Vectors in

Coordinate
Systems

Vector Calculus(MATH-243)
Instructor: Dr. Naila Amir
 Vectors And
12
The Geometry Of Space

Book: Thomas’ Calculus Early Transcendentals (14th Edition) By George B. Thomas, Jr.,
Joel Hass, Christopher Heil, Maurice D. Weir.
Section: 12.2, 12.3, 12.4

Book: Calculus Early Transcendentals (6th Edition) By James Stewart.

Section: 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
Components of a Vector

• For some purposes, it’s best to introduce a coordinate system and

treat vectors algebraically.
• Let’s place the initial point of a vector 𝐚𝐚 at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system.
• Then, the terminal point of 𝐚𝐚 has coordinates of the form (𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 ) or
(𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 ).
• This depends on whether our coordinate system is two- or three-dimensional.
Components of a Vector

These coordinates are called the components of vector 𝐚𝐚 and we write:

𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 or 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 .

We use the notation 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 for the ordered pair that refers to a vector so
as not to confuse it with the ordered pair 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 that refers to a point in
the plane.
Components of a Vector

For instance, the vectors shown are all equivalent to the vector 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 3,2
whose terminal point is 𝑃𝑃(3, 2). What they have in common is that the
terminal point is reached from the initial point by a displacement of three
units to the right and two upward.
We can think of all these geometric vectors as
representations of the algebraic vector 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 3,2 .
The particular representation 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 from the origin to
the point 𝑃𝑃(3,2) is called the position vector of the
point 𝑃𝑃.
Position Vector

In three dimensions, the vector

𝐚𝐚 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 ,

is the position vector of the point 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 .

Another Representation of a Vector

Given the points 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑧𝑧1 and 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 , 𝑧𝑧2 , the vector 𝐚𝐚 with representation
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is given as:
𝐚𝐚 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 . (1)

Example:
Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial point
𝐴𝐴(2, – 3, 4) and terminal point 𝐵𝐵(– 2, 1, 1).
Solution:
By using equation (1), the vector corresponding to 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is given as:
𝐚𝐚 = – 2 – 2, 1 – (– 3), 1 – 4 = – 4, 4, – 3 .
Length Of Vector

The magnitude, length or norm of the vector 𝐯𝐯 is the length of any of its
representations. It is denoted by the symbol 𝐯𝐯 or 𝐯𝐯 .
• The length of the two-dimensional (2-D) vector 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 is given as:

𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎22 .

• The length of the three-dimensional (3-D) vector 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 is:

𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎32 .

Algebraic Vectors (Addition & Subtraction of
Algebraic Vectors)
How do we add vectors algebraically?
The figure shows that, if 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , then the sum is:

𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2 ,

at least for the case where the components are positive.

• In order to add algebraic vectors, we add their components.

• Similarly, to subtract vectors, we subtract components.
2-D Algebraic Vectors

If 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , then

1. 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2 ,

2. 𝐚𝐚 − 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏2 ,

3. 𝑐𝑐𝐚𝐚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎2 .

3-D Algebraic Vectors

If 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑏𝑏3 , then

1. 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑏𝑏3 ,

2. 𝐚𝐚 − 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏3 ,

3. 𝑐𝑐𝐚𝐚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎3 .

Properties of Vectors

If 𝐚𝐚, 𝐛𝐛, and 𝐜𝐜 are vectors in a vector space 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑐𝑐 & 𝑑𝑑 are scalars, then
1. 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐛𝐛 + 𝐚𝐚
2. 𝐚𝐚 + (𝐛𝐛 + 𝐜𝐜) = (𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛) + 𝐜𝐜
3. 𝐚𝐚 + 𝟎𝟎 = 𝐚𝐚,
4. 𝐚𝐚 + (−𝐚𝐚) = 𝟎𝟎,
5. 𝑐𝑐 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑐𝑐𝐚𝐚 + 𝑐𝑐𝐛𝐛,
6. 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑐𝑐𝐚𝐚 + 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚,
7. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 ,
8. 1𝐚𝐚 = 𝐚𝐚.
Vectors in 𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑 = ℝ𝟑𝟑

Three vectors in 𝑉𝑉3 = ℝ𝟑𝟑 play a special role. Let

𝐢𝐢 = 1,0,0 , 𝐣𝐣 = 0,1,0 and 𝐤𝐤 = 0,0,1 .

These vectors 𝐢𝐢, 𝐣𝐣, and 𝐤𝐤 are called the standard basis vectors. They have
length 1 (unit vectors) and point in the directions of the positive 𝑥𝑥−, 𝑦𝑦−, and
𝑧𝑧 −axes.
Vectors in 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = ℝ𝟐𝟐

Similarly, in two dimensions, we define:

𝐢𝐢 = 1,0 and 𝐣𝐣 = 0,1 .

These vectors 𝐢𝐢 and 𝐣𝐣 are called the standard basis vectors. They have length 1
and point in the directions of the positive 𝑥𝑥 − and 𝑦𝑦 −axes.
Product of Vectors

The question arises:

Is it possible to multiply two vectors so that their product is a useful quantity?

And the answer is……… Yes

• One such product is the dot product.

• Another is the cross product.

The Dot Product

If 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑏𝑏3 , then the dot product of 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 is the
number 𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 given by:
𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 .
The result is not a vector. It is a real number, that is, a scalar. For this reason, the
dot product is sometimes called the scalar product or inner product.
Examples:
1. 2, 4 � 3, – 1 = 2(3) + 4(– 1) = 2.

2. – 1, 7, 4 � 6, 2, – ½ = (– 1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(– ½) = 6.

3. 𝐢𝐢 + 2𝐣𝐣 – 3𝐤𝐤 � 2𝐣𝐣 – 𝐤𝐤 = 7.

Properties of Dot Product

The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of real
numbers. These are stated in the following theorem.
Theorem: If 𝐚𝐚, 𝐛𝐛, and 𝐜𝐜 are vectors in a vector space 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑐𝑐 is a scalar, then
1. 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚𝐚 = |𝐚𝐚|2
2. 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐛𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚𝐚
3. 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛𝐛 + 𝐜𝐜) = 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛𝐛 + 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜𝐜
4. (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) ⋅ 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑐𝑐(𝐚𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛𝐛) = 𝐚𝐚 ⋅ (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
5. 𝟎𝟎 ⋅ 𝐚𝐚 = 0
Geometric Interpretation of Dot Product

Algebraically, the dot product is the sum of the products of the corresponding
entries of the two vectors. Geometrically, it is the product of the Euclidean
magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. This
means that the dot product 𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 can be given a geometric interpretation in
terms of the angle 𝜃𝜃 between 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛. If 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the vectors 𝐚𝐚
and 𝐛𝐛, then
𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 cos 𝜃𝜃 ,
or
𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛
cos 𝜃𝜃 = .
𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛
Orthogonal Vectors

Two nonzero vectors 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 are called perpendicular or orthogonal if the

angle between them is 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋/2, i.e., two vectors 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 are orthogonal
if and only if:
𝜋𝜋
𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 cos = 0.
2
Example:
Show that 2𝐢𝐢 + 2𝐣𝐣 − 𝐤𝐤 is perpendicular to 5𝐢𝐢 − 4𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤.
Solution:
(2𝐢𝐢 + 2𝐣𝐣 − 𝐤𝐤) • (5𝐢𝐢 − 4𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤) = 2(5) + 2(– 4) + (– 1)(2) = 0.

Thus, we conclude that the given vectors are perpendicular.

An Application of Dot Product: Work Done
The work done by a constant force 𝐅𝐅 is the dot product 𝐅𝐅. 𝐃𝐃, where 𝐃𝐃 is the
displacement vector.
Example:
A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along a horizontal path by a constant force of
70 N. The handle of the wagon is held at an angle of 35° above
the horizontal. Find the work done by the force.
Solution:
If 𝐅𝐅 and 𝐃𝐃 are the force and displacement vectors respectively,
then the work done is:
𝐅𝐅 • 𝐃𝐃 = 𝐅𝐅 𝐃𝐃 cos 35° = 70 100 cos 35°
≈ 5734 N. m = 5734 J.
Thus, the work done by the force is 5734 J.
The Cross Product

The cross product 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 of two vectors 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛, unlike the dot product, is a
vector quantity. For this reason, the cross product is also called the vector
product. Note that 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 is defined only when 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 are three-dimensional
(3-D) vectors. If 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑏𝑏3 , then the cross product of 𝐚𝐚
and 𝐛𝐛 is the vector:

𝐢𝐢 𝐣𝐣 𝐤𝐤
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏3 , 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏1 .
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3
Example:

If 𝐚𝐚 = 1, 3, 4 and 𝐛𝐛 = 2, 7, −5 , then determine 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛.

Solution:

𝐢𝐢 𝐣𝐣 𝐤𝐤
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 1 3 4
2 7 −5
= −15 − 28, 8 + 5,7 − 6
= −43, 13,1
= −43𝐢𝐢 + 13𝐣𝐣 + 𝐤𝐤.
Some Properties of Cross Product

• The cross product 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 is orthogonal to both 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛. This means:

𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 � 𝐚𝐚 = 0 and 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 � 𝐛𝐛 = 0.

• If 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 are represented by directed line

segments with the same initial point, then by using
above property, 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 points in a direction
perpendicular to the plane through 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛. It
turns out that the direction of 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 is given by the
right-hand rule: If the fingers of our right-hand curl
in the direction of a rotation (through an angle less
than 𝜋𝜋) from 𝐚𝐚 to 𝐛𝐛, then the thumb points in the
direction of 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛.
Some Properties of Cross Product

• Now that we know the direction of the vector 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛, the remaining thing we
need to complete its geometric description is its length 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 . If 𝜃𝜃 is the
angle between 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 (so 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋), then:
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 sin 𝜃𝜃 .

• Two nonzero vectors 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 are parallel if and only if:

𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝟎𝟎.

• The length of the cross product 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 is equal to the area of the

parallelogram determined by 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛.
 Some Properties of Cross Product
• For the standard basis vectors 𝐢𝐢, 𝐣𝐣, and 𝐤𝐤 we have:
𝐢𝐢 × 𝐣𝐣 = 𝐤𝐤, 𝐣𝐣 × 𝐤𝐤 = 𝐢𝐢, 𝐤𝐤 × 𝐢𝐢 = 𝐣𝐣,
𝐣𝐣 × 𝐢𝐢 = −𝐤𝐤, 𝐤𝐤 × 𝐣𝐣 = −𝐢𝐢, 𝐢𝐢 × 𝐤𝐤 = −𝐣𝐣,
Observe that:
𝐢𝐢 × 𝐣𝐣 ≠ 𝐣𝐣 × 𝐢𝐢.
Thus, the cross product is not commutative.
• The associative law for multiplication does not usually hold; that is, in general,
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 ≠ 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 .
Some Properties of Cross Product

If 𝐚𝐚, 𝐛𝐛, and 𝐜𝐜 are vectors and 𝑐𝑐 is a scalar, then

1. 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = −𝐛𝐛 × 𝐚𝐚
2. (𝑐𝑐𝐚𝐚) × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑐𝑐(𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛) = 𝐚𝐚 × (𝑐𝑐𝐛𝐛)
3. 𝐚𝐚 × (𝐛𝐛 + 𝐜𝐜) = 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 + 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐜𝐜
4. 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 = 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐜𝐜 + 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜
5. 𝐚𝐚 · (𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜) = (𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛) · 𝐜𝐜
6. 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 = 𝐚𝐚 · 𝐜𝐜 𝐛𝐛 − (𝐚𝐚 · 𝐛𝐛)𝐜𝐜
Example:

Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through the points:
𝑃𝑃 1, 4, 6 , 𝑄𝑄 −2, 5, −1 , 𝑅𝑅 1, −1, 1 .
Solution:
The vector 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is perpendicular to both 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. Therefore, it is
perpendicular to the plane through 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄, and 𝑅𝑅. Now
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = −3𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 − 7𝐤𝐤 and 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = −5𝐣𝐣 − 5𝐤𝐤.
Thus,
𝐢𝐢 𝐣𝐣 𝐤𝐤
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = −3 1 −7 = −40𝐢𝐢 − 15𝐣𝐣 + 15𝐤𝐤 = −40, −15, 15 .
0 −5 −5
Example:

Find the area of the triangle with vertices 𝑃𝑃 1, 4, 6 , 𝑄𝑄 −2, 5, −1 , 𝑅𝑅 1, −1, 1 .

Solution:
From previous example:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = −40, −15, 15 .
The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is the length of
this cross product, i.e.,
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (−40)2 +(−15)2 +(15)2 = 5 82.
The area 𝐴𝐴 of the triangle 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is half the area of this parallelogram, that is:
1 5
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 82.
2 2
An Application of Cross Product: Torque
Consider a force 𝐅𝐅 acting on a rigid body at a point given by a position vector 𝐫𝐫. For
instance, if we tighten a bolt by applying a force to a wrench, we produce a turning
effect. The torque 𝝉𝝉 (relative to the origin) is defined to be the cross product of the
position and force vectors, i.e.,
𝝉𝝉 = 𝐫𝐫 × 𝐅𝐅,
and measures the tendency of the body to rotate
about the origin. The direction of the torque vector
indicates the axis of rotation, and the magnitude of the
torque vector is:
𝝉𝝉 = 𝐫𝐫 × 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐫𝐫 𝐅𝐅 sin 𝜃𝜃 ,
where 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the position and force
vectors.
Example:

A bolt is tightened by applying a 40-N force to a 0.25-m wrench as shown in

figure. Find the magnitude of the torque about the center of the bolt.
Solution:
The magnitude of the torque vector is given as:
𝝉𝝉 = 𝐫𝐫 × 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐫𝐫 𝐅𝐅 sin(75° )
= 0.25 40 sin 75°
≈ 9.66 N. m
 Book: Thomas’ Calculus Early Transcendentals
(14th Edition) By George B. Thomas, Jr.,
Joel Hass, Christopher Heil, Maurice D. Weir.

Chapter: 12

Practice Exercise-12.1: Q – 1 to 4, Q – 6, Q – 11 to 18.

Questions Exercise-12.2: Q – 1, Q – 6, Q – 7 to 20, Q – 26&27.

Exercise-12.3: Q – 2 to 10, Q – 13 to 20, Q – 23 to 25,

Q – 45 to 48.

Exercise-12.4: Q – 1 to 7, Q – 14 to 18, Q – 21 to 32,

Q – 39 to 42.
Equations of
Lines and
Planes
 Vectors And
12
The Geometry Of Space

Book: Thomas’ Calculus Early Transcendentals (14th Edition) By George B. Thomas, Jr.,
Joel Hass, Christopher Heil, Maurice D. Weir.
Section: 12.5

Book: Calculus Early Transcendentals (6th Edition) By James Stewart.

Section: 12.5
Lines in 2-D & 3-D

• A line in the 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 −plane is determined when a point on the line and the
direction of the line (its slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation
of the line can then be written using the point-slope form. Otherwise, we
can determine equation of a line in 2-D if information about two points on
the line is known.

• A line 𝐿𝐿 in 3-D space is determined when we have information about a point

𝑃𝑃0 (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 , 𝑧𝑧0 ) on 𝐿𝐿 and the direction of 𝐿𝐿, that can be determined with the
help of a vector 𝐯𝐯 = 𝑎𝑎𝐢𝐢 + 𝑏𝑏𝐣𝐣 + 𝑐𝑐𝐤𝐤, that is parallel to 𝐿𝐿.