MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS AND VLSI DEVICES

LESSON 2
TD MUNASINGHA

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MICROPROCESSORS

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1. INTRODUCTION

 The microprocessor is an electronic chip that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
 Microprocessor-based systems with limited resources are called microcomputers.
Applications of Microprocessors
 Consumer electronic devices: computer printers, washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, fax
machines, and photocopiers
 Advanced applications radar, satellites and flights
 Middle class households
 The recent developments in the electronics industry and the large-scale integration of devices have led to rapid
cost reduction and increased application of microprocessors and their derivatives

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 Typically, basic microprocessor chips have arithmetic and logic functional units along with the associated control
logic unit to process the instructions execution.
 Almost all microprocessors use the basic concept of stored-program execution. Programs or instructions to be
executed by the microprocessor are stored sequentially in memory locations.
 The microprocessor, fetches the instructions one after another and executes them in its arithmetic and logic unit.
 So all microprocessors have a built-in memory access and management part as well as some amount of memory.
 A microprocessor can be programmed to perform any task that can be written and programmed by the user.
 To work with microprocessors it is necessary for the programmer to know its internal resources and features and
also must understand the instructions that a microprocessor can support.
• The instructions set for microprocessors is in two forms:
1. Mnemonic - comparatively easy to understand
2. binary machine code - the microprocessor works with and it is difficult for us to understand.

• Programs are written using mnemonics called assembly-level language and then converted into binary machine-
level language. This conversion can be done manually or using an application called assembler.
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2. MICROPROCESSORS

 Microprocessor is a,
“multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary instructions
from a storge device called memory, accepts binary data as input and process data according to those
instructions, and provides results as output”
 A programmable machine can be represented with four components: Microprocessor, Memory, Input and Output
 The physical components of this system are called hardware. A set of instructions written for the microprocessor
to perform a task called a program, and a group of programs is called software.
 Microprocessors applications can be divided into two categories:
 reprogrammable systems – personal computer
 embedded systems – photo copying machine

Figure 1 - Programmable Machine

 The microprocessors used in these systems are generally categorized as:
1. microcontrollers
2. general-purpose microprocessors
 Embedded systems can also be viewed as products that use microprocessors to perform their operations;
they are known as microprocessor-based products.

BINARY DIGITS
 The microprocessor operates in binary digits, 0 and 1, also known as bits.
 Bit is an abbreviation for the term binary digit.
 Each microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits called the word, and microprocessors are
classified according to their word length.
 Eg: 8-bit microprocessor
32-bit microprocessor

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MICROPROCESSOR AS A PROGRAMMABLE DEVICE

 The fact that the microprocessor is programmable means it can be instructed to perform given tasks
within its capability.
 Today's microprocessor is designed to understand and execute many binary instructions.
 A programmer can select appropriate instructions and ask the microprocessor to perform various tasks
on a given set of data.
 The engineers designing microprocessor determine a set of tasks the microprocessor should perform
and design the necessary logic circuits and provide the user with a list of the instructions the
processor will understand.
 Example: an instruction for adding two binary numbers

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MEMORY
 Memory is like the pages of a notebook with space for a fixed number of binary numbers on each line.
These pages are generally made of semiconductor material.
 Each line is an 8-bit register that can store eight binary bits, and several of these registers are arranged
in a sequence called memory.

INPUT/OUTPUT
 Input : Data/instructions need to get inside to the system
Ex: keyboard, simple switches
 Output : result need to get out from the system
Ex: LED, printer

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MICROPROCESSOR AS A CPU (MPU)

TRADITIONAL COMPUTER
 The computer has four components:
1. memory,
2. input, Figure 2 – Traditional Block Diagram of a Computer

3. output,
4. the central processing unit (CPU), which consists of the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and the control unit.
 The CPU contains various registers to store data, the ALU to perform arithmetic and logical operations,
instruction decoders, counters, and control lines.
 The CPU is the primary and central player in communicating with devices
 The timing of the communication process is controlled by the group of circuits called the control
unit. 9
MICRCOMPUTERS
 A computer with a microprocessor as its
CPU is known as a microcomputer.
 MPU implies a complete processing unit with
the necessary control signals.
 Due to limited number of pins of microprocessor
package it is need to combine with discrete Figure 3 – Block Diagram of a Computer with the
devices. Microprocessor as a CPU

MICRCONTROLLER
 Manufacturers were able to place not only
MPU but also memory and I/O interfacing
circuits on a single chip; this is known as a
microcontroller or microcontroller unit
(MCU).

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Figure 4 – Block Diagram of a Microcontroller

3. EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS

First Generation (1971-1973)

 Microprocessors processed their instructions serially-fetched the instructions decode and then executed
 The first microprocessor – 4004 (4 bit, contained 2300 transistors)
Second Generation (1974-1978)
 VLSI led to chips that had speeds up to hundreds of millions of switching per second.
 Very efficient 8-bit microprocessor
 Increase in instructions execution speed
Third Generation (1978-1980)
 16-bit processors with minicomputer like performance
 Technology of 16-bit arithmetic and pipelined instructions processing
 IC transistor count of about 250,000
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Fourth Generation (1981-1995)
 Containing more than a million transistors in a single package.
 32-bit microprocessors
Fifth Generation (1995-till date)
 Employ decoupled super processing
 Design contains more than 10 million transistors.
 The introduction of devices that carry on-chip functionalities
 Compatibility with high-speed memory I/O devices

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4. ORGANIZATION OF A MICROPROCESSOR-BASED SYSTEM

 System consists with three components:

1. microprocessor
2. I/O
3. memory (read/write memory and read-only memory)
 These components are organized around a common
communication path called a bus
 Need to differentiate between the terms microprocessor and
microcomputer . The microprocessor is one component of the Figure 4 – Microprocessor Based System with
microcomputer. . Bus Architecture

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MICRPROCESSOR
 Manufactured by using either a large-scale integration (LSI) or very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technique.
 Capable of performing various computing functions and making decisions to change the sequence of
program execution.
 The microprocessor can be divided into three segments: arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), register array, and
control unit
1. Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) - performs arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction, and such
logic operations as AND, OR, and exclusive OR.
2. Register Array - Store data temporarily during the execution of a program and are accessible to the
user through instructions.
3. Control Unit - The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the
operations in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and memory
and peripherals.
 What is the relationship among the programmer's instruction (binary pattern of Os and
1s), the ALU, and the control unit?
The bit pattern of an instruction initiates a sequence of clock signals, activates the appropriate logic
circuits in the ALL, and performs the task. This is called microprogramming, 14
MEMORY
 Memory stores such binary information as instructions amt data and provides that information to the
microprocessor whenever necessary.
 After execution Results are either transferred to the output section for display or stored in memory for
later use.
• The memory has two sections:
1. Read-Only memory (ROM)
 used to store programs that do not need alterations.
 Programs stored in the ROM can only be read; they cannot he altered,
2. Read/Write memory (R/WM), popularly known as Random-Access memory (RAM).
▪ also known as User memory,
▪ It is used to store user programs and data
▪ The information stored in this memory can be easily read and altered.

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I/O (INPUT/OUTPUT)
▪ It communicates with the outside world. I/O includes two types of devices: input and output; these I/O
devices are also known as peripherals.

▪ Input devices - transfer binary information (data and instructions) from the outside world to the
microprocessor.

▪ Example: keyboard, switches, analog-to-digital (A/D) converter

▪ Output devices - transfer data from the microprocessor to the outside world. Example: light emitting
diodes (LEDs), cathode-ray tube (CRT) or video screen, printer, X-Y plotter, magnetic tape, digital-to-
analog (D/A) converter

SYSTEM BUS

 The system bus is a communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals; it is nothing but
a group of wires to carry bits.

 the microprocessor communicates with only one peripheral at a time.

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5. HOW DOES THE MICROPROCESSOR WORK?

Instruction Cycle
 Fetching the instruction from memory and executing the instruction
1. Fetch the instruction from the memory address in the Program
Counter register
2. Increment the Program Counter
3. Decode the type of instruction
4. Fetch the operands
5. Execute the instruction
6. Store the results

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