Stems

Lesson 1: Stem Functions

Stems perform four main functions in plants:

1. Support
Stems of most species support leaves and reproductive structures. The upright position of most
stems and the arrangement of leaves on them enable each leaf to absorb maximum light for use
in photosynthesis. Reproductive structures (flowers and fruits) are located on stems in areas
accessible for insects, birds, and air currents, which transfer pollen from flower to flower and
help disperse seeds and fruits.

2. Conduction
Like roots, stems contain vascular tissue (xylem and phloem). Xylem conducts water and
minerals. Phloem conducts the sugars created during photosynthesis. Stem also serve as
conduits for moving water, minerals, and food throughout the plant.

3. Growth
During the growing season, cell division and elongation are occurring in both the apical and
lateral meristems of dicots. This results in plant growth. The same things are occurring in the
intercalary meristems of monocots.

4. Storage
Stems are sometimes modified to store food and (or) water. Plants that store large amounts of
water in their stems or leaves are called succulents

Lesson 2:
Morphology and
Anatomy (External
and internal
structures)
Stems exhibit varied
forms, ranging from
ropelike vines to
massive tree trunks.
Stems are either
herbaceous
(consisting of soft,
nonwoody tissues) or
woody (with extensive
hard tissues of wood
and bark). Most stems
are circular in cross
section, although a
few, such as mint
stems, are square.
2.1 External Structure of Stems

Although stems exhibit great variation in structure and growth, they all have buds. At the tip of a
stem is a terminal bud. When a terminal bud is dormant (that is, unopened and not actively
growing), it is covered and protected by an outer protective layer of bud scales, which are
modified leaves. Axillary buds, also called lateral buds, are found in the axils—the upper
angles between leaves and the stem to which they are attached. When terminal and axillary
buds grow, they form stems that bear leaves and/or flowers.
The area on a stem where each leaf is attached is called a
node, and the region of a stem between two successive
nodes is an internode.
A woody twig of a deciduous tree (a tree that sheds its leaves
annually) can provide a model of stem structures. Bud scales
cover the terminal bud and protect its delicate tip during
dormancy. When the bud resumes growth, the bud scales fall
off, leaving bud scale scars on the stem where they were
attached. Woody twigs of temperate plants form terminal buds
once a year, at the end of the growing season. Therefore, the
number of groups of terminal bud scale scars on a twig
reveals its age.
A leaf scar shows where a leaf was attached on the stem,
and the vascular (conducting) tissue that extends from the
stem out into the leaf forms bundle scars within the leaf scar.
Axillary buds develop above the leaf scars. Also, the bark of a
woody twig has lenticels, sites of loosely arranged cells that
allow gas exchange to occur. Lenticels look like tiny marks, or
specks, on the bark of a twig and are often used as an aid in
identifying the plant.

2.2 Stem Development

The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is composed of dividing cells. It is responsible for the initiation
of new leaves and buds and for making the three primary meristems – protoderm, ground
meristem, and procambium. The apical meristem is dormant before the growing season
begins. It is protected by bud scales of the bud by leaf primordia (singular: primordium), the
tiny embryonic leaves that will develop into mature leaves after the bud scales drop off and
growth begins. The apical meristem in the embryonic stem of a seed is also dormant until the
seed begins to germinate.

• Protoderm to Epidermis
When a bud begins to expand or a seed germinates, the cells of the apical meristem
undergo mitosis, and soon three primary meristems develop from it. The outermost of
these primary meristems, the protoderm, gives rise to the epidermis. Although there
 are exceptions, the epidermis is typically one cell thick and usually becomes coated with
a thin, waxy, protective layer, the cuticle.

• Procambium to Primary Xylem and Phloem

A cylinder of strands constituting the procambium appears to the interior of the

protoderm. (The procambium produces water-conducting primary xylem cells and
primary phloem cells that have several functions, including the conduction of food.)

• Ground Meristem to Pith and Cortex

The remainder of the meristematic tissue, called ground meristem, produces two
tissues composed of parenchyma cells. The parenchyma tissue in the center of the stem
is the pith. Pith cells tend to be very large and may break down shortly after they are
formed, leaving a cylindrical, hollow area. Even if they do not break down early, they
may eventually be crushed as new tissues produced by other meristems add to the girth
of the stem, particularly in woody plants. The other tissue produced by the ground
meristem is the cortex. The cortex may become more extensive than the pith, but in
woody plants, it, too, eventually will be crushed and replaced by new tissues produced
from within. The parenchyma of both the pith and the cortex function in storing food or
sometimes, if chloroplasts are present, in manufacturing it.
All five of the tissues produced by this apical meristem complex (epidermis, primary xylem,
primary phloem, pith, and cortex) arise while the stem is increasing in length and are called
primary tissues.
Lesson 3: Primary and Secondary Growth

You may recall that plants undergo two types of growth. Primary growth, an increase in the
length of a plant, occurs at apical meristems at the tips of stems and roots. Secondary growth,
an increase in the girth (circumference) of a plant, is due to the activity of lateral meristems
along the sides of stems and roots. The new tissues formed by the lateral meristems are called
secondary tissues to distinguish them from the primary tissues produced by apical meristems.

Herbaceous plants mostly undergo primary growth, with little secondary growth or increase in
thickness. Secondary growth, or “wood”, is noticeable in woody plants; it occurs in some dicots,
but occurs very rarely in monocots.
Primary Growth

Most primary growth occurs at the apices, or tips,

of stems and roots. Primary growth is a result of
rapidly-dividing cells in the apical meristems at the
shoot tip and root tip. Subsequent cell elongation
also contributes to primary growth.
Secondary Growth

The increase in stem thickness that results from

secondary growth is due to the activity of the
lateral meristems, which are lacking in
herbaceous plants. Lateral meristems include the
vascular cambium and, in woody plants, the
cork cambium.

• Cells in the vascular cambium divide

and produce two complex tissues:
secondary xylem (wood), to replace primary xylem; and secondary phloem (inner
bark), to replace primary phloem. Primary xylem and primary phloem cannot transport
materials indefinitely and are replaced in
plants that have extended life spans.

• Cells of the outer lateral meristem, the

cork cambium, divide to produce cork
cells, containing a waxy substance known
as suberin that can repel
water, and cork parenchyma
(phelloderm). The cork cambium and the
tissues it produces are collectively called
periderm (outer bark). Periderm functions
as a replacement for the epidermis, which
splits apart as the stem increases in girth.

o In some plants, the periderm has many openings, known as lenticels (as shown
below), which allow the interior cells to exchange gases with the outside
atmosphere. This supplies oxygen to the living and metabolically active cells of
the cortex, xylem and phloem.
Lesson 4: Herbaceous and Woody Stems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VmPQVOo0lb8

4.1 Herbaceous Dicot and Monocot Stems

Although herbaceous stems all have the same basic tissues, the arrangement of the tissues
varies considerably. Herbaceous dicot stems have the vascular bundles arranged in a circle in
cross section and have a distinct cortex and pith.

• Dicot Stem
Unlike the root with its pith ringed by vascular
bundles, the stem has a continuous cortex
punctuated with vascular bundles. In the close-
up of the vascular bundle, note the lignifed
support cells, the large vessels and the single
layer of meristematic cells which produces the
xylem & phloem

• Monocot Stem
Unlike the root, the stele (the central part of the
root or stem containing the tissues derived from
the procambium) is split into a number of
vascular bundles. The pith remains intact and is
separated from the cortex by a meristematic
layer, the interfasicular (between bundles) and
fasicular vascular cambium (within the vascular
bundles).

o Monocots (with the exception of the most primitive species, the Joshua Tree
(Yucca brevifolia Engelm. var. brevifolia; Family Liliaceae)) lack a vascular
cambium or cork cambium. Therefore, these monocots do not produce true,
 botanical wood (concentric rings of xylem), although they may be very "woody" in
some cases (e.g., palms, large bamboos).

You may access this link to learn more about the differences between a dicot and
a monocot stem.
▪ https://vivadifferences.com/difference-between-monocot-and-dicot-stem/

4.2. Woody Stem

In woody plants, obvious differences begin to appear as soon as the vascular cambium and the
cork cambium develop. The most conspicuous differences involve the secondary xylem, or
wood, as it is best known. Some tropical trees (e.g., ebony), in which both the vascular
cambium and the cork cambium are active all year, produce an ungrained, uniform wood. The
wood of most trees, however, is produced seasonally. In trees of temperate climates, virtually all
growth takes place during the spring and summer and then ceases until the following spring.

When the vascular cambium of a typical broadleaf tree first becomes active in the spring, it
usually produces relatively large vessel elements of secondary xylem; such xylem is referred to
as spring wood. As the season progresses, the vascular cambium may produce vessel
elements whose diameters become progressively smaller in each succeeding series of cells
produced, or there may be fewer vessel elements in proportion to tracheids produced until
tracheids (and sometimes fibers) predominate.

The xylem that is produced after the spring wood, and which has smaller or fewer vessel
elements and larger numbers of tracheids, is referred to as summer wood. Over a period of
years, the result of this type of switch between the early spring and the summer growth is a
series of alternating concentric rings of light and dark cells. One year’s growth of xylem is called
an annual ring. In conifers, the wood consists mostly of tracheids, with vessels and fibers being
absent. Annual rings are still visible, however, because the first tracheids produced in the spring
are considerably larger and lighter in color than those produced later in the growing season.
Note that an annual ring normally may contain many layers of xylem cells and it is all the layers
produced in one growing season that constitute an annual ring—not just the dark layers.
The annual rings not only indicate the age of the tree (because, normally, only one is produced
each year), but they can also tell something of the climate and other conditions that occurred
during the tree’s lifetime.

Fairly obvious lighter streaks or lines can be seen radiating out from the center across the
annual rings. These lines, called vascular rays, consist of parenchyma cells that may remain
alive for 10 or more years. Their primary function is the lateral conduction of nutrients and water
from the stele, through the xylem and phloem, to the cortex, with some cells also storing food.
Any part of a ray within the xylem is called a xylem ray, while its extension through the phloem
is called a phloem ray.

If you have ever examined different types of lumber, you may have noticed that some trees
have wood with two different colors. The functional secondary xylem—that is, the part that
conducts water and dissolved minerals—is the sapwood, the younger, lighter colored wood
closest to the bark. Heartwood, the older wood in the center of the trunk, is typically a brownish
red. A microscopic examination of heartwood reveals that its vessels and tracheids are plugged
with pigments, tannins, gums, resins, and other materials. Therefore, heartwood no longer
functions in conduction. In some woody plants, heartwood vessel members are blocked by
structures called tyloses. This is true of white oak (Quercus alba), the wood used to make wine
barrels. In some wood, parenchyma cells lie adjacent to vessel members. A tylose forms when
the cell wall of the parenchyma cell actually grows through a pit and into the vessel member.
Tyloses look like bubbles; they can fill a vessel member and completely block it.
While the vascular cambium is producing secondary xylem to the inside, it is also producing
secondary phloem to the outside. The term bark is usually applied to all the tissues outside the
cambium, including the phloem. Some scientists distinguish between the inner bark, consisting
of primary and secondary phloem, and the outer bark (periderm), consisting of cork tissue and
cork cambium.

You may visit this link for additional information about Woody Stem:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6mGQDIfzLI

Specialized cells or ducts called laticifers are found in

about 20 families of herbaceous and woody flowering
plants. These cells are most common in the phloem but
occur throughout all parts of the plants. The laticifers,
which resemble vessels, form extensive branched
networks of latex-secreting cells originating from rows of
meristematic cells. Unlike vessels, however, the cells
remain living and may have many nuclei.

Latex is a thick fluid that is white, yellow, orange, or red

in color and consists of gums, proteins, sugars, oils, salts,
alkaloidal drugs, enzymes, and other substances.
Here is an example:
• • Opium poppy, produce latex-containing,
important drugs, such as morphine and its derivative,
known as heroin.
Lesson 5: Stem Modifications

Although most higher plants have an erect shoot system, many species have specialized stems
that are modified for various functions. The overall appearance of specialized stems may differ
markedly from that of the stems discussed so far, but all stems have nodes, internodes, and
axillary buds; these features distinguish them from roots and leaves, which do not have them.
The leaves at the nodes of these specialized stems are often small and scale-like. They are
seldom green, but full-sized, functioning leaves may also be produced. Descriptions of some of
the specialized stems follow.

Stem Description Image

Modification
Rhizomes Thickened underground
stem that has distinct
nodes and internodes
and scaly leaves at the
nodes.
Example: Ginger

Runners It grows parallel to the

ground and has a
creeping stem with long
internodes. On the lower
surface, the nodes give
out adventitious roots at
regular intervals. A
runner develops from
the axils of lower leaves
of the aerial stem
Example: Strawberry
Stolons Similar to runners but
are produced beneath
the surface of the
ground and tend to grow
in different directions but
usually not horizontally
Stem tendrils These types of stems
are slender, twining
strands that enable a
plant to seek support
while climbing on other
surfaces.
Ex. Grapes
Corms Short, vertical, swollen
underground stem of a
plant that serves as a
food storage organ to
enable the plant to
survive adverse
conditions.
 Example: Colocasia
Cladophylls Also called Phyllocades
This type of stem is a
green, flattened or
cylindrical one that
resembles a leaf. A
phylloclade is capable of
performing
photosynthesis and we
can find them in
xerophytes or in other
plants that have little or
no leaves
Tubers The thickened end of a
rhizome that is fleshy
and enlarged for food
storage.
The “eyes” of a potato
are actually axillary
buds, evidence that the
tuber is an underground
stem rather than a
storage root like sweet
potatoes or carrots
Bulbs A bulb is a modified
underground bud in
which fleshy storage
leaves are attached to a
short stem. A bulb is
rounded and
is covered by paper-like
bulb scales, which are
modified leaves. It
frequently forms small
daughter bulbs
(bulblets). Two kinds of
bulbs are as follows:

a. Tunicate bulbs
have a papery
outer covering.

Protection from digging

and drying out.
Example: onion, tulips,
daffodils.

b. Non-
tunicate/Scaly
bulbs lack a
 papery outer
covering.

Susceptible to damage
and drying
Example: Garlic, Lily
bulbs.
Bulblets Tiny secondary bulb that
forms in the angle
between a leaf and stem
or in place of flowers in
certain plants.

For a video lecture on plant stems you may access this link:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vxd5CEmuf2A