RESERVOIR ROCK

PROPERTIES
Essentials
Edited by Dr. Nayef Alyafei

Special thanks:

Abdulsaboor Khan
Afsha Shaikh
Maryam Al-Suwaidi
Mariam Obidan
Mashaal Al-Salem
Mohammed Al-Mohannadi
Mohamed Idris
Rand Alagha
Sara Al-Marzouqi
Tarek Saad
Wajdi Al oush

1
 Contents
Conversion of units 4
Porosity 5
Rock compressibility 6
Liquid permeability 7
Gas permeability 8
Flow in layered systems 9
Fluid saturation 11
Electrical properties 12
Wettability 13
Capillary pressure 14
Relative permeability 17
Volumetric estimation 18
of hydrocarbons

2
What is this booklet?
This booklet summarizes the different topics covered in the Fundamentals
of Reservoir Rock Properties book in a simple and easy-to-follow format with a
one-page article covering each concept. The booklet highlights each property
with a basic knowledge that intends to convey a general understanding of the
covered topics. The purpose of this booklet is to give a quick overview of the
reservoir rock properties. The Fundamentals of Reservoir Rock Properties book
can be downloaded from the following link:
https://www.qscience.com/content/books/9789927137273

Why studying Reservoir Rock Properties is important?

Reservoir rock properties are part of petrophysics, which is the study of rock
properties and rock-fluid properties. Reservoir rock properties are essential
aspects of understanding hydrocarbon reservoirs. Those properties should help
in estimating the amount of hydrocarbons in reservoirs as well as understanding
the production behavior of hydrocarbons.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5339/Reservoir_Rock_Properties_Essentials

3
CONVERSION OF UNITS
Length Area
1 ft = 0.3048 m = 12 in 1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2 = 144 in2
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in = 100 cm 1 m2 = 10.7649 ft2 = 10000 cm2

Mass Force
1 = 0.45359 kg 1 lbf = 4.44822 N = 32.2 lbm.ft/s2
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm = 1000 g 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 1 kg.m/s2

Interfacial Tension Permeability

1 N/m = 1000 mN/m = 1000 dyne/cm 1 D = 1000 mD = 9.869233 x 10-13 m2

Volume
1 ft3 = 0.02831 m3 = 28.3168 L = 0.178 bbl = 0.178 RB
1 m3 = 35.29 ft3 = 1000 L

Pressure
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 1.013 bar = 14.696 lbf/in2 (psia)
1 psia = 6.89 kPa = atm/14.696
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m.s2 = 10-5 bar = 1.450 x 10-4 lbf/in2 = 10 dyne/cm2
psia = psig +14.7

Density
1 g/cc = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.427 lb/ft3 = 8.345 lb/gal = 0.03361 lb/in3

Viscosity
1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 g/cm.s = 0.001 kg/m.s = 0.001 n.s/m2 = 0.001 Pa.s
= 0.01 dyne.s/cm2 = 6.72 x 10-4 lbm/ft.s = 2.09 x 10-5 lbf.s/ft2

Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplication

Factor

giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo k 103

centi c 10-2

milli m 10-3

micro µ 10-6

nano n 10-9

Oilfield Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor

Thousand M 103

Million MM 106

Billion MMM or B 109

Trillion T 1012

4
POROSITY
What is Porosity? Factors Affecting Porosity
Porosity (ф) is the fraction or percentage of empty 1. Primary porosity – developed during the burial
volume that exists in a rock over the total volume. of the rock:
This is where water, oil and gas reside in a rock.
Think of the reservoir like a sponge, the way a Sorting
sponge absorbs water in the empty spaces is the
same way that the fluids occupy the pore spaces
in a rock. The general formula for porosity is:

Vp V b − Vm
φ= =
Vb Vb
where:
ф = porosity [fraction or %] Well sorted Poorly sorted
Vp = pore volume [cm3 or ml]
Vb = bulk volume [cm3 or ml] 2. Secondary porosity (induced) – developed after
Vm = matrix volume [cm3 or ml] deposition due to external factors:

Types of Porosity
There are two types of porosity: a. Compaction due to stress (decreases porosity):
• Total porosity (фt)
• Effective porosity (фe)

The total porosity takes all the pore space in

a rock into consideration. Whereas, effective
porosity, is the fraction of the volume of
interconnected space in a rock over the bulk Unpacked packed
volume. As petroleum engineers, we mostly care
about the effective porosity. Imagine a school b. Fractures (increase porosity):
with an area of 100 m2, 25 m2 of those 100 m2
are occupied by five hallways, and for simplicity
let us say all the hallways have the same area.
Now imagine that two of those hallways are
closed. Students then can only walk through
three of the hallways, or 15 m2. In the same
sense, fluids in the rock can only flow through
pores that are not closed but are connected.

c. Dissolutions (Vugs) (increase porosity):

5
ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY
Porosity is the fraction of a rock that consists of Types of Compressibility
void space. A key aspect in studying porosity is Compressibility plays a major role on reservoir
studying rock compressibility. performance. It is divided into three types:

Rock Compaction • Matrix Compressibility, cm

Porosity is reduced by compaction, and the • Pore or formation Compressibility, cp/f
reduction is a function of the burial depth of the • Bulk Compressibility, cb
rock. Isothermal compressibility is defined as the
change of volume per unit pressure change at
constant temperature.
Fov
Effects of Compaction
• Changes in packing
• Deformation of rock fragments

Simplifying Assumptions
• Reservoirs are isothermal Fm Ff
• As pressure increases, material volume
decreases
• As pressure decreases, material volume
increases

These assumptions are used to derive the For static conditions;

compressibility equation shown below The summation of forces should equal zero

Fov = Fm + Ff
1 dV
c=− Where Fov is the overburden force, Fm is the
V dP
matrix force resisting deformation, and Ff is the
where: fluid force.

c = coefficient of isothermal compressibility Similarly for pressures,

[1/psia]
V = volume [ft3] Pov = Pm + Pf
P = pressure [psia]
As fluids are produced from a reservoir, the fluid
pressure in the pores decreases; however, the
overburden pressure remains constant causing
the following effect:

1. Force on matrix increases

2. Bulk volume decreases
3. Pore volume decreases

This effect pushes some fluids out of the

reservoir, as the pore volume is decreasing with
compaction. Also, this might cause subsidence,
where formation thickness decreases to
compensate for the produced fluids.

6
LIQUID PERMEABILITY
What is Liquid Permeability? Permeability can be calculated using Darcy’s law
Pores usually contain water in them referred for 1-D, single phase liquid (in Darcy’s units):
to as brine. Brine is water that contains more
dissolved salt than typical seawater. In other kA dP
words, brine is a solution of salt in water. q=
µ dx
Permeability is a measure of the fluid conductivity
of the rock, which means that permeability is the Where
term used for fluid transport.
k = permeability [D]
Understanding Permeability kA dP
q= = pressure gradient [atm/cm]
It is important to understand permeability, as it µ dx
influences the production of hydrocarbons. As A = cross sectional area [cm2]
previously discussed hydrocarbons are stored in µ = viscosity of liquid [cP]
the pores of the reservoir rocks. q = volumetric flow [cm3/s]

Now you might be wondering what the When finding the permeability using Darcy’s
relationship between porosity and permeability law, there are certain conditions that must be
is. Permeability is the ability of fluids to be assumed for Darcy’s law to be valid:
transported through porous rocks. If the pore
spaces in rocks are not connected, then the rock • The pore spaces should be fully saturated
is not permeable. The fluid then, will be trapped with a single phase; water, oil, or gas.
and unable to move. If the pore spaces in rocks • The flow must be laminar.
are connected, then fluid can be transported so • The flow must be at steady-state condition.
it is permeable. The figure below provides an
illustration of how low and high permeability look
like.

Low permeability High permeability

reigon reigon

7
GAS PERMEABILITY
Introduction Klinkenberg Effect
Often dry gas (He, N2, air) is used in the Klinkenberg (1941) noticed that permeability
laboratory for permeability determination since measurements using liquids and gases gave
it is readily available and is relatively less reactive different results. Permeability with air gave a
with the rock. higher value than permeability measurement
with water. This phenomenon was attributed
Gas Permeability to gas slippage at the pore walls. Liquids have
Since gases are compressible, the average zero velocity at the sand grain surface; however,
pressure Pm needs to be used, where: gases have some finite velocity at the sand grain
surface. The slippage results in a higher flowrate
P1 + P2 for a given pressure differential for the gases.
Pm = Klinkenberg related the liquid permeability kL to
2
gas permeability kg by the following equation:
Considering an ideal gas behavior of gas, we can
assume: 1
kg = c + kL
Pm
P1 q1 = P2 q2 = Pm qm

Thus, Darcy’s law equation becomes:

Psc qsc = Pm qm Slippage

kg

kA(P12 − P22 )
qsc = Absloute or Liquid Permeability

2µg LPsc
where,
qsc = gas flowrate at standard conditions [cm3/s] 1
Pm
Psc = pressure at atmospheric conditions [≈ 1atm]
k = absolute permeability [D]
A = cross sectional area [cm2] If we observe from the graph, the higher the
P1 = inlet pressure [atm] value of Pm, the lower the value of 1/Pm. At
P2 = outlet pressure [atm] extremely high pressures (infinite pressure),
µg = gas viscosity [cP] gases are believed to behave like liquids. Thus if
L = length of core [cm] we extrapolate our 1/Pm to zero, it would mean
the permeability would be approximately equal
to the liquid permeability. The slope c of the line
is a function of absolute permeability, type of gas,
and average radius of the rock capillaries.

8
FLOW IN LAYERED SYSTEMS
The objective of understanding the flow in a
layered system is to find the average permeability L
of the system and its various beddings. The
k̄ = n Li
average permeability calculation will be centered i=1 ki
around Darcy’s law but will vary based on the
configuration of the layers as described in the Case 3: Radial Flow in Parallel
following cases: The flow in parallel systems for liner and radial
cases is similar. Consider the system below,
Case 1: Linear Flow in Parallel the overall flow rate and total thickness is the
Consider the three-layer system below where summation of the flow rate and thickness value
the layers are in parallel and each layer has a of each layer. The pressure drop, however, is
different permeability. In this case, the pressure common. Combining these conditions with
drop in each layer is the same. The flow rate and Darcy’s law for radial flow results in a calculation
thickness, however, are unique and sum up to of average permeability for this case.
the total flow rate and thickness of the system.
Combining these relationships with Darcy’s law
results in the average permeability formula for
this system. re
rW

k1 h1 q1

q1 q2
P1 P2 k2 h2

q2 h
k1 h1
q3
k3 h3
q
k2 h2 q
q3 h

k3 h3
W n
 k i hi
L k̄ =
i=1
h
n
 k i hi
k̄ = Case 4: Radial Flow in Series
h
i=1 Finally, consider the radial system below. In this
case, the flow rate across each layer is the same,
Case 2: Linear Flow in Series however the pressure difference in each layer
In this case, each bedding still has a different varies. Combining these conditions allows for the
permeability but they are in series to each other. average permeability for this system.
As a result, the flow rate that passes through
each rock is the same but the pressure drop
across each rock is different. Furthermore, the re

total length of the system is composed of the r1

length of each rock. These conditions can be

combined to calculate the average permeability
rW

of the system.

h k2 k1

P1 P2

k1 k2 k3
q q  
re
P1 P2 P3
h ln rw
L1 L2 L3
k̄ = r 
W n ln
(i+1)
ri
i=1 ki
L

9
10
Organic plants & animals WIRELINE LOGGING:
Origin The acquisition & analysis
Inorganic chemical reactions Fluid Saturation Porosity Lithology
of geographical data performed
as a function of depth
Gas Oil Gas & Oil Density Log Neutron Log Acoustic (sonic) Log
PETROLEUM:
Naturally occuring hydrocarbon (HC) Gamma Ray Neutrons Sound

RESERVOIR:
φ=
ρ m − ρb Read Directly ∆Tm − ∆TL
Place where HC resides φ=
GAS LIQUID ρm − ρf ∆Tm − ∆Tf

WHY PETROPHYSICS?
FLUIDS PROPERITES PRESSURE
Fundamental science to
petroleum engineers F
Density Viscosity P =
A
m
Helps in estimating amount ρ= μ N/m² or Pa
V
of HC
g/cc cP

Helps in understanding
fluid flow Geological
Classification

Permeability RESERVOIR PROPERTIES Primary Secondary

Porosity
Porosity
Darcy’s Law Measure of the ease which Darcy’s Law
Rock Intergranular Intragranular
for liquids: fluids flow through porous rock for gases:
Laboratory Factors
Measurements Affecting
kA
q= qa = P12 − P22 Properties
µL
(P1 − P2 ) 2µL
kA  

k: m², mD, D Fluid Vp Vb − V m

Primary Secondary φ= φ=
Displacement Vb Vb

Klinkenberg: Slippage
of gas across grain Gas Expansion Cementing Ratio of void
surface high k Method Packing Material over bulk volume

Linear series: Overburden

Sorting Pressure Range: 5-40%
Correction is needed L
Rock Compressibility
i=1 ki

Flow in Vugs & Engineering

k̄ = n Li

•Steady-State Flow
Fractures Fractures Classification
•Lamiar Flow Flow in Linear Parallel:
•Fluid does not react with rock surface 1 dV
h2 Layered n
ki hi
c=−
k= •Rock needs to be 100% Saturated V dP T
 

12 system k̄ =
with one fluid. i=1
h Effective Total


MATRIX BULK PORE

cm cb (FORMATION)
cp,f
Flow in
Radiel series: Radiel Parallel:
Channels
re n Irreversible
r2 ln rw ki hi 1 dVp
k= k̄ = k̄ = cp/f = −
8 Vp dP T
 

ln i+1 h
 

r i i=1
i=1
r 


ki
n
FLUID SATURATION
What is Saturation? Important Definitions
Pores usually contain more than one fluid in • Connate water (Swc): it is the minimum
them. The fraction of pore space occupied by a water saturation which would remain
specific fluid is called saturation. Saturation is the adhered to the pores and not become
ratio of fluid volume to the pore volume. mobile. During deposition, water saturation is
100% which declines by the migration of oil/
Vw gas to (20-30%) and that is the connate water
Sw = saturation.
Vp • Irreducible water saturation (Swir): it
is the minimum water saturation in a
Vo rock forming a layer of water stuck to
So = the rock surface and that does not move.
Vp Therefore, Swc = Swir
Vg • Residual oil (Sor): it is the oil left behind
Sg = (could not be produced) after immscible
Vp displacement. This oil is trapped in the pore
spaces and cannot move.
where:
Types of Measurements
Sw = water saturation [fraction or %] There are two methods to determine or measure
So = oil saturation [fraction or %] fluid saturation
Sg = gas saturation [fraction or %]
Vw = water volume [cm3 or ml] • Direct: using core samples through:
Vo = oil volume [cm3 or ml] - Retort distillation
Vg = gas volume [cm3 or ml] - Solvent extraction (Dean-Stark method)
Vp = pore volume [cm3 or ml] • Indirect: capillary pressure and well log
analysis (resistivity logs)
We could then notice that saturations are
fractions, and collectively in pores the summation Factors Affecting Saturation
of all saturations should equal 1: There are many factors that affect saturation.
For example, core samples from reservoir get
affected by filtrate from drilling mud. The mud
can usually be water or oil based and depending
Look at the figure below for an idea on how fluids on the wettability of the rock could affect
look like in a pore saturation differently.

Another factor that affects fluid saturation would

be the differences in pressure and temperature
that are caused by bringing the core sample from
the reservoir to the surface. Those differences
in pressure and temperature cause fluids such
as gas trapped in oil to be released. This is
especially important to know when conducting
direct measurements to find the fluid saturation
using core samples. The reason fluid saturation
is very important is that it helps in estimating the
amount of hydrocarbons stored in the reservoir.

Rock water Oil or gas

11
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
The formation water (brine) contains dissolved Saturation Equation
salts which make up the electrolytes and help it Archie also found out the saturation equation
E
conduct currentLECTRICAL P
within. These salts ROPERTIES
dissolve and (resistivity index) which relates Rt to Ro. He found
break up into ___________________________________________________________________________________
cations (Na+, Ca2+), and anions (Cl- out that this correlation is related to water
and SO42-). The higher the salt concentration, the saturation (Sw) and n is the saturation exponent.
Electric current is transmitted through a rock due to Saturation Equation
better it is at conducting electricity.
the connate water it contains in oil or gas zones. The Archie also found out the saturation equation
formation water, brine, contains dissolved salts (resistivity index) which relates R
R t t to Ro. He found out
Resistivity which makes up the electrolytes and helps it conduct that this correlation Ir =is related
= to
Sw −n
water saturation
Resistivity is a measure of the material’s ability R
current within. These salts dissolve and break up into (Sw) and n is the saturation exponent.
o
to resist the flow of electricity.
cations, Na+, Ca2+, The unit of Cl- and SO42-. The
and anions,
resistivity is ohm.m
higher [Ω.m]. The
the salt range for athe
concentration, better it is at Archie’s Equation
poorly Q
𝐼𝐼 = R = 𝑆𝑆KOT
consolidated sand is 0.2 ohm.m to several
conducting electricity. Archie’s equation QS is the combination of the
ohm.m. For well consolidated sands the resistivity
formation factor and the saturation equation
Resistivity
ranges from 1 ohm.m to 1000 ohm.m. since R is common in both equations. It is used
o
Unit is ohm.m [Ω.m]. Archie’s Equation
to calculate the water saturation of un-invaded
Archie’s equation is the combination of the
Notations for The range for a poorly consolidated sand is 0.2 zones
resistivity near the bore hole using wireline resistivity
formation factor and the saturation equation since Ro
Rw = formationohm.m to several ohm.m.
water resistivity [Ω.m] logs.
For well consolidated sands the resistivity ranges is common in both equations.
Ro = resistivity of rock with 100% water saturation It is used to calculate the water saturation of un-
from 1 ohm-m to 1000 ohm.m.
[Ω.m]
Archie’s
invaded equation:
zones near the bore hole using wireline
Rt = true formation resistivity [Ω.m]
Notations for resistivity resistivity logs. 
Rw = formation water resistivity [Ω.m]. n
aRw
Factors that affect resistivity
Ro = Resistivity Sw =
of rock with 100% water saturation Archie’s equation:
• Water Resistivity
φ m Rt
[Ω.m]. X V Q
• Formation RPorosity
t = True formation resistivity [Ω.m]. 𝑆𝑆K = U W
• Formation Lithology Resistivity ofɸ ( Q
Earth R Materials
Factors that affect resistivity
• Type and Amount of Clay
Resistivity of Earth Materials

Formation Factor• Water Resistivity
• Formation Porosity
Formation factor relates Rw to Ro based on an Rock

• Formation Lithology
empirical formula/relation developed by Archie
Conductivity
Resistivity

(1942). He found out • that this correlation is

Type and Amount of Clay Gas
related to three parameters: a, ф, and m as shown Oil
in the following equation:
Formation Factor Fresh Water
Formation
Ro factor relates Rw to Ro based on an
F =empirical aφ−m
= formula/relation developed by Archie Salt Water
Rw
(1942). He found out that this correlation is related


to three parameters: a, ф, and m as shown in the
where:
following equation:
a = constant ≈ 1.0 for most formations

ф = porosity [fraction]
𝑅𝑅/ O(
m = cementation 𝐹𝐹 =factor= 𝑎𝑎ɸ most formations
≈ 2 for
𝑅𝑅K

Where:
a = constant ≈ 1.0 for most formations
ф = porosity [fraction]
m = cementation factor ≈ 2 for most formations



8

12
WETTABILITY
What is Wettability?
Wetting phase fluid Non-wetting phase fluid
Wettability is a fluid’s tendency to adhere on
Occupy smallest pores Occupy largest pores
a solid surface, while co-existing with another
immiscible fluid. Has low mobility Usually of higher mobility

Immiscibility
Immiscible fluids are fluids that do not mix with How to determine the wettability of a rock?
one another. This is due to an imbalance in the If a water droplet is surrounded by oil then;
molecular forces between two fluids in contact
with one another. These molecular forces present
at the interface of two fluids are known as the Water-Wet Oil-Wet
interfacial tension. os > ws os < ws

Interface between Immiscible Fluids AT > 0 (positive) AT < 0 (negative)

0 <  < 90 90 <  < 180

What affects wettability?

• Composition of pore-lining minerals
• Composition of the fluids
• Saturation history

What are the types of wettability?

• Oil- or water-wet
• Neutral- or intermediate-wet
• Fractional- or mixed-wet

Adhesion Tension Wettability Affects

A key factor in determining the wettability of a • Capillary Pressure
rock is adhesion, also known as the difference • Residual oil saturation
between two solid-fluid interfacial tensions, is • Relative permeability
expressed with the following equation:

AT = σsw − σso = σwo cos θ

If the Adhesion tension is positive the denser fluid
will wet the rock becoming the wetting phase
fluid. For instance, water is the wetting phase in
the figure below.

σwo

-x σso σsw σso

+x

13
CAPILLARY PRESSURE: PART 1
What is Capillary Pressure? The height of the water in the capillary tube can
Most of hydrocarbon reservoirs contain a be calculated using the following formula:
minimum of two immiscible fluids. For water and
oil, the interface at which the separation happens 2σwa cos θ
is called the oil-water contact. Capillary pressure ∆h =
∆ρwa gr
is defined as the pressure difference between the
two immiscible fluids at the interface. where:
σwa = surface tension between air and water
To further define the capillary pressure, [N/m]
wettability needs to be recalled. In a g = gravitational acceleration [9.8 m/s2]
heterogeneous system where one fluid wets the Δρwa = density difference between air and water
surface (wetting phase) in preference to the other [kg/m3]
fluid (non-wetting phase), the capillary pressure θ = contact angle between the surface and water
can be calculated as: [˚]

Combining the two previous equations, capillary

Pc = Pnw − Pw pressure can also be computed using:

where: 2σwa cos θ

Pc = capillary pressure [Pa] Pc =
Pnw = pressure of the non-wetting phase [Pa]
r
Pw = pressure of the wetting phase [Pa] Capillary Pressure Curves
As can be inferred, capillary pressure is very
Understanding Capillary Pressure from dependent on the wetting phase saturation.
Capillary Tubes To graphically represent the capillary pressure,
To simplify the study of capillary pressure, the capillary pressure curves can be drawn as a
porous media in a reservoir can be modeled as a function of this saturation. To do that, two fluid
collection of capillary tubes as shown below. flow processes need to be defined over which the
capillary pressure varies. These are drainage and
Imbibition.
Drainage: The process through which the
saturation of the non-wetting phase increases.
+

For a water-gas system in a collection of capillary Drainage

tubes, like in a reservoir, water (wetting phase) Pc

rises filling smaller pores and leaves the larger

pores to be filled by air (non-wetting phase). 0 Imbibition Pct
The height of the water (shown below) in a
capillary tube is a function of the adhesion -
0 Swir Sw Sm 1
tension between the air and water, the radius
of the tube (shown below), and the density Imbibition: The process through which the
difference between air and water (the two saturation of the wetting phase increases.
immiscible fluids present). Parameters used in the figure above are the
r following:
• Swir = irreducible wetting phase saturation
θ
[fraction or %]
Δh
• Sm = 1 – residual non-wetting phase
Air
saturation [fraction or %]
• Pct = threshold capillary pressure, the
h=0 minimum pressure required to force non-
Water
wetting fluid into the largest pore [Pa]
The shapes of these curves are affected by
reservoir quality. This includes the pore size
distribution, grain sorting, and permeability.

14
CAPILLARY PRESSURE: PART 2
Measurement Hydrostatic Pressure and Repeat Formation
Capillary pressure laboratory measurements are Tester (RFT)
a part of special core analysis (SCAL) and can be As can be inferred, capillary pressure is very
measured through three main methods: dependent on the wetting phase saturation.
To graphically represent the capillary pressure,
• Porous Plate Technique: Uses a low permeability the capillary pressure curves can be drawn as a
water wet ceramic disc to retain oil in a water wet function of this saturation. To do that, two fluid
core sample (containing both oil and water) while flow processes need to be defined over which the
allowing water to pass through. In this setup, the capillary pressure varies. These are drainage and
inlet pressure will be the oil pressure and the Imbibition.
outlet pressure will be the water pressure. The Drainage: The process through which the
difference between the inlet and outlet pressure saturation of the non-wetting phase increases.
is the capillary pressure.

• Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP): The

core sample is placed in a pressure chamber
and mercury is injected through it. Mercury acts Pressure

as the non-wetting phase while air acts as the ( Pg , Zg ) Gas

wetting phase. The volume of mercury injected is Free oil level (FOL)

calculated and can be converted to a non-wetting ( Po , Zo )

Depth
Oil

phase saturation. The wetting phase saturation ( Pw , Zw )

Free water level (FWL)

will be one minus the non-wetting phase Water

saturation.

• Centrifuge: This method can measure the

drainage and waterflood capillary pressure
curves. For drainage, a core sample filled with
the wetting phase is placed in a cell surrounded
by the non-wetting phase. The cell is centrifuged Po − Pg + ρg gZg − ρo gZo
at various speeds and the fluid displaced is
ZF OL =
(ρg − ρo )g
recorded at each speed. At each increment, the
rotation speed is converted to pressure using
specific equations.
Pw − Po + ρo gZo − ρw gZw
ZF W L =
(ρo − ρw )g
Porous Plate
MICP Centrifuge
Technique
• The most accurate • The fasted method • An intermediate
method • Requires an extra method in terms of
• Very time consuming conversion step and time and accuracy
and can take a few does not use reservoir • Can use reservoir
hours to a few weeks fluids fluids
• Non-destructive • Damaging to the core

15
16
Direct extraction
Solvent extraction accurate, non-distructive
Soxhlet extraction slow, extract 1 fluid Factors affecting electrical resistivity:
Methods Dean-Stark ·Resistivity of fluids
fast, extract 2 fluids
Retort distillation ·Porosity of formation
damages the core
Indirect Material Balance ·Type and amount of clay
·Lithology of formation
electrical properties ·Temperature

capillary pressure Importance: To calibrate the resistivity log

and find the fluid saturation in the reservoir.

Importance: To
quantify the amount
of HC in reservoir

FLUID SATURATION ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

The Fraction of pore volume Resistivity: The inverse of the measure
occupied by a particular fluid.
Issues with extraction of electrical flow capacity of rocks (Intensive Property).
methods when dealing Ro a
with reservoir rocks: F = = aφ−m =
Rw φm
·Drilling muds.
·Fluid properties.
Rt −n 1
Ir = = Sw = n
Ro Sw

Imbibition:
The increase of wetting n
aRw
Sw =
phase saturation. φ m Rt


0<90⁰ 0=90⁰ 0>90⁰ mixed-wet

water-wet intermediate neutral oil-wet

Drainage:
The decrease of
WETTABILITY wetting phase
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
saturation. Importance:
Methods Drainage capillary
The difference between the non-wetting
pressure is used to
phase & the wetting phase pressures across interface.
determine fluid
Direct Indirect distribution in
·Contact angle ·Capillary pressure Methods reservoir (initial
·Amott Index ·Relative perm The tendency of a fluid to condition) above the
Porous Plate Centrifuge Mercury Injection
spread on solid surface free water level
in presence of another
immiscible fluid. Most accurate Fast Fastest
Uses reservoir Does not use
Uses reservoir fluid. reservoir fluid
Importance:
fluids
Requires Least accurate
·Controls saturation distribution.
calculation of
·Controls oil recovery by water injection. Very slow Requires
pressure and sat
interpretation
Less accurate
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
What is permeability? What affects relative permeability?
Permeability is a rock’s fluid conductivity, as its • Fluid saturation
ability to allow fluid to flow through its pores. • Geometry of the pore spaces
When a pore is completely saturated with only • Wettability
one fluid, the rock’s ability to allow that fluid to
pass through it is called absolute permeability. Using a relative permeability curve as the one
However, pores are usually being occupied with shown below, we keep track of the relative
more than one fluid (oil, water, and/or gas), and permeability changes. The reason knowing
fluids compete to flow through a rock. This is why relative permeability is very important is because
when producing hydrocarbons by water injection it affects the flow characteristics of the reservoir
for example; we are interested in the relative fluids which in turn affect the recovery efficiency
permeability of each fluid. The figure below of the hydrocarbons when two or more fluids are
provides a simplistic view of how water is injected flowing.
in oil filled pores. 1
krw @ Swir

Irreducible Residual
Water injection water oil
saturation saturation
kr (Swir) kro (Sor)

krw @ Sor
t1 t2 t3 t1< t2< t3 krw

What is relative permeability? 0

0 Swir Sw Sor 1
Because pores contain multiple fluids that are
interacting with one another, they do not all
move through the rock at the same rate. This is Looking at the figure provided above, we can tell
why we need to know the relative permeability that kro is reduced with the increase of krw. This is
for each fluid. The effectiveness of a medium to because they share the same area when they try
allow a certain fluid (oil, water or gas) to move in to flow and when on fluid takes more space the
it is called effective permeability. other is forced to take less space. The irreducible
water saturation is the minimum water saturation
This all comes to play when trying to determine a rock could have, this water cannot be moved
the relative permeability or the ratio of the or reduced. On the other hand, residual oil
effective permeability of a fluid at a specific saturation occurs during imbibition, where some
saturation over the absolute permeability. of the oil we try to produce is trapped in the pore
spaces of a rock.

Permeability Relative permeability

 
   , where f is

Equation
 fluid and can be either
water, oil, or gas.
1-D, linear flow for
single phase liquid

Units mD, D, or m2 Dimensionless

Phase 1 phase flow Multiphase flow

17
VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HYDROCARBONS
Estimating Oil and Gas in Place φVb (1 − Sw )
Dealing with an oil and gas reservoir is N=
challenging because it is underground Bo
and obscure. An important application of
petrophysical data is the ability to estimate the Gas behaves in a different manner to oil. When
amount of hydrocarbons in the reservoir and the pressure acting on the gas is depleted, it
provide some clarity to the commercial viability of begins to expand. To capture this behavior the
its production. The first form of these estimates gas formation volume factor is defined as:
calculates Oil in Place (OIP), the volume of oil in
the reservoir, by utilizing water saturation and Volume of gas in the reservoir
Bg =
porosity. Volume of gas on the surface

OIP = φVb (1 − Sw )
In the case of a reservoir containing water and
Bg
gas, the Gas in Place can be calculated in a similar
manner.

GIP = φVb (1 − Sw )
P

Fluid Properties Similar to the OIP formula, with the addition of
An important phenomenon to consider when the gas formation volume factor, the GIP formula
estimating volumes is the effect a change in can be adjusted to calculate stock tank gas in
pressure and temperature has on reservoir place (STGIP or G).
fluids as they are produced. For oil, as pressure
is depleted, the dissolved gas in the oil begins to φVb (1 − Sw )
expand causing the total volume to increase. The G=
Bg
oil expansion will continue until the bubble point
pressure is reached, after which the gas begins
to bubble out of the oil, reducing the oil volume. Unit Systems
This phenomenon is encapsulated in the oil Oilfield units are the most common units used in
formation factor – a dimensionless value used to the petroleum industry and, when utilized with
convert the oil volume from reservoir conditions the volumetric equation, require a conversion
to surface conditions. factor.
7758φAh(1 − Sw )
Volume of oil in the reservoir N=
Bo =
Volume of oil on the surface Bo
43560φAh(1 − Sw )
Bob
G=
Bg
Boi
Bo
where,
N: Stock tank oil in place [STB]
G: Stock tank gas in place [SCF]
Pb Pi A: Area of the reservoir [acres]
P h: Thickness of the reservoir [ft]
Sw: Water saturation [dimensionless]
The oil formation factor will always be greater Bo: Oil formation volume factor [RB/STB]
than 1, as the volume at the surface will always Bg: Gas formation volume factor [ft3/SCF]
be less than or equal to reservoir volumes. This
parameter adjusts the OIP formula to calculate
stock tank oil in place (STOIP or N).

18
SUMMARY OF ROCK PROPERTIES

Parameter Symbol Definition Importance

Porosity ϕ Is the ratio of pore volume to We use porosity to quantify the

bulk volume volume of oil and/or gas in the
reservoirs

Rock c The relative change of volume It is part of the recovery

Compressibility per unit pressure mechanisms under primary
hydrocarbon production. Also,
can cause subsidence which has
an environmental impact.
Single Phase k A measure of the ease which We use permeability in
permeability with which fluid flows through a determining the rate at which the
porous rock gas and oil flow to the surface.

Fluid Saturation Si , (where i The fraction of pore volume We use fluid saturation to
can be occupied by the fluid quantify the volume of oil and/or
water, oil, or gas in the reservoirs
gas)
Electrical Properties F and Ir The rock properties to impede We use electrical properties to
the follow of electric current calibrate the resistivity log and
through a rock. Electrical find the fluid saturation in the
properties are a function of reservoir.
porosity and fluids in the pore
space.
Wettability - The tendency of a fluid to We use wettability to help us
spread on a solid surface in the understand oil production when
presence of another immiscible injecting water as wettability has
fluid a primary role in water injection
performance.
Capillary Pressure Pc The pressure difference We use capillary pressure to
between the non-wetting phase determine fluid distribution in
and the wetting phase across the reservoir (initial condition)
the interface above the free water level.
Relative kr Is the ratio of the effective We use relative permeability to
Permeability permeability of that phase to study and understand the multi-
the absolute permeability phase flow in reservoirs. For
instance, we use relative
permeability to predict the
recovery of oil by water injection.

19
20