SECOND EDITION oo MECHANICAL WORKSHOP PRACTICE HNMECHANICAL WORKSHOP PRACTICE SECOND EDITION K.C. JOHN Professor and Head Department of Production Engineering Vidya Academy of Science and Technology ‘Thalakkottukara, Thrissur Kerala PHI Learning > ivate Limited New Dethi-110001 2010Ke John © 2010 by PHI Leoring Feat Limite, New Da Al eights reserved No part of hs book may be presen any form, by mimeooaph or any oer mame, thou permieson in wring fom the subtree sonra. 2041661 “export rights af hs ok te este slay wth the putenee ‘Second Printing (Second Eton)... Soptmber, 2010, blared by Aza K Ghosh, PT Learning Pate Lime, 9.92, Connaught Cres, New en 120007 a ‘Primes by Rogar eee Press MotN, 2 Phe N HSIDG Kun 31028 Sanept HaranContents Preface ix Module A: Introduction to Workshop Practice ‘WORKSHOP PROCESSES 3-34 Classification of Manufacturing Processes 3 1.2 Primary Shaping Processes 4 ‘Metal Casting 4 Rolling 5 1.23 Forging 6 1.24 Extrusion 7 1.25 Metal Drawing 8 1.26 Powder Metallurgy 8 127 Oxy-Gas Cutting ? 1.28 Press Work 9 1.29 Sheet Metal Work 11 4.210 Metal Spinning 11 1.3 Secondary Shaping Processes 11 1A Joining Processes £4 14d Welding 15 414.2 Brazing and Soldering 17 143 Serewing 18) 144 Riveting 19 445 Shrink Fitting 20 1.46 Adhesive bonding 20 1.5 Surface Finishing Processes 21 1.6 Processes Changing the Material Proper 16.1 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Met 1182 Heat treatment of Nonferrous Metas 24 1.6.3 Cold Working of Metals 25, 1644 Hot Working of Metals 25 1.65 Shot Peening 26 1,7 Materials for Workshop Practice 26 1.71 Classitication of Engineering Materials 27 Exercises 32 2, WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND RECORD WRITING 35-41 2.1 Workshop Processes for Practice 35, 2 Safety Measures 36 23 Preparing forte Workshop Practice 38 2.4 Writing of the Work Recor 24.1 Weiting of Wark Record for a Study 38 2.4.2 Writing of Work Record for a Practice 39 2,9 Writing of the Fair Record 40 Exercises 41 Module B: Hand Working Processes 3. FITTING 45-75 5.1 Introduction to Bench Work and Fiting 45 3.3 Werte lding Devices 47” 321 Work Bench 4? 422 Bench Viee 7 323 Hand Vice 48 321 V-block with Clamp 4 3.3 Cating Tools 49 331 thes 49 332 Hack Say 51 433 chiels 92 334 Hammers 93 335 Scrapers 94 336 brillsand Reamers 54 33.7 Taps and Dies 56 34 Measuring and Marking Tools 57 341 Surface Mate 37 442 Engineer’ Try Square 57 343 Seniors 58 3.44 Punches 58 345 Steel Rule 59 346 Verner Caliper 50 4.05 Outi and inside Caipers 60 348 Dividers 6 3.49 Combination Set 61 3420 Micrometer 62 24:1 Vernior Height Gauge 62(3.4.12 Miscellaneous Gauges 63 35 Tools for Assembling 63 45.4 Spanners 63 352 Pliers 64 43.5.3 Screw Drivers 64 354 Allon Keys 64 36 Fitting Processes 65 S51 Marking Out 65, 3.62 Hack Sawing 65 363 Chipping 66 34 Piling 66 3.653 Scraping 67 3.66 Drilling and Reaming 68 3.6.7 Tapping and Dieing 69 3.68 Assembling 69 5.7 Models for Fitting Practice 70 Exercises 72 | ARC WELDING 76-94 ‘4 Principle of Shielded Metal Arc Welding 76 41.4 Are Welding Principle 76 412 Power Supply 77 4.13 Welding Positions 78 4.2 Welding Electrodes 79 43 Are Welding Equipment and Accessaries $0 43.1 Welding Equipment 80 432 Operator Accessories 82 4 Types of Welds &2 441 Types of Welded Joints 83 442 Edge Preparation 84 443 Number and Arrangement of Runs 84 45 Welding Symbols 84 46 Defects in Weld 85 4.7 Welding Practice 87 47.4 Welding Procedure 88 472 Striking and Maintaining the Are 88 473 Tack Welding 89 ‘47 Weaving the Electrode 89 47.5 Safety Precautions 90 Exercises 92 SHEET METAL WORK 95-109 5.4 Metals Used 95 5.2 Hand Tools 97 5.2.1 Measuring Tools 97 5.22 Marking Tools 97, 5.233 Cutting Tools 98 45.244 Forming Tools 98 5.25 Joining Tools 100 5.3 Sheet Metal Operations 100 45.344 Laying Out of Patterns 101 53.2 Cutting or Shearing 101 5.33 Bending and Forming 102 5.34 Drawing 102 53.5 Edge Forming 102 5.36 Joint Making 102 5.32 Soldering 104 5.38 Riveting 104 5.4 Sheet Metal Work Practice 104 Exercises 106 CARPENTRY 110-133 6.1 Materials Used in Carpentry 110 64.1 Timber 110 46.1.2 Classification of Wood 171 6413 Indian Timber 112 6.14 Plywood 112 6.1.5 Auxiliary Materials 113 6.2 Tools for Wood Working 123 {62.1 Measuring and Marking Tools 114 6.2.2 Cutting Tools 116 {62:3 Striking Tools 117 6.2.4 Planing Tools 118 16.2.5 Work Holding Devices 119 626 Miscellaneous Tools 121 5.3 Wood Working Processes 122 5.4 Carpentry Joints 126 {65 Wood Working Machines 127 466 Canpentry Practice 129, Exercises 131 " BLACKSMITRY 134-147 7.1 Principle of Smithing and Forging 134 7.2 Heating Equipment 134 73 Tuas ana Appiances 135 7.34 Work Supporting Tools 1557.32 Hammers 137 7.3.3 Tongs 137 7/34 Metal Shaping Tools 138 7.3.5 Measuring Tools 138 7A Heating of Metal 139 5 Forging Operations 129 5.1 Upsetting or Jumping 139 5.2 Drawing Out or Drawing Down 140 5.8 Punching and Drifting 141 7544 Bending and Twisting 147 7.5.5 Setting Down and Finishing 141 75.6 Cutting 142 7.6 Smithing Practice 143 7.6.4 Smithing Procedure 143 7.6.2 Safety Measures 143, xercises 145 8, FOUNDRY 148-168 8.1 Introduction to Metal Casting Processes 148 8.1.1 Sand Casting Process 148 8.1.2 Sand Mould 149 8.2 Patterns 150 8.2.1 Types of Patterns and Core Boxes 150 8.2.2 Pattern Allowances 152 8.2.3 Pattern Making 152 8.3 Tools and Equipment for Hand Moulding 152 844 Hand Moulding 154 8.4.1 Moulding Sand and Its Preparation 155 8.4.2 Bench Moulding 156 485 Melting and Pouring 157 ‘8.6 Moulding Practice 159 Exercises 161 9. PLUMBING 165-199, 9. Introduction 165 9.2 Pipes and Their Joints 166 9.3 Pipe Fituings 167 94 Valves and Meters 170 9.5 Plumping Fixtures (Sanitary fittings) 175 96 Sketching of Piping Layouts 178 927 Water Supply System 179 98 Rain Water Disposal System 180 9.9 Sewage/Wastewater Disposal System 181 9.10 Plumbing for Industries 184 9.11 Plumber's Tools 186 9.12 Accessories far Plumbing 189 9.13 Plumbing Practice 190 Exercises 197 Module C: Machining Processes 10. TURNING 203-220, 1011 Introduction to Turning 208 10.14 Principle of Turning 203 10.1.2 Metal Cutting and Chip Formation 204 40.1.3 Cutting Speeds for Turning 205 10.1.4 Types of Turning Machines 206 102 Centre Lathe (Engine Lathe) 207 103 Accessories and Attachments 211 104 Tools for Measuring and Machining 213 10441 Measuring an Marking Tools 213 10.42 Cutting Tools 214 105 Turning Operations 216 106 Turning Practice 217 Exercises 218 APPENDIX 221-227 SUGGESTED READING 229 INDEX 231-233, 7 7 7Preface In the modem engineering curriculum, with the emphasis on engineering scence, werkshop and laboratory practices have acquired fgreater importance in the recent years. With major advancements in Precise instrumentation and computerized manulacruring techniques the same has become more sophisticated and specialized fed. To gain basic knowledge of manufacturing process, a student entering the first year of degree ar diploma must undertake @ course on workshop practice. This gives inher an overall knowledge about various Engineering) materials, tools, equipment and provesses. which are common in the engineering eld. Multiple requests from my students and colleagues for a good supporting textbook were my motivation to ‘write the book Mechanica! Workshop Practice. ‘The favourable and warm reception of first edition of the book Mechanical ‘Workshop’ Practice’ gave me satisfacion and encouragement to bring out the second edition. 1 have ulized this ‘opportunity to revise the book ite and add one chapter on Plumbing. "This book consists of three modules. Module 4 is an introduction to workshop practice. Is first chapter explains general principles and layout of workshop processes such as primary and secondary shaping processes, metal Joining methods, surface finishing, heat treatments nd the materials for workpieces and tools, The second. chapter describes the importance of safety measures to be followed as well a3 the procedure of writing the work and fair records ofthe practice. ‘Module D deals with the hand working processes sucl as ting, arc welding, sheet metal work, carpentry, blacksmithy and foundey. Each chapter in this module initially explains the tools and equipment used fand then the process. Drawings of models and the construction procedures are given at the end as examples ‘The revised first year syllabus of many Indian Universities includes Plumbing as a new trade for practice. Hear the ‘rade is added as CChapter 9 in the book under the Module B “Hand Working Processes” Enough figures and examples have been added in the chapter in order {understand the topie clearly and co practice he trade. The method of Sketching isometric sige line piping layaut Is also ddd ta prepare the detalls of plumbing Module C describes the machining processes and model making. The Wworklng principle of engine lathe and turning of cylindrical machine components are covered in this module. Each chapter of the book ends ‘with exercises having enough questions for viva voce and drawings for making models. The process chart and the related tables for tolerances ‘ands are also given as an Appendix for advanced level practice and the assessment of work Tam greatly indebted to many specialists on this subject, whose publications have contributed to my knowledge on the subject and to ny Teachers devoted ta the engineering profession. 1 am especially thankful to Ds K- Balakrishnan, Principal (Rid), Govt. Engineering Collage, Thrissur, who was Kind enough to review the book and give his Valuabe suggestions far the betterment of the hook I express my deep fratinide to my colleagues who have directly and indirecdy helped sme To make this attempt a great success. My heartfelt thanks are also due ta zmy son Simon & John (MTech) for preparing the drawings using CAD. I sincerely thank the students and teaching community whe have used the fist edition ofthe hook and gave me valuable suggestions for improvement. Finally I thank the PHI Learning group once again for ther timely and careful processing of the second edition. KC. John; = A Introduction to Workshop Practice1 Workshop Processes he workshop technology gives the basic working knowledge fr the Production ‘of ‘varlous “engineering products. it explains, the construction, function and the Use of various working tools, measuring fools, equipment and. machines as. well ay the. technique of Imanufacturing a product from its raw material. To understand the Subject and to develop the sk, one has to pracice the workshop oeeses, stating frm simple modesto complleated products Peany of the aspects of workshop techie can ony e acquired by experience, by studying on the spot and by establishing contacts with experienced craftsmen There is much, however, that may be learned breading prior o or along with the workshop practice. The objective Gf this port of the ook beta provido a prolisinay tnsight inte te Subjet for easy understanding ad to give trection for fast ogress in the practice: Is to be noted thatthe basic knowledge of camnpostion, Properties and use of diferent materials, fundamentals about te Drotess of manufacturing, use of hand tools and aperatins, and allied Fechniques converts an rhnary stent of scienee info. ah engineer Also, the basic knowledge and experience in workshop processes faetitate sound foundation fr further advanced engineering stades 1.1 Classification of Manufacturing Processes ‘Metal is considered as the most important material for engineering objects and machines. The term, manufacturing pracess Is considered fas the general name Tor the method of processing metal in order to fobtain Various shapes. ‘The whole manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into the following five groups: 1. Primary shaping processes 2 Secondary shaping (machining) processes 3. Joining processes 4 Surface finishing processes 5. Processes changing the metal properties ‘The above-mentioned manufacturing processes can also be grouped as hot working and cold-working pracesses. In hotworking process, the ‘metal is processed in hot condition, Le, above the reerystallizition temperature, whereas in cold-working process, the processing is done below this temperature 1.2 Primary Shaping Processes ‘Metal obtained by extraction of ores is refined and cast to form big Docks, called ingore These ingots are reduced to smaller size and shape by one or more af the primary shaping pracesees. A lst of the important primary shaping processes given below. 4. Meta casting 2 Rolling 5. Forging Extrusion 5. Metal drawing 6 Povedler metallurgy 7. Oxy-gas cuting 8. Press work 4. Sheet metal work 10. Meal spinning 1.2.1 Metal Casting Casting or founding i the process of forming metal objects by melting Sand pouring into moulds. A foundry i commercial establishment for founding oF producing metal costings. Metal casting can be broadly Aided into pes41. Conventional sand casting process. 2. Special casting processes. ‘The best known and still widely used method of metal casting isthe conventional sand casting process. Sand casting consists basically of pouring molten metal into appropriate cavities, formed in a. sand ‘mould. Whichever may be the metal poured inio the sand moulds, the Products called sand casting. The process of sand casting includes the following operations 4. Patiern making 2.core making 3. Moulding 4. Melting and pouring 5 Feutling and cleaning 6. Testing and inspection Figure 1.1 shows an example to sand mould used for casting a single component. The sand casting methods can also be grouped according to the metal cast as shown herein below: 1. Grey iron castings 2. Steel castings 43. Nonferrous castings Feeding a system low 0} 5 ~ Mould — box Sond mould FIGURE 1.1 Sand mould with casting ‘The metal casting methods other than the conventional sand casting process are grouped as spectal casting processes They include the Following: \ Casting 4. Shell mould easting 2.Investment mould casting 3 Permanent mould casting 4 Die easting 5, Slush casting 6 Plaster mould casting 7. Centrifugal casting 8. Continuous casting Foundry practice is explained in Chapter 8. 1.2.2 Rolling Raling is a rocent of shapiiy snails ind alloy into went fniahed pradutts by "passing them between. two valle Tota, by oppowie Uirecions (Figure 120]. Rolling involves plastic defarmnaion of the total in which the thickness ofthe outgoing metal is reduced and the length is increased. The roling processes can be broadly divided into twosections as mentianed below: 1. Breaking down processes:to produce semi-finished products called blooms, slabs, and billets {rom the heavy intial metal block called ingot. 2.Finish rolling processes: to produce rails, beams, plates, Sheets, structural sections, rad, ete, from the blooms, slabs and billets, ‘The rolling process is basically a hot-warking process but, thin sheets and folls are rolled in clod (at room temperature) state. Cross sections of Some commonly used rolled products are shown In Figure 12(0). These products are used as ihe basic raw material for further shaping processes like welding, forging, sheet metal work, machining, eteUpper roller rms CTR = goo —— alt \_ Lower roller (a) Rolling process (b) Rolled sections FIGURE 1.2 Roing 1.2.3 Forging Forging is basically a hot-working process of metal, performed by ‘means of hammer blows or the pressure applied by a press. Various types of machine parts of different shapes and sizes are made by forging or stamping operations. Figure 1.3 shows the principle of open die forging. Forging operation can be done by hand ot by using ‘machines. Depending an the method of praduction, forging processes are classified into the following types: 1. Hand forging 2 Power hammer forging 43. Drop forging ar closed aie forging 4. Press forging Anvil FIGURE 1.3 Open he froin, ‘Hand forging is carried out on an anvil with the aid of hand forging tools. Heavy components are forged hy using power hammers. To change the shape and control the dimensions af 8 workpiece, various blacksmlth’s tools are used. Shaping of metal with the help ‘of hand hammers or power hammers is called smith forging. In drop forging or stamping, the flow of metal is limited by the space of the recess in the dies, in which the metal fakes its predetermined shape and dimensions. Every part manufactured by drop-forging process requires a separate die or a set of dies. Very heavy components are forged by squeezing the hhot metal between dies using presses. Such forging Is called press forging. Here, instead of suddenly applying the force as a blow, the farce is applied gradually ike squeezing. ‘The forging operation is associated with a change in the microstructure of the metal that leads to a rearrangement of fires and alters the grain size. The layout of grains of a crank shaft made by casting, machining from a solid piece and forging is shown in Figure 14 for comparison. ‘The forging process gives the best fibre grain flow layout resulting better strength against dynamic loads. Parts like crank shafts, connecting rods, machine livers, spanners, ee, are ‘manufactured by the drop-forging process. The hi explained in Chapter 7Tq] Costing E [== Machined from rolled stock Drop forged FIGURE 1.4 Grain flow tines ina crankshaft 1.2.4 Extrusion Extrusion is the proces of forcing mot enclosed in & container and forming the shape by passing owt through the opening of @ die. The Gross section ofthe extrided metal s that of he caaour and dimenalon athe opening ofthe de. Extrusion process is very wel used fo produce onfervous metal sections, The nial material for extrusion i cast oF rolled billet. Figure 1s explains the principle of extrusion. Extrusion processes ean be classed 4. Direct extrusion 2 Indirect extrusion 1m the direct extrusion, both the ram and the extruded metal move in the same direction as shown in Figure 1.5 while n indirect extrusion hey move n opposite directions. The extrusion process canbe done in Doth hot or cold state of metal. Long sections of various shapes and tubes can be manufactured by the direct extrusion process. For the extrusion of tubes, a mandrel is pieced firs through te billet and then they are extruded together through the die, producing the tube. Extrusion of aluminium is a very commonly used process to produce ‘material for doors and windews, furniture, automablie body, ete Container. Extrusion 7 Ram-/ gillet FIGURE 15 Extrusion dec. 1.2.5 Metal Drawing ‘Metal drawing is a process in which wire, bar stock or tube is drawn in tension through the hole of a drawing die. The bole has a conical shape builtin stich a sway that the inlet side is slightly larger and the outlet side is slightly smaller than the object drawn, Figure 1.6 explains the principle of wire drawing. FIGURE 1.6 Wire craving "The drawing process is usually done in the cold state and is applied to nonferrous metals and low-carhon steels. The operation is done on powerful drawing benches with high pulling capacity 1.2.6 Powder Metallurgy Powder metallurgy can be described as an art of manufacturing commercial are rom powdered metals hy placing the powder in frou andappbingprente, These compresed components ae then heated to bind the parices together to getimproved strength and other properties ‘This process is Known as sintering. In sintering. thetemperature is kept below the melting point of the powder. Powder metallurgy enables the production of alloys from both metallic and nonmetallic powders. This enables to produce parts which are having ‘unusual characteristics. few examples of such products are cemented carbide tools, oilless bearings, special electrical contacts, etc. 1.2.7 Oxy-Gas Cutting The oxy-gus cuting fs based upon the ability of certain metas to burn in the presence of oxygen, expelling heavy heat to melt and form axides, The metals which are having melting polnts above the ignition temperature of the metal, form oxides, Carbon steels with carbon pereertage up to 0.7 and low alloy steel can be eut by this process. The Sxyegas cultng 1s performed by means of ordinary gas welding equipment except that the Welding torch is replaced by the cuttin {Grek A gis mature for pre nealing (ony acejling) is posed Uaroug the outer ting holes of te nozzle, while the cutting oxygen at higher pressure is delivered through the central hole. The ox}-gas cuting can Demanual, semlauiomatic of automatle. The mechanization of cutting process enables more uniform motion of the torch resulting good {ually cut at higher speeds. Oxy-gas cutting process very well used in Structural ste! industries to shape metal foF welding, fabrication and allied processes, 1.2.8 Press Work Press work is a term applied to a large variety of operations in connection with the metallic and nonmetallic articles. The operations are done generally in cold state, The press work operations can be broadly grouped as shearing and forming processes (Figure 1.7). Uo © (e)Banuing (OY Punching) Perforating ——_(@). Nlching (e) siting (teneing (a) Bending (6) cure RL. — (wiring (i) Embossing (W) coining () Drawing FIGURE 1.7 Sheaving and forming operations press work Shearing operations (@) Blanking: This is the process of cutting a closed outside contour ata shape. (t» Piercing: This is the process of cutting holes of any shape o size inside the contour (e) Perforating: This Is the process of cutting a number of small Noles inside the contour (@) Notching: This isthe cuting of relatively small indentation on the edge of a par. (ey frommning: Ths isa process of cutting of the excess metal from a piece (© Shaving: This is a secondary cutting operation in which the surface of a previously cut edge Is finished for bringing close dimensional accuracy. ) Siting: This fsa process of makeing incomplete cu in a sheet so © ite projected poruon sobianed. (oy Lancing: This is the process of cuting along a line sn the ‘workplece, without producing a detached portion Forming operations (a) Bending: This is a process of forming bends in ane plain only (b) Forming: This is a process of bending into complicated shapes in ‘more than one plane. (©) Curling: This is a process of shaping an edge to circular cross section along the edge ofa sheet orat the end of a shell or tube. (@) Wiring: This is a curling process in which a wire Is inserted within the curled edge. (©) Embossing: This isa forming process in which projections like letters, designs ete, are made of a thin metal sheet (® Coining: This is a forming process by which the surface is deformed into fine detail by compression.(g) Drawing: This is a forming process by which a flat blank is converted into a cup or a cylindrical form with one end closed, ‘The press used for shearing or forming may be hand operated. foot operated, hytraulic operated, air operated or power operated. For light works, hand presses are sufficient. For cutting and forming processes, dies and punches of hard steel material are used. The finish and accuracy of abject formed by press work depends mainly on the size, shape, dimension and material of die blocks. The types of articles produced by press work range from a small flat blank to a large one oof panel ata saloon car. The size ofthe object is limited by the size of the die block and the capacity of the power press. In modern times, ‘most of the sheet metal parts of small machines like washing machine, typewriter, electronic equipment, steel arnicure, cycle parts, electrical fittings, automobile body parts, etc, are produced by various press working operations. 1.2.9 Sheet Metal Work Sheet metal work i basicaly a hand process of making, objects of sheets Gf metal withthe help of han! tools anil equipment. The object to be ‘nate is developed and drawn on a plane sheet of metal, Then its cut an folded to form the shape. The os are made y fling, vetig or Terrots, nonferrous and coated metallic sheets are used for the production ofthe sheet metal abjects. Machines like shearing machine, Talding machine, bending machine ete. are also used for large sale production of sheet metal objects. Examples for sheet metal works are Toppers, trays, guards, covers, funnel, bucket, measuring can, hoods, boxes pipes et Sheet metal work is explained in Chapter 5 1.2.10 Metal Spinning ‘Metal spinning is a forming process in which the metal sheet i rotated Gn 2 chuck of former or dle. The deformation of the metal sheets Sbrained bys combination of bending ond sretching due to. the ‘pplicaion of pressure using the forming tool see Figure 1.) Circular metal sheet \ Follower block Force Steady rest Head stock \ FIGURE 1.8 Principle of spinning operation, ‘The spinning process can be done in both hot and cold state of metal, Hot spinning is used (o produce large and heavy objects like pressure vessels, cylindrical tank ends, ec. The machine used for the process is called spinning lathe. The metals that are available in sheet form, can be spun, Hand spinning is successfully done in many small-scale industries {o produce aluminium utensils. The objects produced by spinning includes conical shapes, utensils, ornaments, components Used [or chemical industries, pressure vessel cylinder ends, etc. 1.3 Secondary Shaping Processes ‘The components of parts produced by primary shaping processes may not have the required accuracy in shape, dimension and surface ish diye tothe limitations of the process used, A secondary shaping process called machining Is applied on these components for obtolnng the desired finish, Machining fs defined as metal-cuting process in which ‘metal is removed from a surface in the form of chips using a tool list ofthe commonly used machining processes i given below. 1. turing 2 Drilling 3. Shaping 4 Planing 5. Slotting .iling >. Grinding 8 Boring 9. Broaching 10. Hohbing 11. Unconventional machining processes.Turning ‘Turning is a metakeutting process performed in a machine tool called lathe. eve, the workpiece clamped on a spindle is rotated and the tool {s pressed ‘against the moving surface 1 remove the metal [Figure {fai}. Turning isthe most common machining process used to produce cylindrical objects. Mare about turning is discussed in Chapter 9. Drilling Drilling is a metal cutting process in which holes are produced by pressing a rotating cylindrical toal called twist dri! against a stationary workplece. The machine wed fortis ale driding machine (Figure 1.90}. Driling is the simplest conventional machining process and is discussed in Chapter 3, Shaping, Shaping is a metal-cutting process in which plane surfaces or grooves are produced by horizontal reciprocating motion of a tool against a stationary workpiece [see Fig, 1.9). Shaping is done in. @ machine tool called shaper andl the process is suitable to produce plane surfaces or grooves of relatively short lengths on small or medium-size objects. Planing Planing is a metal-cutting process in which plane surfaces or grooves are produced by horizontal reciprocating motion of the workpiece against a stationary tool [Figure 1.94], Planing is done in a machine {ool called planer and the process is used to produce plane surfaces or arooves of relatively large objects. Slotting Slotting Is a metal-cutting process in which slots or grooves like Keyways are produced by vertical reciprocating motion af ie too! against a stationary workpiece [Figure 1.9(e)). Slotting is dane ina ‘machine too! called slotting machine and the process is generally used to cut keyways or grooves inside holes, Work chip et chi wo < Work Table Wo nip Tea Tebie (6) Turing (2) orting To Toot ho seat Wor oi Nb / Taole fee Tobe —~ eh (2) Praning (4) Siting (aating /-avinding wee! ®ore9 49 Work Work, ct Tock aye g a = emp AP A 4 (9) Grinaing Table! () Boring FIGURE 1.9 Secondary shaping machining) processes Milling Milling isa metal-cutting process in which a rotating dise or cylindrical- shaped multiple point cutter is brought against a horizontal moving workpiece, Almost all types of geometnical surfaces ith etter accuracy and finish can be produced by this process [Pigure 1.9(0)], ‘Milling is done in a machine too! called milling machine and the process is corumonly used to make very accurate machine;parts having ‘complicated shapes with good surface finish, Grinding Grinding is a metal-cutting operation in which metal is removed in the {orm of fine chips by means of an abrasive wheel rotating at high speed [Figure 19g), Grinding is done ina machine tool called grinding ‘machine and the process is used to get high surface finish, accuracy of shape and dimension, Boring Boring is a metal-cuting process like turning in whieh the large-sized cylindrical holes are machined. Here the tool fixed on a boring bar, ‘which is supported at two ends, rates inside the stationary workpiece {o affect machining [Figure 19(0). This boring process is conducted in ‘machines similar (olathe called boring machines Broachingpies erg cscs “sr yoitses agen alae ged. paaegthaphign Tas mend broach is drawn or pulled against a surface in order to cut a hole or groove. Broaching is commonly used to produce components having special shaped holes. Hobbing Hobbing is another metal-cutting process in which a cutter called hab revolves and removes metal from the workpiece like milling process, Hobhing is commonly used process to cut large-sized gears. Unconventional machining processes ‘The unconventional or non-traditional machining processes are the rmetal-remaving processes other than the above-explained metal-cutt processes. In these processes, the object is shaped by removing metal Lsing some form of energy. A list of popular unconventional machining processes is given below: 4, Ultrasonic machining (USM) 2. Abrasive jet machining (A.M) 45. Electro-chemical machining (@:C.M) 4. Plasma are machining (PAM) 5. Electrical discharge machining (E.D.M.) 6, Electron bear machining (2.8.M.) 7. Laser beara machining (L.B.M) Unconventional machining processes are economical and have wide application when the metal machined is very hard ar is of special alloy. Intricate shapes of dies used for injection moulding are produced by these processes, 1.4 Joining Processes Different metalic pieces are joined together to get the required shape or assembled form of parts. The joints, produced may be of permanent 9: temporary nature, The different joining processes sed in warkshop Practice areas fellows 1. Welding 2. Brazing and soldering 5. Serewing, 4. Riveting 5. Shrink fitting 6. Adhesive bonding 1.4.1. Welding ‘Welding is the process of joining metallic parts by bringtig chem into, Intimate proximity and heating the places of contact to the stae of fusion or plasticity This leads to inter penetration of stoms of the metals inthe weld zone anda strong inseparable joint is formed after the metas have cooled The popular welding processes are mentioned below (a) Are welding 1. Shielded metal are welding 2, Submerged arc welding 3. Gasmetalare (Qf) welding 4 Tungsten-are C11) welding 5, Automatic hydrogen welding, Fux coated are welding 2: Carbon are welding 8. Elecro slag welding stud welding (ty Resistance wetting 1. Spot welding 2 seam welding 3. Projection welding 4 Boreand upset welding 5. Flash welding 6. ercussion welding. (o Gas weiaing "VOny-aceylene welding 2 Oxy-hydrogen welding 3 airacetyiene welding 4 Oxy other fuel gas welding (a) Nitscetancous weling processes 1 therm welding 2 Forge welding 4 Modern welding processes Arc welding ‘Among, the various arc welding processes, shielded metal arc welding (manual metal are welding) is the most widely used and less expensive welding process. shielded metal are welding is a manual are weldingprocess in fusion state, in which the heat required for melting the Surfaces to be joined is generated by maintaining an electric are between a flux coated consumable electrode and the base metal. More about the process is explained in Chapter 4. Submerged arc welding is also popular in industries due to its suitability for welding thick metas ‘The remaining are welding processes given above are generally selected to join metals which are difficult to weld or when special requirements are existing. Figure 1-10(a) shows examples of arc-welded joints. Since the shielded meral arc welding (manual metal arc welding) is so popular, less expensive and suitable to weld mild steel of reasonable thickness, the process is also called in shart form are welding. Resistance welding In resistance welding, the heat for joining is obtained by resistance offered by the work pieces to the flow of electri current in a circuit in Which the work is part The most amimon, resistance welding processes are spot, seam and projection welding, Sheet meta components, wire meshes, welded pipes, etc. are produced by this process, Figure 1.10(b) shows the examples for resistance welded joints. Ses OSS Butt wold Spot welding O c~) Fillet wold Projection welding (0) Welding in fusion state (b) Welding in plastic state (are or gos welding) (resistance welding) FIGURE 1.10 Welded joins. Gas welding In gas welding, the heat generated by the combustion of various gases in. stream of oxygen Is used to melt the welding area and filler metal, ‘The most popular gas-welding process is oxy-acetylene welding. This is 2 fusion welding process used to jon thin metalic sheets OF pieces Since the oxy-acetylene welding is very popular, this method of welding isalso known as gos welding Miscellaneous welding processes Other than the aboveexplained groups of processes, there are other welding processes which are used for special situations, joints, metals, Ete Therm welding fo example aks use of the heat supplied by an exo-thermic reaction involving combustion of thermit which isa :mjxture of powdered aluminium and iron oxide, This process is used to join rails in rallway tracks. Forge welding is the aldest form of welding process done in blacksmith sop, tn this proces, the, work pieces are ated to plastic state and the superimposing ends are hammered to get the joint. The modern welding processes developed to join metals, Which are dificult to weld oF the welding conditions, size, etc, are not suitable for conventional processes. These processes include electron beam welding, laser welding, plasma arc welding, ultrasonic welding, explosive welding ete 14.2 Brazing and Soldering Brazing) and soldering are the processes for joining. solid metal components similar to welding by introducing a molten alloy between them whict has a low melting point than the base metal. Brazing and sade are thet ja frou and nonterros metals and ther loys Ibrazing Brazing is a metal joining provess in which the joint is produced by the ase meal plates wo sulableterpratre above 30% and applying a filer metal tbrazing alloy) which has melting point ae ar ofthe base metal Tht Mier Pea is touted Baeen closely ted surfaces of joint by eapiiary action. Figure 1.11 gives an example for the brazed joint. Brazing process is classified according to the type of heating ofthe base metal as mentioned below: 1. Furnace brazing. 2. Torch brazing. Induction brazing. 4 Salt-bath brazing 5. Infra-red brazing 6 Electric block brazing. The commonly used filler metals are the alloys of copper, silver, aluminium, magnesium and nickel. The flux for brazing 1s selectedaceording to the type of brazing alloy used. They are used to prevent oxidation, (0 dissolve oxides and to promote capillarity of the filler ‘metal. Joint a FIGURE 1.19 Braced point. Soldering is defined as a metallurgical bonding method in which a filler ‘metal has a. melting point below 430°C. Most engineering metas such 4s iron, see, copper, bras, ee. can he joined by this process. Soldering is extensively used to make clectical and vlectronic connections, hermetic sealing of metal containers, joining of copper tubing, etc Figure 112 gives atypical joint mail by soldering. The soldering roetal {s basically an alloy of tin and lead of standard proportion of 40:60 by ‘Weight Flux isto be applied atthe joining area for making the jtnt. Joint FIGURE 1.12 Soldered joint. 14.3 Screwing ‘Screwed joints are temporary joints made by using threaded fasteners Iike bots nuts, screws, studs, et. ‘These joints are very common Tor asterbly of parts in machines and equipment. The threads provided on the screwed fasteners oin the parts together, transmit power and locate the parts in relation to each other, Figure 1.13 shows a typical screwed Joint-A acrew thread can be described asa helical or spiral groove oF Fide formed ona cylindrical surface, such that. the” angular displacement of any two corresponding points on the counter of the {roowe Is proportional to their displacement along the. axis of the thread. Th thread form cut externally on a male member such a, bot Sud, ef, is known as external thread The thread orm cut internally on 2 female’ member lke nut socket, tc, is known as infernal thread. To ‘ake a screwed joint, the internal and external thread forms should tmatch each other, The helical form of thread can be of righthand of lefthand typo. in the case ofa right-hand thread, a bolt head or nut ts rotated clockwise, it moves forward to tighten the joint. For left-hand ‘ype, the apposite action occurs. Most ofthe threaded fasteners ae of ghichand type. Lefchand threads are not common and used only for Special purposes. The most common thread forms in use ae a follows 1. British Standard Withworth (8.5.41) threads in EPS. systema 2.18.0. thread in metric system 4. Square thread for heavily loaded parts Bolt FIGURE 1.13 Screwed joint ‘The types of threaded fasteners used to make joints, inchude the following items: 1. Botts (i) Hexagonal headed bolt (i) Square-headed bot {dip Round or cup headed ott (iv) Theaded bolt (6) Hook bolt (vi) Eye bot 2.Nuts (0) Hexagonal nut {Gi Square nut ity Wing mut (i) Knurled nut () Castle nut (i Slotted nut s.studs (Pain stud (i) Stud with square central part(Gi) Stud with collar 4. Serews Screws with different forms of heads. (Gi Allen screw (it Machine screw (iv) Set screw () Screw without head 5. Washers () Standard washer (i) Spring washer (Gi) Lock washer ‘When the screwed joints are subjected to vibrations, they have a tendency to get loose and screw off. The machine parts which are subjected to frequent vibration are joined by nuts with locking arrangements. Nuts with screws and spilt pin or lock washers are used for locking the mut. Usually a washer is inserted between the nut or head of bolt and the surface on which it is tightened. This enables easy tightening of nut or bolt and better distribution of clamping pressure on the machine body. The tools used to tighten and loosen the threaded. fasteners are as follows: 1. C-spanner 2. Ring spanner 3. Box spanner 4. Adjustable spanner 5. Serew driver 6.Allen key 1.4.4 Riveting Riveting is a permanent fastening method to join two or more pieces of plates or sheets. Riveting is done by using a cylindrical metal piece Called rivet. It consists of a cylindrical body and a head. To make a joint by riveting. Holes of diameter equal to that ofthe body of rivet is made on the plates in the joining postion and the rivet body 1s inserted Through the hole. The projecting tailend is deformed to form the Second head by the application of pressure using riveting tool or by hammering. Figure 1.11 shows a typical riveted joint. The rivets can be ‘of solid oF hollow type. They are grouped according to the shape of head. The common riveted joints are mentioned below: 41. Lap joint. 2. Butt joint with single cover plate. 4. Butt joint with double cover plate. Rivet fi) a WY WY FIGURE 1.14 Riveted joint 14.5 Shrink Fitting ‘wo components can be oined rigidly by shrink fing. n shrink iting process, fhe inner part made slightly larger in ditension than the Rote ofthe outer part: e. with light interference. This interference can be eliminated fora short time by heating the outer (female) par and the inner (male) part is inserted, While cooling, the outer part shrinks taking a strong joint by shri fiting ‘The same joint can also be made by cooling the inner part in order to reduce the dimension slightly. Such a fit is some times called expansion fit. To produce a good shrink fit, the parts should be properly designed and machined perfectly to get the Fequired interference at room temperature. The shrink fiting methods fre used fr lining of heavy shells ding of bearing on the sha. ete 1.4.6 Adhesive bonding ‘Adhesive bonding is a method of Joining materials by the wse of Zaesive torres the surfaces vo Ue eines The ype ef esi taed ary be um coven OF sar banctag agen THe proces ef wahenve Boning neues the folowing steps, 4. The surface preparation, 2. Applying the primer. 4. Applying the adhesive, 4. Assembling of various components to be joined. 5. Curing the bonded joint. Depending on the type of adhesive, the curing procedure varies. This‘process may include heating. application of pressure, etc. The joint is wepared in various forms based on the requirement. Generally, for iter strength more area of contact of the joining plces is required, ‘The common types of adhesives fare. thermoplastic of thermosetting plastics. The thermosetting plastics cannot be re-melted, if once hardened. The adhesives are available as liquid, paste, tape form, film ar powder form. Adhesive bonding is successfully used wood products, plastics, concrete, paper products, etc. Adhesive bonding cannot give good joint strength for metals; therefore it is seldom used for joining metalic parts, ‘L,5Surface Finishing Processes “The surface finishing processes primarily intended to give good finish oF protective coating to metal surfaces. in some cases a negligible amount of metal is removed from the surface. Anyhow, a amount of dimensional change does not oceur. The finishi ‘in whiett a very small layer of metal is removed are as follows: 1. Honing 2. Lapping 4. Bulfing 4 Deburring 5. Sanding 6. Super finishing 7. Tumbling 8. Polishing ‘The surface finishing processes include coating of the metalic surface for finish, decoration or protection. They are as follows: 1. Galvanizing 2; Metal spraying. 5. Anodizing 4 Electro plating. 5: Inorganic coating 6. Painting. ‘The above-mentioned finishing operations are applied only towards the end ofthe shaping processes af «component, 1.6 Processes Changing the Material Properties ‘The components of machines and equipment are mainly made up of ‘metals. While shaping them, ifthe strength of the metal is low at that stage, the production process will be easy. But, after the production of the parts, they have to be converted into thetr full strength and wear resistance af the level. Ths is possible for steel and its alloys by the process called heat treatment. Other processes which change the Imaal proper are coldworting,hatwecking and shotpeening 13. 1200 a © High temp. tempering bb Medium temp. tempering = Low lemp. tempering At Lower critical point Tempercture ¢* 13 Higher ertica! point 12 16 20 24 28 32 % carbon n FIGURE 1.15 Simplified ion-carbon diagram showing the temperature ranges for heat ‘reatment.1.6.1 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals ‘Heat treatment of a metal includes the following three stages: 4, Heating the metal toa predetermined temperature. 2-Holding the metal at that temperature for a specified time so that the structure of the metal hecomes uniform throughout the part. 3.Cooling the metal at a predetermined rate to acquire the required property. The commonly used heat treatment processes applied to steel can be broadly classified! into the following categories; (a) Annealing () Normalizing, (¢) Hardening (@) Tempering. (e) Case hardening (O)Surface hardening Annealing Annealing is the process of heating the metal to a temperature that will remove the distortion of grains of the metal and then cooling at a slower rate so that, at room temperature it has no grain distortion or strain. Depending on the temperature, sustaining time, cooling rate, the ‘composition of metal etc, the annealing process can be grouped as 4. Full annealing 2 Process annealing 43. Spheraidize annealing 4 Diffusion annealing 5. Isothermal annealing Fiqure 1.15 gives the simplified iron-carbon equilibrium diagram showing the approximate temperature ranges for heat treatment of steel. Normalizing The normalizing process consists of heating the workpiece about 50% above its upper critical vemperature and then cooling in still air at room temperature. If necessary, the metal may be held at the elevated temperature for a short period. Normalizing differs from annealing in tive sense that the holding time at the elevated temperature is very short fo zero and the cooling rate is rapid for the process. The normalizing process removes the internal stresses, refines the grains to smaller size and improves the mechanical properties such as impact strength, yield pint, ultimate tensile strength, etc Hardening Hardening is a heat treatment process in which the metal is heated avout 50°C above the higher critical point (A3 line) for steels having Jess than 0.8% carbon content. Far stels having more than 0.8% carbon content, this range is taken above the lower critical point (AL line) Then the metal is held at that temperature for sufficient time to change into austenite structure and cooled very rapidly by quenching ina suitable ‘medium like water or oil, This process gives the maximum hardness for the metal hence suitable for robs, dies, machine pars, ec. Tempering The subsequent heat treatment for redueing the hardness obtained by hardening process is called tempertng. In this process the hardened steel is reheated to a temperature below the lower critical point (Aline, retained at that temperature. for sufficient time and then cooled slowly to the room temperature. Depending on the holding temperature range, tempering process can be classified as 1. Low temperature tempering (150° to 250°C). 2. Medium temperature tempering (350° to 450°C). 3. High temperature tempering (500° to 650°C) in Figure 1.15, the shaded areas a, b, and c represent the tempering regions in iron-carbon diagram, A tempering process relives residual stresses, improves ductility, gives toughness by the reduction of hardness. Case hardening Case hardening is a heat treatment process in which the low carbon steel (0.1990) is heated to red hot and the content of carbon or nitrogen for both on the outer shel! of the workpiece is increased by forcing to absorb from the surrounding to the surface for certain depth’ by diffusion, The outer shell is hardened as done in the hardening process. Thus, by getting the hardened surface and a ductile core, a machine part gets high wear resistance as well as heavy dynamic load bearing