COURSE MODULE ON

GENDER AND SOCIETY

1
 Module 1: Gender and Sexuality
as a Social Reality

Lesson 1: Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

At the end of this lesson the student should be able to:

- Differentiate sex, gender and sexuality

- Discuss the implication of these differences

- Contemplate about their own sexuality and on the importance

of appreciating sexual diversity

Motivation:

Activity 1:

CONTEMPLATE: List down as many words or phrases used to

identify and describe the following genders.

Men Women Homosexuals

2
What are your thoughts?

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

_____

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

First thing you need to understand is the complexities of

defining and differentiating sex, gender, and sexuality. Having

a clear grasp of these concepts is crucial since we will be using

these terms over and over again in succeeding discussions.

Likewise, there are nuances in the meanings of these terms

which have an implication on at which context we can

appropriately use them.

3
 Moreover, as we start our discussion of sexuality as

social realities, we also want to understand how a person’s

gender and sexuality as social realities, we also want to

understand how a person’s gender is expressed from birth to

adulthood. Our ultimate goal is to foster understanding of the

diversity of how humans experience and express their

sexuality.

SEX

Sex is the biological dimension of your gender and

sexuality. Also referred to as biological sex or physical sex, the

term generally pertains to your identity depending on your

sexual anatomy and physiology.

Among humans, sex is often assigned at birth. If at birth

a child is observed to have a penis and testicles, then the

child is categorized as male. If on the other hand a child is

observed to have a vagina, then the child is categorized as

female. However, there are cases when the baby’s genitals

appear to be a conglomerate of male and female organs such

4
that it may be difficult to classify the baby’s sex without further

examination. In the past, this condition is referred to as

hermaphroditism (from Hermes, a male Greek god, and

Aphrodite, a female Greek goddess). In modern times, the

term intersexuality is used to refer to this phenomenon.

Hermaphroditism or intersexuality is a naturally occurring

variation in humans and animals (1 in 1,500 births) according

to the American Psychological Association (2006). Since it

may be difficult to distinguish biological sex by merely

examining the genitals, there are other biological markers

used. For instance, your chromosomes- protein structures

which contain your genetic materials- are also used to

determine sex. The level of some hormones- chemicals in

our body that are responsible for sustaining bodily processes-

are also used as markers. For example, human males tend to

have higher

levels of testosterone, which is associated to sex drive and

aggressions. On the other hand, human females tend to have

higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, which are

associated to lactation, menstruation, and other female

reproductive functions.

5
 Male A newborn with XY chromosomes and usually has

male sex and reproductive organs is assigned biologically male.

Female A newborn with XX chromosomes and usually has

female sex and reproductive organs is assigned biologically

female.

Intersex Anewborn having a combination of both male and

female biological characteristics, either through chromosomes

or genitals is assigned as being intersex.

GENDER

However, humans are meaning-making organisms. Our

ability for higher order thinking and our tendency to create

social norms, allow us to attach social and cultural meanings to

things, including our sex. For example, males are typically

expected to be masculine and females are expected to be

feminine. This social dimension of one’s sexuality is referred

to as gender.

How we express our gender is largely based on our

social and cultural setting. Most are comfortable with their sex

and gender; men who are masculine and women who are

feminine. Each culture also has different standards on how to

be a man and a woman and how they should present

themselves according to their sex and gender.

6
Androgynous. Individuals who express their selves with the

combination of masculine and feminine characteristics.

Feminine. People who have qualities or appearance

traditionally associated with women.

Masculine. People who have qualities or appearance

traditionally associated with men.

GENDER IDENTITY

One important aspect of our gender is our sense of who

we are: Do we see and experience ourselves as a man, a

woman, or neither. This refers to our gender identity.

Typically, males are comfortable identifying as a man and

females are comfortable identifying as a woman. However,

there are cases wherein a person’s biological sex does not align

with one’s gender identity. People with this experience are

referred to as transgenders, such as a male who does not feel

comfortable identifying as a man(transgender woman) or a

female who is not comfortable identifying as a woman

7
(transgender man) Transgender people may undergo

reassignment surgery to align their physical characteristics to

their gender identity. If a transgender person have undergone

sex reassignment surgery, the person is now referred to as

transexual.

Cisgender Or Gender binary. People who conform

exclusively to feminine or masculine identities exclusively.

People who are not transgender or gender-fluid.

Gender queer. Umbrella term for individuals who denote

themselves as not having a fixed gender. Includes gender-fluid

and gender individuals.

Transgender People whose gender-identity and/or gender

expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex

they were assigned at birth.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

8
 Another aspect of our gender pertains to our emotional

and sexual attraction to a person. This aspect refers to our

sexual orientation. According to the Psychological Association

of the Philippines, typically at age 6 or 8 we experience or

develop attraction to other people. By adolescence we already

know who we are attracted to and would experiment through

dating and relationships.

Everyone’s sexuality is different and deeply personal.

Our capacity for emotional and sexual attraction is diverse and

complex, but there a few common terms and labels for us to

use.

Homosexual. A person who is sexually, physically and

romantically attracted to members of the same sex.

Bisexual. An individual who is sexually, physically and

romantically attracted to individuals of more than one gender.

Pansexual. A person capable of sexual, physical and romantic

attraction to others regardless of their identity or biological sex.

9
Asexual A person who generally does not feel sexual attraction

or desire to any group of people.

Heterosexual A person who is only sexually, physically and

romantically attracted to members of the opposite sex.

APPRECIATING DIVERSITY

According to the American Psychological Association,

nature and nurture play a complex role in shaping our sexual

orientation. Homosexuality and heterosexuality are part of the

human sexuality and is a large part of the human experience.

Identifying as a heterosexual, lesbian, bi, gay, or

transgender is a deeply personal process so it may be more

difficult for others to “come out” or for them to become

comfortable enough with their sexuality that they feel safe to

share it with other people. For others it comes early in

adolescence while for some it may take time to understand and

discover themselves.

According to the Psychological Association of the

Philippines “we can only truly tell if the person is gay, lesbian,

or bisexual if the person shares with us his or her experiences

and feelings of attraction towards the.” That is why it is

important for everyone to feel safe as they share their

sexuality since it is a personal and sensitive topic. We can do

that in an environment wherein we do not feel judged and

10
discriminated upon. People who experience prejudice and

discrimination suffer negative psychological effects (APA) so we

must work towards an inclusive environment where everyone

feels safe.

Activity 2:

REFLECT: On the space provided, give 3 examples on how to

build a gender sensitive classroom.

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

________________.

Activity 3:

Genderbread Man: On an A4 size bond paper, copy the

diagram below. Indicate your preference on each label and give

a short description about it.

11
References

American Psychological Association. (2008). Answers to your

questions: For a better understanding of sexual orientation and

homosexuality. Washingyon, DC: Author. [Retrieved from

www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.pdf.]

American Psychological Association.(2006). Answers to your

questions about individuals with intersex conditions.

Washington, DC

Psychological Association of the Philippines.(2013).

Reaffirmation of non-discrimination of LGBT Filipinos. Manila,

Philippines. Author. [Retrieved from www.pap.prg.ph]

12
 Lesson 2: Gender and Sexuality
across Time

At the end of this lesson the student should be able to:

- Discuss historical roots of our understanding of gender and

sexuality; and,

- Show appreciation of how this understanding evolved through

time affected various aspect of human life.

Motivation:

Activity 1:

Get a one whole sheet of yellow paper. Interview people

from different age groups (adolescent, adult, elderly) and ask

them what they can think of when they hear the words gender

and sexuality. Ask them what influenced them to have these

thoughts? Please refer to the sample tablebelow.

ADOLESCENT(10- ADULT(20-59yo) ELDERLY(60+)

19yo)

What influenced What influenced What influenced you

you to have these you to have these to have these

13
thoughts? thoughts? thoughts?

Definition of terms:

Patriarchy – social system where men primarily holds power

in the political and the private spheres

Feminism- continuing series of social movements that aim to

challenge the patriarchal society that creates these oppressive

political structures, beliefs, and practices against women

For the longest time thereafter, societies have privilege

men over other genders, mainly because of the preferential

given to them in the productive sphere (world of public work).

Women who have been revered due to their ability to conceive

have been viewed as solely capable only of reproductive

affairs (world of the home and related tasks such as suckling

the young, child rearing and home management).

Patriarchy

14
 -from the Greek word Patriarkhes which means “the rule

of the father”.It is a social system where men primarily holds

power in th political and the private spheres.

-viewed by most sociologists as a social construct not as

a biological phenomenon. This is because history proves that in

the prehistoric hunter-gatherer tribes and civilization, they

prioritized equality of all members, male and female.

Patrilineal society - often follows a patriarchal society, this

means only men can inherit property and the family name.

Women were left with no inheritance and are expected to

marry a man who can support her economically. In fact,

women were not allowed to go to schools or even vote because

they were viewed as a weaker sex and should not concern

themselves in learning science or politics.

Friedrich Engels- a German philosopher and sociologist,

argues that patriarchy came about when people started having

private property instead of a communal living

Historical Views on Gender

Greek – Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers viewed

women as the inferior sex and are properties of men. Women

were forbidden to learn philosophy, politics and science.

Egypt- Herodotus, Greek historian, observed the Egyptian

civilization citing that Egyptian women enjoyed higher social

15
status than Greek women because they can inherit property

and engage in trade and politics.

China – Confucianism has stringent written rules that dictate

how women should conduct themselves. The written

documents titled” Three obedience’s and four virtues” and

“Precepts of women” states that women should obey their

father, when married she is to obey her husband and when

widowed she is to obey her son.

Women empowerment

Women’s liberation movement, women’s movement, or

feminism is a continuing series of social movements that aim to

challenge the patriarchal society that creates these oppressive

political structures, beliefs, and practices against women.

First wave feminism – 19th and 20th century, spread across

the western countries as women demanded for their right to

vote or participate in elections and to be able to legally own

property

Second wave - 1960’s – 1980’s women drew attention to

various social and cultural inequalities such as domestic

violence especially marital rape, reproductive rights, wage

inequality, etc.

The 90’s gave birth to the Third wave and 2012 stated the

Fourth wave.

16
To put simply, feminism demands equality. These are few

salient points that feminism demands.

1. Women suffrage - women were not allowed to vote

before because they were viewed as irrational and

temperamental and therefore not able to make rational

decisions. This changed after World War I (1914 to1918)

wherein women were uprooted from the household, they took

on jobs and made significant

2. contributions to their country. Many countries soon

started letting women vote since they can no longer argue that

women are irrational and temperamental.

3. Equality in politics and society - for hundreds of

years, women’s voices were silenced so society must make an

effort to restore their rights. Representation is very important

for women so that their genuine concerns are heard in politics

and in society. Feminist have always criticized that old,

privileged men always make the decisions for women at home

and in politics.

4. Reproductive rights – means the woman is in control

of her body and she can decide for herself on what she sees is

best for her. Contraception, abortion, and other reproductive

options should be available to women because it is their body.

5. Domestic violence – such as marital rape and physical

abuse are often dismissed by society as part of a “marriage”.

17
6. Sexual harassment - The Center for Women’s

Resources in the Philippines estimates that one woman or child

is raped every hour mostly by someone they know.

Activity 2:

In an A4 size bond paper, create a collage showing the

progression of human understanding and attitude of gender

and sexuality in modern societies.

References:

Higgins, C. (2018). The age of patriarchy: how an

unfashionable idea became a rallying cry for feminism

today. The Guardian. Retrieved February 20,2019 from

https://www.the guardian.com/news/2018/june/22/the-age-of-

patriarchy-how-rallying-cry-for-feminism-today

Kraemer, S. (1991). The origins of the fatherhood: and ancient

family process Wiley Online Library

Messer-Davindow, E. (2002). Disciplining feminism: from

social activism to academic discourse. Durham, North Carolina:

Duke University Press

18
 Lesson 3: Gender and Sexuality
as a Subject of Inquiry

At the end of this lesson the student should be able to:

- Define gender studies

- Discuss its historical origins

- Explain its importance in society

Motivation

Activity 1:

CONTEMPLATE: The following are common statements we

hear from people. Reflect why you think people agree or

disagree with the statement. Reflect about your own thoughts:

Do you agree or disagree with each statement. Why or why

not? Write your answers on a ½ crosswise yellow paper.

Statement Why People Why People

Agree Disagree
Boys should not cry
Girls are bad drivers

while boys are superb

drivers.
Boys should not be

19
allowed to play dolls.
Women should be prim

and proper. It is okay

for men to be rowdy,

they are men anyway.

Gender seems so obvious and so simple, many would

ask why we have to study it. Gender studies as an area of

knowledge is about looking into, analyzing, and examining

society so that we notice power relations in the seemingly

“simple things”.

The goal of this lesson is to define and appreciate gender

studies. Gender is a big part of our individuality and society; it

is a form of social organization and it is often unnoticed. In

different cultures and different times in our history gender roles

played a big part of social organization.

Gender studies emerged from a need to analyze how

gender, sex, and sexuality impact our lives especially how it

creates gender inequality. It came about in the mid 1970’s

after the second wave feminism as a way to challenge the

male-defined and male-centered knowledge.

Gender role or sex role are “sets of culturally defined

behaviors such as masculinity and femininity” according to the

Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender (2019). These roles are not

fixed such that the “culturally defined behaviors” for men and

women may be very different 50 years ago or very different for

20
people from other countries or tribe. In a binary system of

viewing gender roles we only see the male and the female

where men are expected to be masculine while women are

expected to be feminine. This is the norm or the accepted

standards of how to behave like a woman (mahinhin) or how to

behave like a man (matipuno/matapang). In gender studies we

are asked to disrupt and question these kinds of social

expectations, gender roles, and gender norms.

Gender studies is not just for women or all about

women, it is about everyone. It explores how our gender

roles have changed throughout our history and how it created

inequalities. Our society has changed so much since then, like

the jobs available for everyone is not dependent on physical

strength, making these jobs accessible to women as well. Most

mothers also have a job now so they also provide for the

family. Gender studies would ask us to question, is it still right

to say that the men are the providers of the family when both

mothers and fathers now work and earn money.

Diversity and Inclusion

Gender roles are socially constructed and are not

something that we are “born with”. Society, through a lifelong

process of normalization, encourages or reprimands behaviors

to make a child adapt to these social expectations.

21
 Lesbian, gay, bisexual,a nd transgender people often do

not fit in the traditional binary gender roles so they are often

reprimanded, bullied, and discriminated. They are often

subjected to violence and hate just because they do not fit in

what society calls “normal”.

Gender studies let us analyze the creation and

maintenance of these gender norms so that it does not

create inequalities in our social, political, and economic

spheres.

GENDER STUDIES AND RESEARCH

As a subject of inquiry. Gender Studies utilizes a

systematic approach in identifying problems, making

hypotheses and assumptions, gathering data, and making

conclusions. This systematic process is referred to as the

research process.

Approaches in Research

Since Gender and Sexuality cuts across a variety of

issues that are either biomedical, psychosocial, or political-

legal, there is no singular way in conducting the research

process. There are however a variety of approaches which can

be used.

22
 Qualitative approach focuses more on the meanings

created and interpretations made by people about their own

personal or vicarious (observed) experiences.

 Phenomenology – conducting intensive interviews with

individuals who have experienced a particular event and

understanding their “lived experience”

 Hermeneutics- understanding the meaning of texts (literary

works, art works) and what they convey about human realities

 Ethnography and ethnomethodology- immersing in a

community and taking note of their experiences, beliefs,

attitudes, and practices

Quantitative approach on the other hand focuses more on

characterizing a population (total number of individual in a

group) or a sample (sub-group within the population), and in

some cases, making generalizations about the population

based on the behavior of a sample.

 Survey- collecting information from a sample

 Experiment- creating actual set-ups to observe behavior of

people in an experimental group (a group receiving treatment

such as training or a new experience) and comparing it to the

behavior of people in a control group (a group without any

treatment)

In most cases, information from both qualitative and

quantitative approaches provide a holistic view about certain

23
social realities, such that there are researchers who prefer to

use mixed methods (combining qualitative and quantitative

methods to derive data from multiple sources).

GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND HUMAN ECOLOGY

Human Ecology as a field recognizes the interplay among

internal and external environments – physical, socio-economic,

cultural (Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Bubolz & Sontag, 1983).

Hence, to look at realities from an ecological perspective is to

appreciate that human development across the lifespan is

influenced by these environments. In the context of gender and

sexuality, a human ecological approach looks at human sexual

lives and experiences at various levels and spheres of analysis.

First, it sees gender and sexuality as an organismic and

personal experience.

Activity 2:

List down five questions which you want to be answered

related to Gender and Sexuality. Explain why you want to

answer these questions. Identify why you think these questions

are within the scope of gender studies.

1.

24
2.

3.

4.

5.

References:

American Psychological Association (2010). Ethical principles of

psychologists and code of conduct (with the 2010

amendments). Retrieved from

http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf.

Brofenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human

development. In International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol.3

(2nd Ed). Oxford: Elsevier: Reprinted in Gauvain, M. & Cole, M.

(Eds.), Readings on the development of children, 2nd Ed.(1993,

pp. 37-43). NY: Freeman. Retrieved from

hhtp://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/3615/Readin

gs/BrofenbrennerModelofDevelopment%28short%20version

%29.pdf.

25
Bubolz, M.M., & Sontag, M.S. (1993). Human ecology theory.

In P.G. Boss, W.J. Doherty, R. LaRossa. W.R. Schumm, & S.K.

Steinmetz (Eds.) Sourcebook of family theories and methods:

A contextual approach, pp. 419-447. New York: Plenum.

“Gender Roles.” Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender:

Culture Society History. Retrieved February 10, 2019 from

Encyclopedia.com https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-

sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-

maps/gender-roles.

26
 Module 2: Biomedical Perspectives in
Gender and Society

Lesson 4: Anatomy and Physiology of

Reproduction

At the end of this lesson the student should be able to:

- Differentiate the female and the male reproductive systems

- Understand the basis for physiologic processes in female and

males

Activity 1:

Name 5 physical changes that took place during your puberty:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Human experience various physical and emotional

changes from childhood to adulthood. These changes are

gradual and progress at different ages and speed in different

people. These stages are based on human growth and

development from childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old

age.

This lesson focuses on the adolescent stage of human

development, which is characterized by dynamic changes in

27
physical and behavioral traits. Despite differences in physical

appearance, the sexual organs of men and women arise from

the same structures and fulfill similar functions. Each person

has a pair of gonads: ovaries are female gonads; testes are the

male gonads. The gonads produce germ cells and sex

hormones. The female germ cells are ova (egg) and the male

germ cells are sperm. Ova and sperm are the basic units of

reproduction; their union can lead to the creation of a new life.

THE BIOLOGICAL FEMALE

The female reproductive anatomy includes parts inside and

outside the body.

The function of the external female reproductive structures (the

genitals) is twofold: To enable sperm to enter the body and to

protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The

main external structures of the female reproductive system

include:

28
 Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other

external reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips,"

the labia majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are

comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain

sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora

are covered with hair.

 Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia

minora can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just

inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to

the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to

the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine

from the bladder to the outside of the body).

 Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal

opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.

 Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small,

sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males. The

clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is

similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the

clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.

The internal reproductive organs in the female include:

 Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower

part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as

the birth canal.

29
 Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ

that is the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided

into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens

into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus, called the

corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold a developing

baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperm to enter

and menstrual blood to exit.

 Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are

located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs

and hormones.

 Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to

the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova

(egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception,

the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the

fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus,

where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall.

 Puberty

The menstrual cycle marks the beginning of puberty in

females. The first episode occur between 11 to 15 years of age

referred to as menarche. Menstruation pertains to the sloughing

off of the uterine lining if conception has not occurred. It may last

within two to six days which follows cycle ranging from 24 to 42

days. Regardless of the length of the cycle, menstruation begins

about 14 days after ovulation (plus or minus 1-2 days). The

30
overall cycle is governed by the hypothalamus as it monitors

hormone levels in the bloodstream. It involves changes in the

endometrium in response to fluctuating blood levels of ovarian

hormones. There are three phases as described, Menstrual

phase. This occurs if the ovum is not fertilizede, and does not

implant itself into the uterine lining, the continued high levels of

estrogrn and progesterone causes the pituitary to stop releasing

FSH and LH. Estrogen and progesterone levels decrease causing

the endometrium to be sloughed off and bleeding ensures. It is

during this time that ovarian hormones are at their lowest levels.

Proliferative phase. It occurs when the hypothalamus

stimulates the pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating

hormone (FSH) that stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen

and causes ova to mature in the ovarian follicles. Endometrium is

repaired, thickens, and becomes well vascularized in response to

increasing levels of estrogens.

Secretory phase. It occurs when the pituitary gland releases

luteinizing hormone (LH) that causes the ovary to release a

mature ovum and causes the remaining portion of the follicle to

develop into the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum then produces

progesterone. Endometrial glands begin to secrete nutrients, and

lining becomes more vascular in response to increasing level of

progesterone. Endometrial glands begin to secrete nutrients, and

lining becomes more vascular in response to increasing level of

progesterone.

31
 Problems associated with menstruation include

premenstrual syndrome (PMS, 80%-95% of women),

dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation caused by overproduction of

prostaglandins causing uterine muscles to contract), and

amenorrhea (disruption or absence of menstruation). All of these

involve fluctuation of hormone levels associated with

menstruation. At menopause (usually around age 45-50), a

woman stops menstruating as ova no longer brought to maturity.

During the three to four years of this transition women may

experience hot flashes, night sweats, sleep disturbances

(resulting in fatigue, irritability, short0term memory loss, difficult

concentrating), headaches, anxiety, depression, and difficulty

becoming sexually aroused.

Female secondary sexual characteristics emerge after

puberty:

1. Widening of hips and pelvis – Accommodates giving birth,

but also results in downward shift in center of gravity.

2. Enlargement of breasts – At puberty both the glandular and

fatty tissues of the breasts develop considerably.

Differences in breast size between women primarily due to

differences in amount of fatty tissue. It is also not

uncommon for one of a woman’s breasts to be slightly

larger than the other. The glandular tissue of the breasts

responds to sex hormones, and the breasts are involved in a

32
 women’s sexual arousal. The glandular tissue produces milk

toward the end of pregnancy and after childbirth in

response to hormone levels.

THE BIOLOGICAL MALE

The male sexual anatomy is designed for the production

and delivery of sperm for fertilization of the female’s ovum.

Puberty signals the final development of primary and secondary

organs that support reproduction.

The male external genitalia consists of the following

structures:

Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of the

man’s abdominal cavity or pelvis. The external structures of the

male reproductive system are the penis, the scrotum and the

testicles.

Penis — The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It

has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the

33
abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-

shaped end of the penis. The glans, which also is called the

head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called

foreskin. (This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure

called circumcision.) The opening of the urethra, the tube that

transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans penis.

The penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.

The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of

three internal chambers. These chambers are made up of

special, sponge-like erectile tissue. This tissue contains

thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is

sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid

and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual

intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to allow

for changes in penis size during an erection.

Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through

the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax

(orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked

from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at

orgasm.

Scrotum — The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin

that hangs behind the penis. It contains the testicles (also

called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The

34
scrotum has a protective function and acts as a climate control

system for the testes. For normal sperm development, the

testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body

temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it

to contract (tighten) and relax, moving the testicles closer to

the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the

body to cool the temperature.

Testicles (testes) — The testes are oval organs about the

size of very large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at

either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men

have two testes. The testes are responsible for making

testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for producing

sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called

seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for

producing the sperm cells through a process called

spermatogenesis.

Epididymis — The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests

on the backside of each testicle. It functions in the carrying and

storage of the sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It

also is the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity,

since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and

incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions

force the sperm into the vas deferens.

35
 The male external genitalia consists of the following
structures:

The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also

called accessory organs, include the following:

 Vas deferens — The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube

that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just

behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm

to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.

 Ejaculatory ducts — These are formed by the fusion of the

vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts

empty into the urethra.

 Urethra — The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the

bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional

function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when the man

reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of

urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be

ejaculated at orgasm.

 Seminal vesicles — The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches

that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder.

The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that

provides sperm with a source of energy and helps with the

sperms’ motility (ability to move). The fluid of the seminal

vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculatory

fluid, or ejaculate.

36
 Prostate gland — The prostate gland is a walnut-sized

structure that is located below the urinary bladder in front of

the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to

the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm.

The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be expelled during

orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.

 Bulbourethral glands — The bulbourethral glands, or

Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized structures located on the sides

of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands

produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the

urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to

neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual

drops of urine in the urethra.

Male Hormones

The testosterone is the major male hormone produced

mainly by the testes but there are other glands called the

adrenal glands that also produce some testosterone. In case a

man has lost his testes, these glands would continue to

produce testosterone to support the male physical appearance.

Testosterone is responsible for the growth and development of

a boy during adolescence and for the development of sperm

and secondary sexual characteristics.

Activity 2:

37
 On an A4 size bond paper, draw a mind map showing the

progression of the male and female from birth, puberty and

adulthood.

References:

Farell, K, et.al.,(1995). Life Planning Education: A Youth

Development Program. Washingon DC: Advocates for the youth

German Foundation for World Population DSW (2006). Sexual

and Reproductive Health Jones, J (2011). Human Sexuality

38
Lesson 5: The Process of Reproduction
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

- Define fertilization, conception and pregnancy

- Explain how pregnancy occurs and its prevention

- Identify the complications of early pregnancy in the growing

adolescent

Motivation

Activity 1:

COMMUNICATE: Remember a time when you have seen or

conversed with a pregnant woman. Write down and discuss on
the signs of pregnancy you have observed among women.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Imagine what it is like to be pregnant. What do you think are
their needs and concerns?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Introduction

Although human beings are fully sexually differentiated

at birth, the differences between males and females are

accentuated at puberty. This is when the reproductive system

matures, secondary sexual characteristics develop, and the

bodies of males and females come to appear more distinctive.

Female puberty usually begins at about 8-13 years of

age; the reproduction maturation of boys lags about two years

39
behind that of girls. The physical changes of female puberty

include breast development, rounding of the hips and buttocks,

growth of the hair in the public region and the underarm, and

the start of menstruation.

How does one ovulate?

Ovulation is a part of your menstrual cycle. It occurs

when an egg is released from your ovary.

When the egg is released, it may or may not be fertilized

by sperm. If fertilized, the egg may travel to the uterus and

implant to develop into a pregnancy. If left unfertilized, the egg

disintegrates and the uterine lining is shed during your period.

Understanding how ovulation happens and when it takes

place can help you achieve or prevent pregnancy. It can also

help you diagnose certain medical conditions.

Ovulation typically happens around day 14 of a 28-day

menstrual cycle. However, not everyone has a textbook 28-day

cycle, so the exact timing can vary. In general, ovulation

occurs in the four days before or four days after your cycle’s

midpoint.

40
How does pregnancy occur?

In order for pregnancy to happen, sperm needs to

meet up with an egg. Pregnancy officially starts when a

fertilized egg implants in the lining of the uterus. It takes

up to 2-3 weeks after sex for pregnancy to happen. It all

starts with sperm cells and an egg.

Sperm are microscopic cells that are made in testicles.

Sperm mixes with other fluids to make semen (cum), which

comes out of the penis during ejaculation. Millions and millions

of sperm come out every time you ejaculate — but it only takes

1 sperm cell to meet with an egg for pregnancy to happen.

Eggs live in ovaries, and the hormones that control

your menstrual cycle cause a few eggs to mature every month.

When your egg is mature, it means it’s ready to be fertilized by

a sperm cell. These hormones also make the lining of

your uterus thick and spongy, which gets your body ready for

pregnancy.

About halfway through your menstrual cycle, one mature

egg leaves the ovary — called ovulation — and travels through

the fallopian tube towards your uterus. The egg hangs out for

about 12-24 hours, slowly moving through the fallopian tube,

to see if any sperm are around. If semen gets in the vagina,

41
the sperm cells can swim up through the cervix and uterus and

into the fallopian tubes, looking for an egg. They have up to 6

days to find an egg before they die. When a sperm cell joins

with an egg, it’s called fertilization. Fertilization doesn’t happen

right away. Since sperm can hang out in your uterus and

fallopian tube for up to 6 days after sex, there’s up to 6 days

between sex and fertilization. If a sperm cell does join up with

your egg, the fertilized egg moves down the fallopian tube

toward the uterus. It begins to divide into more and more cells,

forming a ball as it grows. The ball of cells (called a blastocyst)

gets to the uterus about 3–4 days after fertilization. The ball of

cells floats in the uterus for another 2–3 days. If the ball of

cells attaches to the lining of your uterus, it’s called

implantation — when pregnancy officially begins. Implantation

usually starts about 6 days after fertilization, and takes about

3-4 days to complete. The embryo develops from cells on the

inside of the ball. The placenta develops from the cells on the

outside of the ball.

When a fertilized egg implants in the uterus, it releases

pregnancy hormones that prevent the lining of your uterus

from shedding — that’s why people don’t get periods when

they’re pregnant. If your egg doesn’t meet up with sperm, or a

fertilized egg doesn’t implant in your uterus, the thick lining of

your uterus isn’t needed and it leaves your body during your

42
period. Up to half of all fertilized eggs naturally don’t implant in

the uterus — they pass out of your body during your period.

A normal pregnancy lasts 37-42 weeks (nine months).

This is measured from the first day of the last period.

Pregnancy is discussed in terms of TRIMESTERS (three-month

periods), since each trimester is very different from the rest.

After eight weeks, the embryo is officially referred to as a

FETUS.

What can be done to prevent teenage pregnancy?

Teen pregnancy has a tremendous impact on the

educational, social and economic lives of young people. Early

parenting reduces the likelihood that a young woman will

complete high school and pursue the necessary post-secondary

education needed to compete in today’s economy. Although

there is a decline in teenage pregnancy rates it has been

steady over the past two decades. Teens are still engaging in

sexual activity and teen girls are still getting pregnant.

Equipping the youth with the knowledge, skills and attitudes

necessary to protect themselves against unwanted pregnancy

and provide them access to reproductive healthcare are

needed.

Acitivity 2:

43
Activity 3:
COLLABORATE: Form groups to discuss and research on the
advantages and disadvantages of contraception.

Advantages Disadvantages
Contraceptive

What is an ideal contraceptive?

Write your answers on the space provided.

1. What do you often hear about sex?

2. Draw a mind map showing the ways to avoid the pressure

to have sex.

44
References

Family Planning Association (2014). Pregnancy. England

Farell, K, et.al, (1995). Life Planning Education: A Youth

Development Program. Washington DC: Advocates for the
youth

German Foundation for World Population DSW (2006).

Sexual and Reproductive Health Training for Manual for
Young People.

Jones, J (2011). Human Sexuality

45