Accommodation

Additional support mechanisms for learners who need to access the content or to demonstrate what they know.

Activating Prior / Previous Knowledge

Encouraging learners to produce language or ideas about a subject before it is taught using knowledge learned
previously (e.g. Tell me six words connected with ‘electricity’. Think of three sources of electricity).

Additional language
Used to refer to any language other than the first language.

BICS
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. Language development for social intercourse. In Jim Cummins’
research with immigrant pupils in Canada, most students were found to achieve BICS after two or three years of
education in the majority language. Language events are context-embedded (those which are used in everyday
conversation with visual contextual support). Tasks associated with BICS are usually comprehensible and less
demanding. Cognitive processes are linked to BICS – identify specific information, name, match and sort objects
into sets.

Bilingual
Students learning curricular subjects in a second or foreign language (The Netherlands).

Brainstorm
A technique to encourage learners to produce ideas quickly without critical examination or evaluation (e.g. in pairs,
you have two minutes to write down all the words you know about spiders).

CALP
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: Language development for academic learning. Cummins observed that
it takes seven to eight years for L2 students to attain a level of English suitable for academic school study.
Language events are context reduced (little support) and cognitively demanding. Meaning is accessed primarily
 through the language e.g. listening to lectures on abstract topics, writing essays and learners require control over
the use of grammar and vocabulary. Language is more abstract and less personal. Cognitive processes linked to
CALP are identify criteria, justify opinions, form hypotheses and interpret evidence.

Can do statements
Indicate to students what they are expected to do by the end of a unit, module or course. (e.g. can organise factual
information/ can describe a process).

Carroll Diagram
A means of classifying information according to four criteria.
Living Non-living

Natural tree stone

Manufactured genetically modified computer

organism

CBI
Content based instruction (US) Non-native speakers (often from minority language groups) learning a second
language to enable them to integrate in mainstream classes.

Chunks
Words, groups of words or formulaic units which are context bound and which learners use to build language often
without explicit study.

CLIL
Content and Language Integrated Learning.
o ‘CLIL is defined as an approach in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-
language subject in which both language and the subject have a joint role.’ (Marsh in Coyle, 2006: 1)

Closed questions
Questions which require fixed responses such as, yes/ no or answers to when? where? which? who? how many?
how often? These questions usually encourage correct answers.
Cloze
Text or parts of texts with some words deleted at regular intervals. For example every fifth, seventh, Useful for
encouraging predicting skills.

Code switching
Moving between first and target language while teaching and learning

Cognition
CLIL is said to promote cognitive skills which challenge learners. In addition to concrete thinking skills such as
remembering, identifying comparing, contrasting and defining, those needed for academic, abstract thinking are also
developed: reasoning, creative thinking and evaluating. One of the leading researchers in bilingual education, Jim
Cummins, distinguishes between BICS and CALP.
o BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. Language development for social intercourse. In Jim
Cummins’ research with immigrant pupils in Canada, most students were found to achieve BICS after two or
three years of education in the majority language. Language events are context-embedded (those which are
used in everyday conversation with visual contextual support). Tasks associated with BICS are usually
comprehensible and less demanding. Cognitive processes are linked to BICS – identify specific information,
name, match and sort objects into sets.

o CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: Language development for academic learning.
Cummins observed that it takes seven to eight years for L2 students to attain a level of English suitable for
academic school study. Language events are context reduced (little support) and cognitively demanding.
Meaning is accessed primarily through the language e.g. listening to lectures on abstract topics, writing
essays and learners require control over the use of grammar and vocabulary. Language is more abstract
and less personal. Cognitive processes linked to CALP are identify criteria, justify opinions, form hypotheses
and interpret evidence.

Cognition (definition)
The mental operations involved in thinking.

Communication
Learners are encouraged to produce the language of the subject orally as well as in writing and to participate in
meaningful interaction. Peer feedback is valued. One of the main CLIL aims is to increase student talking time (STT)
and reduce teacher talking time (TTT).
Concept (diagram)
Information is organised around a word or phrase that represents a class or category of people, places, objects and
events.

Concept Mapping / Mind Mapping

Representing information in diagram form where key words are linked by lines. The lines are then labelled to express
the relationship between the words.

Concept maps
Diagrams which help learners organise information such as using a grid of similarities and differences to compare
and contrast or using lines and arrows to indicate and link cause, effect relationships.

Content
Curricular subjects apart from languages can be taught through the target language. These include: Art, Citizenship,
Classics, Design Technology, Economics, Environmental Studies, Geography, History, Information Computer
Technology (ICT), Literacy, Maths, Music, Physical Education (PE) Philosophy, Politics, Religious education (RE)
Science, Social Science.

Content- obligatory language

language needed for subject matter mastery in the mainstream classroom. This language may be the primary focus
of second language lessons. (adapted from Met, M. 1994 ‘Teaching Content through a Second Language’ Cambridge
CUP)

Content-based language teaching

Foreign language teachers import curricular content into language lessons and use it as a motivator for language
learning

Creative thinking skills

Enable learners to-
o Generate ideas
 o Develop ideas

o Imagine or hypothesise

o Apply imagination

o Looking for innovative solutions

o Think of alternative outcomes

Classroom Language
o Use of language to explore and invent patterns and connections in order to suppose, pretend and adopt
roles. Use of language for precision, accuracy, conciseness and objectivity is also important.

Examples:
o What will you do if….? What would you do if….? What do you think they would they have done if…? If
you were a scientist, what would you say? How would you act in this situation?

Culture/ Citizenship/ Community

The 4th ‘C’. Learners are encouraged to think of themselves as part of a larger group in society and to be aware of
how others live and learn.

Descriptive or Report (diagram)

Facts about specific people, places, objects and events are represented. The information does not need to be in
any particular order.

Differentiation
Making provision for learners with different learning needs. For the least advanced pupils, provision may be in the
form of modified input, such as simplified texts or additional visual support. It may also be modified output, such as
answering fewer questions. For the most advanced pupils, differentiation encourages strategies such as checking
work, supporting peers and completing extension activities.

Discussion or Reasoned argument (diagram)

Ideas for and against are represented by lines to show the plan of the argument.
Display questions
Questions designed for students to display their learning. They can also provide a framework for logical thinking.
Examples are: What are these called? What are they used for?

EAL
English as an Additional Language (UK and British Schools overseas). Learning and facilitating learning of the
curriculum for learners whose first language is not English.

Enquiry
A systematic process for answering questions and solving problems after gathering evidence through observation,
analysis and reflection.

Enquiry Learning
A teaching strategy designed to develop learning through systematic gathering of observation and investigation.

Enquiry skills
Enable learners to-
o Ask relevant questions
o Define problems

o Plan what to do and how to research

o Predict outcomes

o Anticipate consequences

o Test conclusions

o Improve ideas

Classroom Language
 o se of language to investigate patterns, rules and conventions.

Examples:
o What more do we need to find out? What is the idea behind this? How will we plan the web search? What
could happen if we do this? How can we test the results? How can we improve it next time?

Evaluation skills
Enable learners to-
o Judge the value of what they hear, say, read, write and do
o Develop evaluation criteria for judging the value of their own and others' work or ideas

o Apply evaluation criteria

o Have confidence in their judgments

o Make recommendations

Classroom Language
o Use of language to analyse, conceptualise and become critically aware.

Examples:
o What are the benefits of this design? Are these instructions clear? How useful is the new system? Does
the data give the information we need? What would you change? What should they move?

Examples of thinking skills

o classify: How many classes of X are there? To put things into particular groups according to the features
that they have (e.g. birds, fish and insects). Associated verbs: classify; categorise; decide which group; put
into
o combine: To put parts into a whole. Identifying patterns, factors or elements which can make up a whole
unit. For example, planets, asteroids and comets combine to make up the solar system.

o compare and contrast: What is X and what is not X? To look for similarities and differences. Associated
verbs: compare; contrast; distinguish; investigate)

o creative thinking: What if….? To produce imaginative new ideas or thoughts. Associated verbs: imagine;
build; change; compose; design; invent; make up; plan; produce; suppose

o divide: What does X belong to? divide; separate; share; sort

o evaluate: What do you think about X? To assess value and make choices and recommendations.
 Associated verbs: assess; give opinion; judge; rate; prove; what’s the value of..?

o reason: Why X? What causes X? What comes as a result of X? What justifies X to do Y? choose;
conclude; decide; explain; justify; recommend; solve

o remember: list; name; recall; recite; recognise; relate spell; state; tell

Exposure
The percentage of CLIL teaching in a curriculum in a school year.
Low = 5-15% Medium = 15-50% High = 50%+

Flow diagram
Information represented in lines or boxes to show different ways a process can happen or how decisions can be
made e.g. farming.

Functional language
In CLIL, academic language used by learners in classroom communication to express or understand curricular
concepts. Examples include: agreeing or disagreeing; asking questions; clarifying what has been said; comparing and
contrasting; demonstrating, describing cause and effect; describing a process; explaining a point of view; evaluating
work (self and others), expressing ideas; generalising; giving examples; giving information; hypothesising; instructing;
interpreting data; persuading; predicting and justifying predictions; presenting solutions; presenting work; suggesting.

General academic language

Language which is not very common in social intercourse, common in school and academic settings, but not
specific to subjects; it is often used across subjects. Examples are the use of passive forms.

Generalisation/ principle (diagram)

Information is organised showing a general statement and supporting examples.

Genre
Text types which learners meet in the school curriculum and which have specific social purposes, particular overall
structures and specific linguistic features shared by particular cultures. Every genre has a number of characteristics
which make it different from other genres. Genre forms include: advertisement, argument, article, autobiography,
biography, description, discussion, essay, explanation, instruction, letters, narrative (to deal with problematic or
unusual events) notices, persuasion, poem, process, proposal, recount (to retell events, not necessarily in
chronological order), report, review, song.
(Adapted from Gibbons, P. 2002 Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann).

Keyword(s):

Genre-based teaching
A process approach to writing which helps learners develop an awareness of how lexical and grammatical patterns
are organised to express meaning. It enables teachers to identify the kinds of texts learners need to write, to see how
texts are related to contexts, to see texts have a social purpose and to encourage the integration of grammar, content
and function. There are several stages in the genre process: a lead-in to activate prior knowledge; modelling the text
so learners see the overall structure; joint construction when teachers and learners cooperate to write a text similar to
the one modelled – the process of writing and the product are both important; independent writing when learners write
their own texts; finally, further examples of the genre are looked at. This process is a cycle.

Keyword(s):

Grid
A pattern of straight lines that form squares.
 H

Higher order talk/ questioning

Questions to encourage analytic, creative and conceptual thinking (Why? What is the evidence? What more is
there to find out? How can it be improved? How can we assess this?).

Higher-order thinking (HOTS)

Analysis, synthesis and evaluation, abstract thinking involving open ended talk.

Home language
(Main) language used in the home. Sometimes referred to as ‘primary’ language.

ICT/ IT: (Information, (Communication) Technology)

The use of computers to enable learners to improve information-processing skills, to explore ideas, to solve
problems, to access and investigate the Internet, to develop collaborative learning with students who are in other
places, to participate in video conferencing . The subject is referred to as ICT. Skills and the lab are known as IT
skills and the IT lab.

ILTLP
Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning in Practice. Learning parts of the curriculum through different
languages to develop an understanding of one’s own culture in relation to other cultures (Australia).

Immersion
Programmes where most or all of subject content is taught through a second language (originating and often
associated with Canada).
o Common to all models of immersion are key factors: intensity, time and exposure. immersion
programmes are described as early (pre-school or start of education at 5- 6), delayed (8- 14 years old) or
late (14+ and adults) Johnstone, R.M. (2008)

Information-processing skills
Enable learners to-
 o Find and collect relevant information
o Organise information

o Sort/ classify/ sequence information

o Compare /contrast information

o Identify and analyse relationships

o Represent or communicate information

Classroom Language
o Use of concrete questions to recall information, to check understanding, to revise learning.

Examples:
o dates, events, places, vocabulary, key ideas, parts of diagram, 5Ws (what, when, where, which, who) and
how many?

Keys: (binary)
Based on splitting information into two parts. A progressive series of questions, each of which has only two
possible answers.

Keywords, Specialist vocabulary

Words used for denoting concepts in specific curriculum subjects. See also ‘content-obligatory’ language.

L1
first language

L2
In CLIL, L2 often denotes the language of instruction.
LAC
Languages Across the Curriculum refers to the study and use of languages throughout the curriculum. Its purpose is
to prepare students for the cross-cultural and multilingual demands of a global society. LAC is appropriate at all levels
of education.

Language demands
The language abilities which a learner needs in order to be able to use a language for learning in a given subject,
subject lesson or using a given subject textbook. Lessons, subjects, textbooks, information technology therefore
make language demands on learners. Learners need to fulfil those language demands (possess the requisite
language abilities) in order to learn the respective subject concepts.

Language demands analysis

The analysis which a subject (or language) teacher makes of the language demands which a given subject lesson or
textbook etc will make on a class. Part of lesson planning in CLIL. On the basis of this analysis a teacher can decide
where in a given lesson a learner will need language support.

Language needs
The language needs which specific learners in any group have with respect to a given subject, lesson, textbook or
website. A subject lesson therefore makes language demands on a whole class; whereas individuals in the class
have individual language needs with respect to those demands.

Language showers
Regular, short, continuous exposure to CLIL delivered in the target language for 15 or 30 minutes several times a
week. They are associated with Primary schools and usually taught in one subject area.

Language support
The provision of forms of support in a given lesson in order to help learners meet the language demands of the
lesson. Language support may take several forms: e.g. the use of task types for supporting listening, speaking,
reading and writing within the subject; the use of visuals; the use of a highly comprehensible teacher talking style; the
use of L1 by teachers and learners, the use of varied forms of interaction.

Learners
CLIL covers primary, secondary and tertiary contexts. Learners, rather than students or pupils, best describes this
age range.

Learning Outcomes
What teachers intend the majority of learners to achieve by the end of a lesson, unit, module or course (to know…, to
understand…, to be able to…, to be aware of…).

Lower order talk/ questioning

Concrete/ literal questions to check knowledge and comprehension (when/ where/ who/ what?).

Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS)

Information processing. Usually involves closed answers.

Majority language
The main language used in the surrounding social environment. This is usually the national language.

Making associations
Making links or connections between two or more objects, people, places etc to encourage learning.

Management questions
Questions which are used to control and organise the class. They have a similar function to commands. Examples
include, ‘Could you stop talking please?’ ‘Can you work in pairs now?’

Match
Show a relationship between two or more things.

Medium of instruction
Language used as medium for school learning.
Modifications to the test
Assessment in L1, text change in vocabulary, modification of linguistic complexity, addition of visual support, use of
glossaries in L1, use of target language glossary, linguistic modifications of test instructions, additional example
items/ tasks.

Modifications to the test procedure

Extra assessment time, breaks during testing, administration over several sessions, oral instructions in L1, small
group administration, use of dictionaries, reading aloud rubrics in target language, answers written directly in test
booklet, instructions read aloud and explained.

Monolingual
Students in home country learning a subject through CLIL. Some students may be non-native speakers (France).

Multilingual
Students learning subjects in three or more languages (Basque Country, Cataluña).

Open questions
Questions which enable learners to respond as they wish. They have no pre-scripted reply. Examples include, how
do you know….? Why do you think….? What is the evidence…?

Oracy
Competence in listening and speaking skills throughout the curriculum.

Partial immersion
Usually 50 -60% of curriculum subjects taught in target language (regions of Spain, The Netherlands, Gaelic in
Scotland).

Performance assessment
Systematic observation of classroom performance to assess learners using language for real purposes and checking
performance against criteria. Did they achieve the purpose of the task?

Performance criteria
The observable characteristics of performance a learner must achieve (e.g. uses appropriate vocabulary / takes turns
during discussion).

Pie Chart (diagram)

A circle divided into sections which show different amounts or frequency.

Plenary
Stage in a lesson when the whole class is taught.

Plurilingual
Students learn several languages, one or more of which may be through CLIL (Australia).

Portfolio assessment
A presentation of samples of learners’ work collected over a period of time which might include written work,
illustrations, project materials etc. It is a record of achievement over time with samples of work chosen to reflect
learning outcomes and course content. Teachers and, or peers give feedback then work is reviewed. Finished work
often receives a final grade.

Process/ Cause – effect (diagram)

Information is organised to show either a cause-effect network which leads to a specific outcome or a sequence of
steps leading to a specific product.

Pyramid Discussion
A negotiating task to encourage talk. Learners, individually, select about half of the vocabulary items or ideas
connected with a topic. They then work with a partner to agree on the same selection of items or ideas. An option is
then to put pairs into groups to negotiate and agree on the selection.
 Q

Quadrants (diagram)
Four areas divided by two lines to show connections between concepts e.g. a sound can be in the first quadrant
(high and quiet) or in the second quadrant (high and loud).

Rank
Put things in a position of hierarchy according to order of importance, success, size.

Reasoning skills
Enable learners to-
o Give reasons for opinions/ actions
o Infer from observations, facts, experience

o Make conclusions

o Argue or explain a point of view

o Make informed judgments/ decisions from evidence

o Use precise language to explain what they think

o Explain cause and effect

Classroom Language
o Use of analytic questions.

Examples:
o Why do you think this? Why did they do this? What are the reasons? How can you explain this? What is
the evidence?

Response partners
A means of peer feedback. Learners comment on their partner’s work according to criteria decided before the work is
done.
Revisiting Language
Presenting previously taught language in a different context, using different stimuli or with different media in order to
encourage learner production of content and language.

Scaffolding
A term originally used by Bruner to refer to teacher talk that supports pupils in carrying out activities and helps
them to solve problems.
o Examples include making pupils interested in a task, simplifying the task by breaking it down into
smaller steps, keeping pupils focussed on completing the task by reminding them of what the goal was,
pointing out what is important to do or showing other ways of doing tasks, demonstrating an idealised
version of the task. The definition of scaffolding also includes support strategies for writing. Examples are
the use of substitution tables and writing frames. Scaffolding is applicable to language learning as well as
the formation of ideas and task completion. (adapted from: Cameron, L. 2001 Teaching Languages to
Young Learners Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) and (Wood, D. 1988 in Capel S. M. Leask and
T. Turner 1999 Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. London: Routledge)

Sentence builder
Writing a letter, word or phrase for learners to complete in order to create sentences. This encourages learners to
think of alternatives. A technique often used in ICT programs.

Sequence
Put things next to one another. For example, put things in a chronological order, numerical order or alphabetical
order.

Speech and thought bubbles

Shapes used to indicate the use of direct speech or thoughts.

Storyboard (diagram)
A support frame for learners to plan and write a draft outline of events in a story or to write the final version of a story,
sometimes with speech and thought bubbles.
Subject-specific language
Language which is largely specific to a subject; often contains items which are infrequent (except within the subject)
and have a narrow meaning. Examples from Geography are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Substitution table (diagram)

A diagran showing how phrases and terms can be put together in a formulaic way.
e.g. Geography: Describing locations

X is | situated | in the north / north east.

X is | located |
X is | on the coast.

Synthesis
Combining separate thoughts into a whole; reasoning from the general to the particular or from the simple to complex.
Examples: discuss ‘what if’ situations and create new ideas.

Table
Way of showing pieces of information by arranging then in rows and lines across and down a page.

Target language
Language used in CLIL. This could be a second, third, fourth or even fifth language for some learners.

The 4Cs
Content, Communication, Cognition, Culture (Used by Do Coyle to describe a CLIL approach) are considered to be a
useful guide to define the teaching aims and learning outcomes in CLIL. Culture is also linked to citizenship and to
‘Community’ (Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols)

Thinking Skills
Used in a teaching approach which emphasises the processes of thinking and learning in a range of contexts. The list
of thinking skills in the English National Curriculum is similar to many such lists: information-processing, reasoning,
enquiry, creative thinking and evaluation. Fisher, R categorises thinking skills into higher and lower order.

Time Sequence or time-line (diagram)

Events are reconstructed usually in chronological order.

Trans-languaging
When more than one language is used in the CLIL classroom.

Transfer
The ability to apply an idea or a skill that has been learnt in one context and use it in a different context.

Tree diagram
Often used for classifying words, e.g. types of rock – igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary, or for showing organisation
relationships, e.g. a family tree.

Use of L1
L1 used by learners or teachers within L2-medium lessons, to overcome short-term problems in L2-medium
teaching and learning.
o In some CLIL contexts, use of L1 helps learners focus on similarities and differences between the
target language and mother tongue. L1 is often used by learners during ‘off task’ work. Examples include
expressing problems, worries, resolving conflict. Learners might use L1 at the start of lessons when
teachers activate prior knowledge. Teachers then translate responses. Occasionally, L1 is used to
explain a concept when learners find it difficult to understand in the target language. L1 can also be used
in groupwork and pairwork where learners need in-depth discussion of a concept and do not have the L2
skills to do this.

V
 Venn diagrams
A way of showing the similarities and differences between two items. The similarities are shown in the overlap
between two circles. Differences are written in the parts of the circles which do not overlap.

Visual organisers/ visual tools/ graphic organisers/ concept maps

aids which help learners to understand and remember new information by making thinking visible. They involve
writing down or drawing ideas and making connections. They combine language (words and phrases) and symbols
and arrows and map knowledge. They include diagrams, tables, columns and webs and there are several common
patterns.

Wait time
Teachers wait for several seconds rather than expect an immediate response to their questions.

Webbing
Notes are written in circles: important ideas are in large circles while less important information is in smaller circles.
Lines drawn between the circles show relationships between the ideas.

(*adapted from Marzano, R. and Pickering D.(2001) Classroom Instruction that Works ASCD USA)

Word bank
List of key words required for learning concepts. Used to pre-teach and to support input.

Writing and speaking frames (diagram)

Forms of guidance for writing and speaking which can give support at word, sentence and text levels or all three.
They are a form of scaffolding, used to encourage the processing and production of spoken and written language.
They enable learners to start, connect and develop ideas for curriculum subjects.
e.g. Describing a process from a visual:
The Diagram shows ...
First of all, ...
Then ...
After that ...
Finally, ...