rock shows that the mantle con- sists mostly of rock rich in
silicon and oxygen, like the crust. But mantle rock has

proportionately more magnesium and iron than the crust, and it

contains a high proportion of calcium too. The contribution of the
denser elements makes the mantle denser than the crust. The
mantle’s density is further increased by the weight of the overlying
crust. The crust’s weight bears down on the mantle, compressing the
spaces between the rocks and also squeezing the rocks’ molecular
structures.
The Core
At the center of Earth lies its core. The core is a huge ball of hot
metal, mostly iron with a lesser amount of nickel. Because iron is a
very dense element, the core is much denser than the mantle and
the crust.

SIZE The core has a radius of about 3500 km—approximately the

distance from San Francisco to New York. Because we cannot
observe the core, our knowledge of it is limited.

WHAT WE KNOW - NOT MUCH BUT it come from seismology, the

study of earthquake waves.

Earth’s Structural Layers

E X P L A I N T H I S Why do geologists often speak of Earth’s structural
layers rather than the compositional layers? analyze Earth’s interior,
we can go beyond the three-layer, hardboiled egg model.

5 functional layers based on their physical properties. Physical

propertie like temperature, pressure, strength, and ability to flow.

lithosphere,
asthenosphere,
lower mantle,
outer core, and
Inner core

The Lithosphere
The “rock sphere” we call the lithosphere (“LITH-uh-sphere”) is a shell
of cool, rigid rock. The lithosphere includes the crust and some of the
upper portion of Looking at earth as being composed of just a crust

carried along on the flowing asthenosphere like rafts on a slowly

flowing ocean. When we say that the asthenosphere moves slowly,
we mean very slowly. The hour hand on a clock moves about 10,000
times faster than the “flowing” asthenosphere. This layer flows so
slowly that it would look like solid rock if you could see it.

The Lower Mantle

The lower mantle sits between the asthenosphere and the outer
core. It consists of strong, rigid mantle rock. Despite its extreme heat,
the lower mantle is not nearly as plastic as the asthenosphere.

The Outer Core

The outer core is a shell of hot, liquid metal—mostly iron with some
nickel. The outer core lies beneath the mantle and above the inner
core. Since the outer core is liquid, it spins as Earth rotates. The outer
core also swishes and flows because its enormous heat stirs up
convection currents within it.
The outer core creates Earth’s magnetic field. Do you remember
from physics that moving charged particles make up an electric
current and that an electric current always produces a magnetic
field? The iron and nickel in the outer core supply charged particles,
and the Earth’s rotation and convection supply motion. The result is
an immense magnetic field stretching thousands of kilometers into
space. This “geomagnetic” field is essential to life because it shields
Earth from the solar wind— the stream of harmful high-energy
particles emanating from the Sun.

The Inner Core

The inner core is a solid sphere of hot metal. It is mostly iron, like the
outer core. Its temperature is estimated to reach a maximum of over
7000°C. This is about as hot as the surface of the Sun!
With such a high temperature, how does the inner core remain solid?
The answer is that intense pressure from the weight of the overlying
rock keeps the inner core from melting. Pressure in the inner core
packs the atoms so tightly that they cannot flow as they do in a
liquid state.
Using Seismology to Explore Earth’s Interior

Why do S-waves stop at the mantle–core boundary?

one can observe Earth’s internal structure. So, how do geologists
know what’s underground? Earthquakes are the key. An earthquake
is the shaking or trembling of the ground that happens when big
sections of rock underground shift or break. Earthquakes release vast
amounts of energy.

This computer simulation shows

the magnetic field generated by the motion of Earth’s fluid outer
core. Magnetic field lines are blue where the field is directed inward
and yellow where it is directed outward. You can see that the field
beyond the mantle– core boundary has a smooth overall structure,
while the field at the core is highly complicated.

UNIFYING CONCEPT

The energy radiates outward from the disturbance in the form of

seismic waves. Seismic waves are mechanical waves, like sound
waves, that travel through Earth. The study of seismic waves is called
seismology, and seismology has provided most of what we know
about Earth’s interior.

Like any kind of wave, seismic waves may reflect or refract when
they move from one material to another. Exactly how different kinds
of seismic waves reflect and refract, as well as the changes in their
speed and wavelength, reveals much about the medium the waves
are traveling through.
Seismic waves come in two main varieties: body waves, which travel
through Earth’s interior, and surface waves, which travel on the
surface

Surface waves, in turn, are divided into two types: Rayleigh waves
and Love waves (each named after its discoverer).
Rayleigh waves roll over and over in a tumbling motion similar to
ocean waves. Love waves move in a snakelike, side-to-side
transverse motion.

Since Love waves shake things from side to side, they are particularly
damaging to tall buildings. (Love waves are not loved by people
who work in skyscrapers!) But it’s the body waves, rather than the
surface waves, that reveal Earth’s inner structure because they travel
deep inside Earth.

Body waves are classified as primary waves (P-waves) or secondary

waves (S-waves). Primary waves are longitudinal waves; they
compress and expand the material through which they move. P-
waves are the fastest seismic waves, moving at speeds between 1.5
and 8 km per second through any type of material—solid rock,
magma, water, and air. S-waves, on the other hand, are transverse
waves; they vibrate the particles of their medium up and down and
side to side, and they are slower than P-waves. Significantly, S-waves
can travel through only solid materials, not liquids.

Near the turn of the 20th century, Irish geologist Richard Oldham was
examining records of a massive earthquake in India when he
discovered that its transverse S-waves traveled some distance
through Earth and then stopped. He also observed that the
longitudinal P-waves traveled to the same depth that the S-waves
did, but the P-waves then refracted and continued on at a lower
speed. Since S-waves can’t travel through liquids but P-waves can,
though at a reduced speed, Oldham inferred that the earthquake
waves had hit an internal boundary—a place where the solid Earth
becomes liquid. In other words, he discovered that Earth has a
distinct liquid center. The year was 1906.

years later, seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić (“mo-huh-RO-vih-

chich”)
(a) Primary wave
(b) Secondary wave
(c)Love wave
Earthquake Core
Earthquake
Earthquakes
Describe in detail what happens before, during, and after an earthquake.
This is what happens when the friction holding huge blocks of rock in
place is overcome by tectonic forces? An earthquake occurs when 2 on
plate tectonics converge side by side and move back and forth. When
blocks of rock suddenly shift or break at plate boundaries (usually). As the
rocky plates grind beside one another, collide, or pull apart, their motion is
usually steady and slow. In this case, the motion is called CREEP. But
sometimes FRICTION locks huge sections of rock together. The force
build-up is applied to the rock, it cannot move freely and becomes
compressed or stretched. When the force that is pushing or pulling the
rock exceeds the FRICTION that is holding it in place, or exceeds the
strength of the rock, the stressed rock suddenly breaks loose and slips.
Deformed rock snaps back elastically to its original position—a process
called ELASTIC REBOUND.

How they are measured

The rock then releases its stored elastic energy in the form of SEISMIC
WAVES—mechanical waves that propagate through Earth.

Geologists who study seismic waves and earthquakes are called

seismologists.

When you bend a twig to the point that it breaks, you know that you have
to put some energy into it. Imagine how much energy it takes to bend a
rock.

Now imagine the energy required to bend a slab of rock several kilometers
long! This is the energy stored in rock before an earthquake.

The theory of plate tectonics provides the answer. Tectonic plates are
huge sections of Earth’s crust and upper mantle. Although they move
slowly, their immense mass means that they carry enormous kinetic
energy. (Recall that kinetic energy is proportional to mass times velocity
squared: KE = 1⁄2 mv2.)
 When huge zones of rock stick together because the plates are pushing
against one another and locking, the rock’s kinetic energy is

converted into potential energy—energy that’s stored in the rock.

The place where an earthquake starts is called the focus of the
earthquake

Seismic waves radiate in all directions from the focus like sound from a
ringing bell. The point at Earth’s surface directly above the focus is the
epicenter. Earthquakes generally occur at faults.

Earthquake Measurement
Geologists use a num
§ The Crust

§ The Mantle. Molten

•
§ The Core dense solid
§ Differentiation
o Earth’s Structural Layers
§ The Lithosphere
§ The Asthenosphere
§ The Lower Mantle
§ The Outer Core
§ The Inner Core
§ Earth’s Compositional Layers Model
§ Intro to Earthquakes & Seismology
§ Surface Waves: Love & Rayleigh
§ Body Waves: Primary & Secondary
§ This Diagram of Earth is a Lie
o Continental Drift - An Idea Before Its Time
§ Alfred Wegener

In the 1950s, many decades after Alfred Wegener proposed his

hypothesis of continental drift, scientists used sonar technology to map
the seafloor for the first time. They discovered that the ocean bottom is
not flat, as had been presumed, but has deep canyons and trenches. It
has many curious, flat-topped, underwater volcanoes.

Seafloor Spreading - A Mechanism for Continental Drift

Midocean Ridge
An amazing discovery was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the longest and
tallest mountain range in the world. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is 19,312
km. The North American, South American, European, and African
coastlines.

Its highest peaks poke above sea level to form islands, including
Iceland. In the center of the ridge and all along its length, there is a
valley or rift.

Continued investigation uncovered other midocean mountain ranges.

Rocks of these midocean peaks were found to be the youngest rocks
of the seafloor. We now know that an entire global system of
underwater mountains called the midocean ridge winds all around
Earth like the seam on a baseball.

Scientists also discovered ocean TRENCHES, the deepest places on

Earth. Ocean trenches are long, deep, steep troughs in the seafloor.
Ocean trenches are found near continents, particularly around the
edges of the Pacific Ocean. Also found at the ocean bottom were
volcanic eruptions and zones of high-temperature water around
underwater mountains.

What kind of geologic activity could explain the seafloor’s striking

features? American geologist Harry Hess answered this question with
his theory of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading is the process by
which new lithosphere is created at midocean ridges. Seafloor
spreading works like a conveyor belt. Along the RIFT in a midocean ridge,
slabs of lithosphere are slowly moving apart—too slowly for us to notice the
movement. Magma, warm liquid rock from Earth’s interior, wells up from the
mantle and seeps out of the cracking RIFT, forming new lithosphere. Meanwhile,
older lithosphere is pushed the mantle at a deep ocean trench. The subducted
lithosphere is heated by the hot mantle and eventually partially melts into it.

While seafloor spreading creates new lithosphere at

the spreading center of a rift zone, old lithosphere is
destroyed at an ocean trench in a subduction zone.
RIFT ZONE where new lithosphere is made from the magna welling up.
SUBDUCTION ZONE. Where the old lithosphere melts into magna
Earth IS the SAME SIZE for 4.6 billion years ago. So when more lithosphere is made
from magna bubbling up, it is pushing old lithosphere into the trenches to melt into
Mantle

This is How New Seafloor is created:

New lithosphere is created where magma wells up at a spreading
center, and it is destroyed where it sinks back into the mantle at a
subduction zone. Once lithosphere melts into the mantle, it can eventually well up
as magma to become seafloor again. In this way, the seafloor is recycled.
away from the rift zone. Gravity eventually pulls old oceanic lithosphere
into

Magnetic Stripes Some of the earliest evidence for seafloor spreading came
from magnetic
stripes. Earth is a huge magnet with north and south magnetic poles. Once in
a great while, Earth’s magnetic poles flip—the north and south poles exchange
positions. This is called a magnetic reversal. In a magnetic reversal, the polarity
of the magnetic field (positions of the north and south poles) reverses. Earth’s
magnetic field has had the same polarity for the past 700,000 years, but
evidence shows that it’s due for a reversal. There have been more than 300
magnetic reversals during the past 200 million years.

The new rock that forms at midocean ridges contains small crystals of the
mineral magnetite. Magnetite crystals are magnetic. Like tiny compass needles,
magnetite crystals align with the field set up by Earth’s magnetic poles. When
the new rock cools and solidifies, the magnetite crystals freeze in place. Thus,
the
alignment of the crystals becomes “locked in” when magma solidifies as oceanic
crust. Rocks of the seafloor therefore hold a record of the polarity of Earth’s
magnetic field at the time that they solidify.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Tectonic Plate
Forces That Drive the Plates

22.7 Plate Boundaries

Hewitt Ch.22.7 Plate Boundaries VIDEO
o
TECTONIC PLATES meet at plate boundaries. Because the plates interact with one
 another at their boundaries, a lot of GEOLOGIC ACTIVITY occurs there.
Mountain building, volcanoes, and earthquakes are much more common at
plate boundaries than inside the plates.

There are three types of tectonic plate boundaries:

1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES, where plates move away from each other
(makes a trench)
2. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES, where plates move toward each other
(makes mountains)
3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES, where plates slide past each other

1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES neighboring plates MOVE AWAY from one

another at the border zones called DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES.
The plates pull apart,
magma wells-up from below and
erupts into the widening gap between the plates

MAGMA that erupts at earth’s surface is called LAVA.

LAVA cools and makes a new crusty surface.

The lava that erupts at the DIVERGENT BOUNDARY comes from magma at the
ASTHENOSPHERE. The ASTHENOSPHERE consists of plastic (malleable) but still
solid rock. When the plates separate however, the weight on the ASTHENOSPHERE
decreases so the pressure there is reduced. Rock in the ASTHENOSPHERE then
melts partially to become MAGMA. LAVA can seep through FISSURES (deep cracks)
in earth's surface or it can erupt through central vents which makes a volcano. fissures
are actually far more common—the RIFT at A mid-ocean ridge is a fissure, for
EXAMPLE:

§ Subduction Zone
§ Oceanic-Oceanic
§ Oceanic-Continental
§
2. Convergent Boundaries
Earth has remained more or less its present size since it formed about 4.6 billion
years ago. This means that LITHOSPHERE must be getting destroyed about as fast as
it is created. The destruction of the earth’s LITHOSPHERE occurs at the convergent
boundaries. Here plates come together in slow motion collisions. Usually, one plate
tucks under the other SUBDUCTS or descends below another. The area around a
SUBDUCTING PLATE is called a SUBDUCTION ZONE.
Plates converge in three different ways, depending on the kind of lithosphere that is
involved. The three kinds of CONVERGENT PLATE boundaries are:

1. Oceanic–oceanic convergence
2. Oceanic–continental convergence
3. Continental–continental convergence

The chain or string on Hawaiian islands have been formed by a Hot

spot [ Select ] ["cinder cone", "composite cone", "shield
volcano", "hot spot"] below them. The Hawaiian islands exist in a chain
because [ the Pacific plate continues to move over the hot spot, which builds new
volcanic islands as the plate moves over it. , "the Pacific plate is beginning to split
in half and this is the first seem or hole where it has started.", "they are part of the "Ring
of Fire," so it is just a line of active volcanoes all being formed along a convergent
boundary.", "they are just a set of randomly placed volcanoes that do not move and just
happen to exist in a line due to a crack in the lithosphere."]

a. The OCEANIC -OCEANIC CONVERGENCE, both of the colliding plates are

capped with ocean crust. When the plates come together the older cooler and denser
plate bends and slides beneath the younger less dense plate. This makes a deep
ocean trench along the seafloor and it's called the subduction zone. Ocean trenches
run parallel to the edges of convergent boundaries. They can be thousands of
kilometers long from 8 -12 kilometers deep and about 100 kilometers wide. Trenches
are the deepest places on earth, inhabited by strange organisms called
EXTREMOPHILES that can survive an extremely high-pressure low temperature and
no light.

In the image below it shows mantle rock in this subject subduction zone partially
melted to form MAGNA. The MAGNA is buoyant and rises and erupts at the surface as
lava. The erupted LAVA and volcanic debris accumulate on the ocean floor and till they
grow tall enough to poke above sea level and form a volcanic island. Volcanoes of this
kind are grouped together in island arcs that parallel the trenches such as the Aleutian
Islands off Alaska. Strong to moderate earthquakes are common along such
boundaries as the descending plate sticks and slips-by the overriding plate.

b. A second kind of plate collision is OCEANIC CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE. The

leading edge of these plates are capped with continental crust and slowly collide with a
plate capped by OCEANIC CRUST. The basaltic oceanic plate is denser and
SUBDUCTS beneath the less dense, granitic continental plate. A deep ocean trench
where the plates meet. A mental rock partially melts MAGNA forms in the
SUBDUCTION zone and rises up and rubs at the surface as LAVA. LAVA at erupts,
cools, and accumulates many times, eventually a VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN chain may
develop.

The residents of the Pacific Northwest should appreciate this process because it has
created the beautiful mountains of the Cascade Range.

c. When plates are converging and have CONTINENTAL CRUST along their leading
edges, they display CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE. It's where
blocks of colliding crust consist of the same type of buoyed granite rock. Because the
blocks of rock had the same density, neither sinks below the other when they collide.
There is no SUBDUCTION ZONE. Instead, the continents push one another upward,
like crumpled cloth and towering jagged mountain chains Results. The Himalayan
mountains are the highest mountains in the world, rising to a majestic 8854 meters or
5.5 miles above sea level. The Himalayas formed when the subcontinent of India
rammed into Asia about 50 million years ago.

A transform boundary is a region where two TECTONIC plates meet, but instead of
converging or separating, these slide past each other period LITHOSPHERE is neither
created nor consumed at these boundaries since the plates simply rub along each
other as they move in opposite directions.

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES are very large FAULTS If fault is any crack that divides
two blocks of rock that have moved relative to each other. Votes can be much smaller
than transform boundaries; networks of them often form near plate boundaries and
branch into interiors of plates.

Usually transform boundaries join two segments of a mid ocean Ridge. For example,
the mid-Atlantic Ridge is broken up into segments, which are connected by transform
faults. These faults transform or transfer the motion from one Ridge segment to
another. LITHOSPHERE of 1 ridge moves in a direction opposite the LITHOSPHERE of
another Ridge. Slippage along the transform boundaries allow the t TECTONIC plates
to move.
\
As the rock plates at a TRANSFORM BOUNDARY grind past each other, their motion
is usually slow and steady but at some locations the friction is so great that the
rock plates get stuck To each other. the plate motion continues, and the blocks of
stuck rock become compressed or stretched. Even though rock seems brittle it is
not. When the compression or tension forces pushing or pulling the rock exceed
FRICTION When the compressional or tensional forces pushing and pulling the rock
exceed FRICTION, the stressed rock suddenly breaks loose and slips, releasing its
stored energy in a sudden jerk. This sticking and slipping of blocks of rock causes
EARTHQUAKES. Although most transform faults are located within the ocean basin, a
few are found on continental plates. One continental transform fault that gets a lot of
attention is the SAN ANDREAS FAULT, which is shown in the drawing and photo
below. The San Andreas fault is the thickest thread in a tangle of faults that collectively
accommodate the motion between the North American plate and the Pacific plate in
California.

The slice of California to the west of the fault is slowly moving northwest, while the rest
of California is moving southeast. Contrary to popular opinion, you can see from the
directions of the plates that Los Angeles is not going to split off and fall into the ocean.
Instead, it will steadily advance northwesterly toward San Francisco while San
Francisco moves in the opposite direction. In about 16 million years, the two cities will
be side by side. In the meantime, California residents can expect plenty of
earthquakes.

1. The African Plate is slowly moving northward toward the Eurasian Plate. Both
plates have continental crust along the edges where they would meet. What is
likely to happen if these plates collide with each other? A mountain range may form
along their continental–continental convergent boundary.

2. What types of plate boundaries involve subduction? Which do not involve

subduction? Plate boundaries that involve subduction are oceanic–continental and
oceanic–oceanic convergent boundaries. The other kinds of boundaries
do not involve subduction; these are TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES, divergent
boundaries, and continental–continental convergent boundaries.

3. Do volcanic island arcs and coastal mountain ranges form at spreading

centers? No. Volcanic island arcs and coastal mountain ranges are associated with
convergent plate boundaries.

4. In one sentence, distinguish among the three major kinds of plate

boundaries. Tectonic plates move apart at divergent boundaries, come together at
convergent boundaries, and slide past one another at transform
boundaries.
Continental-Continental. --Creates mountains
Transform Boundaries

o Deep Sea Trenches

• Chemosynthesis…food chain….alien like More people have been to the moon than that Deep
• Sea Trenches
Unimaginable amount of time in the trenches are really fascinating because there is life down
there it's very very deep down in the ocean there's hardly any white down there and they are
under extreme pressure often extreme temperatures as well as their service volcanic activity but
it turns out that that's actually the key to life existing that there are lots of organic compounds
that well out of this especially things like sulfur and carbon and there are types of bacteria as
well as other organisms that are able to capture that and perform a process called
chemosynthesis which is very similar to photosynthesis but doesn't require light in order to occur
and that is the primary producers that then are consumed by primary consumers and so on so it
develops sort of a little food chain down there and so you don't just have organisms that are
scavenging off whatever falls down to the bottom these are actually thriving ecosystems and
they're very alien again i think the statistic is still that more people have been to the moon that
had been to the bottom of the ocean to the deep sea trenches there's some even fish down
there anglerfish in particular that you know famously have this little cup glowing the water

How to Fish live in HOT WATER and NO SUN

• The water near and around hydrothermal vents is at a temperature over 400 degrees
Celsius? Since water normally boils at 100 degrees Celsius, why isn't this water boiling
or in vapor form? It is under immense pressure, which keeps it in liquid form.
•
• There is no sunlight at the bottom of these trenches. How is life able to exist in these
places with no sunlight? Bacteria capture minerals from the vents and convert them
into food through chemosynthesis, making them primary producer

MOUNTAINS

Mountains are defined as thick sections of crust that are elevated

with respect to the surrounding crust. No two mountains are alike, but
we can identify four basic types, which are classified according to their structural

4 BASIC TYPES

(1) FOLDED MOUNTAINS,

(2) UPWARPED MOUNTAINS,
(3) FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS, and

(4) VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS.

Which one of the following mountain types does NOT form as a result of
compression forces? Fault-Block Mountains

Match each exemplary mountain range with its mountain type.

Sierra Nevada Mountain Range
Fault-Block Mountains
Appalachian Mountain Range
Folded Mountains
Adirondack Mountain Range
Upwarped Mountains

1. Folded Mountains
-- FOLDED MOUNTAINS are the MOST COMMON.
--HOW THEY FORM: TECTONIC COLLISIONS put COMPRESSIVE stress on rock
so that it crumples or buckles to make folds.

--Form over MILLIONS OF YEARS to form as TECHTONIC PLATES COLLIDE

--WORLD’S TALLEST MOUNTAIN ranges are FOLDED MOUNTAINS. (Himalayas)

--FOLDED MOUNTAINS in the interiors of continents (NOT NEAR THE OCEANS) ,

you know that TECHTONIC PLATES have collided there in the past.
--NORMAL THICKNESS of continental crust is about 35 km (22 miles). When a
new folded mountain range forms, that thickness can be doubled 70 km (43 miles).
The Himalayas are about 80 km (50 miles) thick from the bottom of the crust to
the summit of the highest mountains.

--EXAMPLES of FOLDED MOUNTAINS

• Canadian Rockies are folded mountains resulting from recent

plate convergence.
• Himalayas are folded mountains too. They are still converging
and growing as the Indian Plate keeps ramming into the Eurasian
Plate. 80 km (50 miles) thick from the bottom
• Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States were
formed by a very ancient tectonic convergence 300 million years ago.
They were taller by several kilometers than they are today, but erosion
has worn them down and now they are shorter.

2. UPWARPED MOUNTAINS

--UPWARPED MOUNTAINS are shaped like DOMEs and usually single.

--HOW THEY FORM: --TECTONIC COLLISIONS put COMPRESSIVE STRESS on rock

--Anticlines that form when Earth’s crust heaves upward and loads of MAGNA
pushes its way up from underneath.

--UPWARPED MOUNTAINS are usually single anticlines that form when Earth’s
crust heaves upward as a great amount of MAGNA pushes its way up
underneath.

--UPWARPED MOUNTAINS are made up of older igneous and metamorphic

bedrock that was once flat and overlain with sediment, but then
was upwarped (pushed upward). As these regions were lifted, erosion removed

--EXAMPLES of UPWARPED MOUNTAINS

--Black Hills of South Dakota
--Adirondack Mountains of New York are.
Fault-Block Mountains
--HOW THEY FORM:

Fault-Block Mountains are formed by tensional stress.

Mountains that form from tension and that have at least one side bounded by a normal fault are called fault-
block mountains.
Fault- block mountains occur when there has been broad uplifting over a large area. The uplifting stretches
and elongates the crust so that it breaks along fault lines. Huge blocks of crust are sometimes thrust upward
along steep fault planes while other sections of rock drop down, as

Figure 24.13 shows. Blocks of rock end up stacked against one another like a series of toy block towers.
Fault-block mountains rise steeply above the surrounding landscape.

The western United States features many fault block mountains, including the
Teton Range in Wyoming and the
Sierra Nevada in California.

Fault-block mountains are formed by blocks of rock that are uplifted along steep fault planes.

1 suppose huge blocks of crust drop down along normal faults. Between them, a
block is left standing and overtime it is uplifted to great Heights. What kind of
mountain is it? Answer is FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS and

2 The Sierra Nevada range of California features fault block mountains. Were
these mountains produced by compression or tension forces? Answer
TENSION.

3 .A section of crust is compressed as it is pushed upward 4 forces acting On it

from below. If the rock bends and arch is upward to form a Dome in response to
this stress, what type of mountain will result? The answer is an upward and
UPWARPED MOUNTAINS

hat kind of mountain will result if the rock breaks and moves upward along fault
lines Answer: FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS

Volcanoes
--A volcano is a hill or mountain formed by the extrusion of lava, ash, and rock
fragments.
--The ejected materials erupt through the volcano’s central vent, flow downhill,
cool, and accumulate to give this landform its conical shape.

--At the summit of a typical volcano is a bowl-shaped depression called a crater.

The CRATER is connected to a subsurface MAGMA chamber by a pipelike