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Dynamic Performance of Off-Road Vehicles

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
242 views91 pages

Dynamic Performance of Off-Road Vehicles

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 91

 

Helw
wan University

Facultty of Engin
neering

Ma
attaria – C
Cairo

Au
utomotive & Tractorrs Engineeering
Departme
D ent

Dynam
mic Perrforman
nce of O
Off-Roaad Vehicles

Ju
uly 2015

Superrvition By
B
Prof.D
Dr. Shawwky Abd Elhad
dy
Prof. Mohamed
Assc.P d Watanny
Dr. Mostafa
M Mahmo
M ud
Helwa
an Univerrsity

Faculty of
o Engineeering

Matttaria – Caiiro

Autom Engineeriing
motive & Tractors E
Department

Dynam
mic Perrforman
nce of O
Off-Roaad Vehicles

Prepared by:

1. Ahmed
A Moohamed Moohamed Ab
bd El Aal
2. Michael
M Waaged Wadiie
3. Mohamed
M Ali
A El Sayeed Ahmed
4. Mohamed
M Ramadan
R Mousa
M
Acknowledgements
In the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful.

And say: soon will Allah observe your work and his messenger and the
believers

We would like to express our deep appreciation and thanks to

Prof.Dr. Shawki Abd El Hady

Assc.Prof. Mohamed Watany


Dr. Mostafa Mahmoud

God blessed us by the professors with their science, knowledge, advice and
experience, who were fathers with their caring, support patience and kindness.

We would also like to express our gratitude and appreciation for the faculty of
engineering, Mattaria, Helwan University.

And Special thanks for the great effort and patience

Eng. Hossam Hassan

And special thanks for the head of automotive engineering department

Prof.Dr. Ahmed Abo Elyazeed


 

Content
Chapter one (Introduction to heavy equipment)

Page
1.1 Definition (2)

1.2 Types Of Off Road Operations (2)

 1.2.1 Field Construction (2)


 1.2.2 Industrial Operations (2)
 1.2.3 Military Operations (2)
 1.2.4 General Off-Road Transportatio (2)

1.3 Classification Of Off Road Mobile Heavy Equipment (3)

 1.3.1 According To Purpose Of Use (3)


 1.3.2 According To The Type Of Drive (3)
 1.3.3 According To The Type Of Traction Elements (3)

1.4 Types Of Mobile Earthmoving Equipment (3)

 1.4.1 Equipment For Soil Cutting And Displacing (3)


 1.4.1.1 Bulldozers (4)
 1.4.1.2 Scraper (5)
 1.4.2 Equipment For Land Leveling (5)
 1.4.3 Equipment For Soil Digging And Excavation (6)
 1.4.3.1 Shovels (6)
 1.4.3.2 Chain Trenching Machines (8)
 1.4.3.3 Rotary Trenching Machines (8)
 1.4.3.4 Drilling Machines (9)
 1.4.4 Equipment For Soil Compaction (11) 
 1.4.4.1 Static Compaction Machines (11) 
 1.4.4.2 Tamping Or Dynamic Compaction (12) 

 
 

Chapter Two (Farm Tractor)


2.1 Farm Tractor Design, Power And Transmission (15) 

 2.1.1 Tractor Configurations (15) 


 2.1.2 Engine And Fuels (16) 
 2.1.2.2 Diesel (16) 
 2.1.2.1 Gasoline And Kerosene (16) 
 2.1.2.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (16)
 2.1.3 Transmission (16) 
 2.1.4 Hitches And Power Applications (17) 
 2.1.5 Drawbars (17) 

2.2 Farm Tractor Applications (18)


 2.2.1 Row-Crop Tractor (20)
 2.2.1.1 Row-Crop Tractor Safety (21)
 2.2.2 Garden Tractors (21)
Chapter Three ( Whole-body vibration (WBV) on agricultural
vehicles)
3.1 Introduction (23)

3.2 Agricultural Vehicle Review (24)

 3.2.1 Agricultural Vehicle Design Features (24)


 3.2.1.1 Operator Seat Suspension (25)
 3.2.1.2 Vehicle cab suspension (26)
 3.2.1.3 Vehicle Axle Suspension (28)
 3.2.1.3 Vehicle axle suspension (continued) (30)
 3.2.1.4 3-Point Linkage Dynamic Ride Control (32)

3.3 Agricultural Vehicle Fleet Composition And Usage Patterns (33)

3.4 Target Vehicle Identification (38)

Chapter Four (Measurement Equipment)


4.1Introduction                                                                                                                (41) 
 

4.2 Measurement Equipment                                                                                       (41) 

 4.2.1 Brüel & Kjær  Type‐B Compact Data Acquisition Unit                         (42)                        
 4.2.1.1 Uses                                                                                                     (42) 
 4.2.1.2 Construction                                                                                       (42) 
 4.2.1.3 Features                                                                                              (44) 
 4.2.1.4 Power Supply                                                                                     (44) 
 4.2.1.5 Silent Operation, Cooling                                                                 (44) 
 4.2.1.6 Accuracy, Safety and Efficiency                                                      (44) 
 4.2.1.7 Dyn‐X technology                                                                              (44) 
 4.2.2 Accelerometer                                                                                            (45) 
 4.2.2.1 Constant Acceleration                                                                      (45) 
 4.2.2.2 Transient Acceleration                                                                     (45) 
 4.2.2.3 Periodic Acceleration                                                                        (45) 
 4.2.3 B&K PULSE labshop                                                                                    (47) 
 4.2.3.1 Uses and Features                                                                             (47) 
 4.2.3.2 Signal data analysis                                                                           (48) 
o 4.2.3.2.1 Time‐domain analysis                                                       (48) 
o 4.2.3.2.2 Frequency‐domain analysis                                             (48) 

4.3 Tractor Specifications                                                                                               (49) 

4.4 Preparation before the experimental test                                                            (51) 

 4.4.1 Tractor steering System                                                                            (51) 
 4.4.2Driver Seat                                                                                                    (52) 
Chapter Five (Experimental Results)
5.1 Calibration Of Tractor Speed (55) 

5.2-Total Reduction Ratio For Each Gear (56) 

5.3-Calculating The Engine Speed For (8/10/12 Km/H)Tractor Speed (57)

5.4-Methodology (59) 
 

5.5-Test 1a (59)

 5.5.1-DX1 (59)
 5.5.2-DX2 (61) 

5.6Test 1b (62) 

 5.6.1-DX1 (62) 
 5.6.2-DX2 (64) 

5.7-Test 2a (65) 

 5.7.1-DX1 (65)
 5.7.2-DX2 (67) 

5.8-Test 2b (68)

 5.8.1-DX1 (68)
 5.8.2- DX2 (70) 

5.9-Test 3a (71)

 5.9.1-DX1 (71)
 5.9.2-DX2 (73) 

5.10-Test 3b (74)

 5.10.1-DX1 (74)
 5.10.2-DX2 (76) 

5.11- Discussions (77)
 

Table
Page
Chapter Four (Measurement Equipment)
Table 4.1                                                                                                                            (30) 

 
Chapter Five (Experimental Results)
Table 5.1 (43) 

Table 5.2 (44) 


 

Picture
Chapter One (Introduction to heavy equipment)

page
Fig.1.1 The bulldozer (4)

Fig.1.2 The scraper (5)

Fig.1.3 Elevating grader (6)

Fig.1.4 Types of single-bucket excavators (7)

Fig.1.5 Chain trenching machine (8)

Fig.1.6 Rotary trenching machine (9)

Fig.1.7 drilling techniques (10)

Fig.1.8 Foundation holes drilling Machine (11)

Fig.1.9 Static soil compacting machines (12)

Fig.1.10 Machines for dynamic compaction (13)

Chapter Two (Farm Tractor)


Fig 2.1 (18)

Fig 2.2 A tractor with a chaser bin (19)

Fig 2.3 An Oliver Row Crop 60 tractor (20)

Chapter Three ( Whole-body vibration (WBV) on agricultural


vehicles)
Figure 3.1 Renault ‘Hydrostable RZ’ cab suspension system

(courtesy Renault) (27)

Figure 3.2 New Holland Series TM tractor ‘Comfort Ride’ cab suspension
system(courtesy CNH) (28)
 

Figure 3.3 New Holland ‘Comfort Ride’ cab suspension system (detail) (courtesy
CNH) (29)

Figure 3.4 JCB Fastrac chassis and suspension system (courtesy JCB) (29)

Figure 3.5 New Holland ‘Terraglide’ front axle suspension system

(courtesy CNH) (31)

Figure 3.6 John Deere ‘Triple Link Suspension’ (TLS) front axle suspension
system(courtesy John Deere) (31)

Figure 3.7 Change in number of UK agricultural holdings: 1987-2000 (33)

Figure 3.8 Change in UK holding average cropped area / herd size: 1987-2000 (34)

Figure 3.9 UK sales of agricultural tractors (above 40 hp) (35)

Figure 3.10 Average engine power of tractors (above 40 hp) sold in the UK (35)

Figure 3.11 Engine power distribution of UK agricultural tractor sales (above 40


hp) (36)

Figure 3.12 UK sales of self-propelled sprayers (37)

Figure 3.13 UK sales of ATVs (for non-recreational use) (37)

Chapter Four (Measurement Equipment)


Fig. 4.1                                                                                                                               (43) 

Fig. 4.2                                                                                                                               (44) 

Fig. 4.3                                                                                                                               (46)                       

Fig 4.4   (46) 

Fig. 4.5                                                                                                                               (46) 

Fig. 4.6                                                                                                                               (46) 
 

Fig 4.7                                                                                                                                (47) 

Fig 4.8 Massey Ferguson 285 Tractor                                                                           (50) 

Fig. 4.9                                                                                                                               (51) 

Fig 4.10                                                                                                                              (52) 

Fig 4.11                                                                                                                             (53)               

Fig 4.12   (53) 

Fig 4.13                                                                                                                              (53) 

Chapter Five (Experimental Results)


Fig.     5.1 measurement of wheel rpm nw                                                                  (55) 

Fig. 5.2“T-Piece” and where the sensors were attached in Test xa (58)

Fig. 5.3“T-Piece” and where the sensors were attached in Test xb (58)

Fig. 5.4 (59)

Fig. 5.5 (59)

Fig. 5.6 (60)

Fig. 5.7 (60)

Fig. 5.8 (60)

Fig. 5.9 (61)

Fig. 5.10 (61)

Fig. 5.11 (61)

Fig. 5.12 (62)

Fig.5.13 (62)

Fig. 5.14 (63)


 

Fig. 5.15 (63)

Fig. 5.16 (63)

Fig. 5.17 (64)

Fig. 5.18 (64)

Fig. 5.19 (64)

Fig. 5.20 (65)

Fig. 5.21 (65)

Fig. 5.22 (66)

Fig. 5.23 (66)

Fig. 5.24 (66)

Fig. 5.25 (67)

Fig. 5.26 (67)

Fig. 5.27 (67)

Fig. 5.28 (68)

Fig. 5.29 (68)

Fig. 5.30 (69)

Fig. 5.31 (69)

Fig. 5.32 (69)

Fig. 5.33 (70)

Fig. 5.34 (70)

Fig. 5.35 (70)

Fig. 5.36 (71)

Fig. 5.37 (71)


 

Fig. 5.38 (72)

Fig. 5.39 (72)

Fig. 5.40 (72)

Fig. 5.41 (73)

Fig. 5.42 (73)

Fig. 5.43 (73)

Fig. 5.44 (74)

Fig. 5.45 (74)

Fig. 5.46 (75

Fig. 5.47 (75)

Fig. 5.48 (75)

Fig. 5.49 (76)

Fig. 5.50 (76)

Fig. 5.51 (76)

Fig. 5.52 (77)

References (78)

  

 
Chapter One Introduction To Heavy Equipment

Chapter one

Introduction to heavy equipment

1
Chapter One Introduction To Heavy Equipment

1.1 Definition
Off-road mobile heavy equipment is those machines that mainly are
Intended for working on unprepared terrain. They have attachments for
soil working out mounted either on wheeled or tracked vehicles. They
also have considerable ability to provide the required traction forces on
soft soils and the other forces necessary for soil working out.
Off-road heavy mobile equipment currently in use are numerous; they
differ in shape, size, design, facilities and attachments.

1.2 Types Of Off-Road Operations


Off-road field operations can be classified into four distinguishable cate-
gories:

1.2.1 Field Construction


Construction of earth dams, highways and waterways, airfields, and oth-
ers. Operation in such conditions requires movement of huge quantities of earth
and rock. Therefore, the following requirements are basic:
• Optimum speed, to permit quick and efficient haulage of theatrical mass,
• Optimum length of haul, to allow movement over various distances and sur-
face layers
• Optimum size of load and equipment

1.2.2 Industrial Operations


Such as operation carried out for supporting of logging, mining, and pe-
troleum industries. Nowadays, off-road operations require increased efficiency.
This impose demands on running gear such as; flotation, traction characteristics,
and load carrying capacity.

1.2.3 Military Operations


Various types of equipment are developed to operate over a great variety
of land surfaces. Requirements from military heavy equipment are; the agility,
the reliability, and the maneuver ability.

1.2.4 General Off-Road Transportation


The main requirements from such equipment are the transportation
efficiency and economy which are related to travel speed, load capacity,
fuel economy, and durability

2
Chapter One Introduction To Heavy Equipment

1.3 Classification Of Off-Road Mobile Heavy Equipment


Off- road heavy mobile equipment may be classified according to the fol-
lowing factors:
1. Purpose of use
2. Type of drive
3. Type of traction element

1.3.1 Classification According To The Purpose Of Use


According to the intended application, five categories may be distinguished
• Construction equipment.
• Transport vehicles.
• Agricultural tractors.
• Forestry machine.
• Snow machines.

1.3.2 Classification According To The Type Of Drive


Three main categories are distinguished:
• Self-propelled.
• Towed or trailed.
• Semi-trailed.

1.3.3 Classification According To The Type Of Traction Elements


Three categories are distinguished:
• Pneumatic tyres.
• Steel rollers.
• Tracks.

1.4 Types Of Mobile Earthmoving Equipment


Mobile earth moving equipment can be basically classified into the following
types:
1. Equipment for soil cutting and displacing.
2. Equipment for land leveling.
3. Equipment for soil digging and excavation.
4. Equipment for soil compaction.

1.4.1Equipment For Soil Cutting And Displacing


These can be classified into:
a) Bulldozers.
b) Scrapers.

3
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

1.4.1.1 Bulldoozers:
Bulldozerr is a mobiile earthm
moving maachine thatt has a cuttting bladee and a
moldboard fixed d into the front,
f Fig..2.1.
The cuutting blad
de disengaages (cuts--off) the sooil surfacee layers annd
displacces them vertically
v t the molldboard.
to
The mmoldboard pushes thee cut soil layers
l andd roll them
m in front ofo the
bulldozer.

Fig.1.1 The bullldozer.


1: blade 2: pushing g beam 3: hydraulicc cylinder
φ` = anglee of blade tilting in the horizoontal planee
α = anglle of bladee tilting inn the verticcal plane
δ = anggle of bladde edge
B = blade
b widtth H = mooldboard height
h
Bulldoozers are more
m efficiient in thee case of shhort coverred distances duringg
workinng (25-50 m). If succh distancees are mucch longer (up to few w kilometeers),
the scrrapers are used as thhey are moore econom mic in opeeration.
The cuutting blad de of the bulldozer
b i generallly fixed att the machhine front per-
is p
pendiccular to itss longitudiinal axis; this
t allowss better uttilization of o the wheeels
thrust. Some typpes of bullldozers haave the abiility to chaange the anglea of cuutting
blade relative
r too the machhine longittudinal axiis; Accord ding to theeir soil-traaction
mechaanism bulldozers cann be classiified as:
 Wheeled
 Tracked

Trackeed bulldozzers are prreferably used


u in thee areas of limited sppeed maneeuver
and thoose wheree the soil ground
g surrface is rouugh and weak.
w
4
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

Wheelled bulldozers are used wheree relativelyy higher sppeed of op


peration iss
requireed and thee soil is rellatively coonsistent.
1.4.1.2 Scrapeers:
Scrapers do d same work
w as buulldozers but
b they arre equippeed with a work-
w
ing attachment (bowel),
( annd is largeer in capaccity than the
t bulldozer.
In addition to th he bowel, a scraper has h a gate.. Scraper isi either toowed or seelf-
propellled, Fig.1.2.
Bowell is forced into the soil while gate g is opeen, it cuts the soil, and
a when
the bow wl is filledd with cutt soil it is lifted
l and the gate iss closed.
After that,
t the sccraper moves if it iss self-proppelled, or towed
t by a tractor
for soiil dischargging.

Fig
g.1.2 The sscraper
1== tractor 2= bowel 3=buffer
3 4
4=gate
a) Toowed scrap per b) Selff-propelledd scraper

1.4.2 Equipm
ment For Land Leveling
The purpo ose of usinng such eqquipment is i to level the land surface
s to be as
level aas possiblee, and this operationn is usuallyy done in two stages which
are:
a) Prelimiinary Leveeling
b) Final leeveling
Equipm ment usedd for prelim minary lannd levelingg are the scrapers
s annd
bulldozers. They y are usedd for transp
porting thee cut soil portions
p from
fr the
digginng places where
w landd surface level
l is higgher than original too the
places of lower surface level.
Equipm ment usedd for final land surfaace levelinng are;
• The gradders, and
• The leveelers
These are used to t get morre accuratee leveling of the lan nd surface as in the
cases of
o road constructionn or land irrrigation.
Fig.1.33 shows a typical grrader whicch is a bassic machinne for usedd to
profilee road bedds, to makee road embbankmentts, and to shift
s and leevel the
soil ovver the roaad bed.
5
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

Fig.1.3 Elevatingg grader


1: tractor 2: generatorr 3: cross arm
a 4: fram me 5: leveeler
6: plough beam
b 7: coonveyor 8:: disc cutteer 9: hydraulic conttrol cylindder
10: leveler hyydraulic coontrol cyliinder

As thee grader moves,


m the blade
b cutss off and displaces
d t soil, annd after a certain
the
s is workked in thee opposite direction..
road seection hass been covvered the soil
The working meember of the t grader is the blade which is mounteed at an anngle to
the maachine lonngitudinal centerlinee. The bladde can be lifted
l and lowered relative
r
to the land
l surfaace. Anothher type off graders is the levelling gradeer which cuts the
soil annd either dumps
d or discharges
d s it into traansportatio
on facilityy,
Fig.2.44.Thistypee of graderr has a connveyor forr deliverinng the soill material to
t the
transpoortation faacility.

1.4.3 Equipm
ment For Soil Dig
gging An
nd Excav
vation
These are machiines used for deep soil
s cuttingg and excaavation. Various
V
types of
o such maachines arre:
• Shovels
• Chain trrenching machines
m
• Rotary trenching
t m
machines
• Drilling machiness

1.4.3.1 Shovels:
Shovel is a single-bbucket exccavator. After
A the sooil is separrated from
m the
groundd mass by the buckeet, it is carrried out fo
for a comp paratively short
distancce, and eitther dumpped or loadded into thhe transporrt facility.
Excavaator may have
h mechhanical or a hydraullic drive.
Accordding to thee purpose certain atttachmentss are fitted d to the exxcavator

6
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

and thuus they are classifieed into thee followingg types:


• Crane exxcavator
• Quarry excavator
e
• Strippinng shovel
• Tunnel and
a
• Tower excavators
e s
• Waking drag-line
• Floatingg shovels
Some of these tyypes are shhown in Fig. F 1.4.
The diipper excaavator is suuitable forr excavatinng the gro
ound abovee the
level oon which the
t excavaator standss.
The baackhoe exccavator is suitable for f excavaating the ground
g below the levvel on
which the excav vator standds.
The drrag-line exxcavator iss usually used
u for making
m fillls and cuttting with soil
s
dumpeed withoutt the use of o transporrt facility especially
e y in the preesence of
grounddwater.
The clam-shaft excavator
e is used fo
or digging deep pits with sheaar walls esspe-
cially iin the pressence of ground
g watters.
Excavaators fittedd with twoo or more attachmennts are refferred to as a semiunivversa

a) diggger b) backkhoe c) drrag-line d)) crane

e) clam
m-shaft f) plough
p g) stump pulller h) pilee driver
Fig.1.44 Types off single-buucket excaavators.

7
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

1.4.3.2 Chain
n Trench
hing Macchines:
They are equipmennt capable of diggingg deep tren nches andd they are often
o
used as mountedd equipmeent on tracctors and trrucks Fig..1.5 showss atypical type
of chaiin trenchinng machinnes. The working
w atttachment is the buccket framee with
its enddless chain
n to whichh the buckeets are fasstened. The frame iss lifted andd low-
ered byy a wire roope devicee, or hydraaulic, or chain
c drivee. Recent models
m usse mul-
ti-motoor drive innstead of a single onne, and hyydrodynammic transm mission witth a
hydrauulic torquee converteer. The bucckets are emptied
e ass they pass over the upper
sprockket of the chain
c by using
u sprinng-loaded scrapers.

Fiig.1.5 Chaain trenchiing machine


1: runninng gear poower plantt 2: convey
yor drive
3: buccket drive shaft 4: w
working member
m

The treench widthh is changged by sidee cutters` widening device mounted


on the buckets or
o by usingg cutters of
o differennt width.

1.4.3.3 Rotary
y Trench
hing Ma
achines:
They diffe
fer have hiigher efficciency thann chain treenching machines
m b
but
they arre used forr digging smaller siize trenchees (2.45 m maximum m depth).
Fig.1.66 shows a typical rootary trencching machhine. It is usually mounted
m
8
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

on crawwler or whheeled tractors.


The working atttachment comprises
c a rotor caarrying sevveral buck
kets. The
rotor iss driven by a gear mounted
m on the fram
me and meeshing withh the ring
gear off the rim.
The rootor is lifteed and low
wered by means
m of a chain, orr a hydraullic, or a
rope tyype devicee.

Figg.1.6 Rotaary trenchiing machiine.


1: diessel enginee 2: gear boox 3: drive train to the
t runninng gear
4:: rotor drivve 5: convveyor drivee 6: conveeyor 7: rottor

These machiness are equippped with diesel enggine whichh rotates an


a electric
generaator that drrives a geaarbox.
The buuckets dum mp the exccavated sooil onto a belt
b conveeyor whichh
dischaarges it alo
ong the edgge of the trench.
t

1.4.3.4 Drillin
ng Mach
hines:
They are used
u for making
m pitts in the grround (up to 3 m in diameter or
more) for severaal purposees such as;; sanitary, electric, constructio
c on, and
geologgical.
Differeent techniques are used
u for diigging;
• Rotary,
• Percussiion,
• Percussiion-turninng,
• Percussiion-rotaryy, and
• Thermall.

9
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

These are shownn in Fig.1..7.


In rotary drilling,
d thhe work toool only rootates and drilling iss conducteed by
either bbreaking the
t entire soil mass,, or by maaking a annnular slot with a
core off soil mass left in thhe slot; Th
he second method
m reequires lesss power.

Fig.1.7 drilling
d tecchniques
a, b) rotaary c) perccussion d) percussioon-turning
e, f) percusssion-rotaryy g) therm
mal

In percusssion drillinng, the too


ol is droppped into thhe soil mass from a
certainn height annd each timme after itt is lifted and
a turnedd through a certain
angle. In this waay the whoole bottom m of the drrilled hole is worked d out.
The addvantage ofo this metthod is thaat it easilyy breaks thhe brittle roocks by
impactt.

In percusssion-turninng techniqque, the toool is forceed into thee rock by impact


i
and turrned at sam
me time thhrough ann angle (100-150) to obtain
o a laarger crushhed
face. T
This methood is moree efficient than perccussion driilling methhod (50-
60%hiigher).

In percusssion-rotaryy techniquue, the toool is contin


nuously rootated and peri-
odicallly knocked to createe an axial impact foorce.
The effficiency of
o this metthod is twiice to threee times hiigher thann that of thhe
preceddent methood.

In the therrmal drilliing, the roock is brokken by a gas


g jet of high
h pressuure and
temperrature (tem
mperature of 2500-3 30000C annd gas speeed of 200m/s).
This m
method is used
u for drrilling holles in rockks that breaks without meltingg.
Fig.1.88 shows a layout of a mobile drilling m machine. The
T drillingg tool is inntro-
duced into the ground
g by means of hydraulic cylinder assistance
a e and a roppe
drive.
10
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

The drrilling macchine is suuitable forr vertical aand slant holes.


h The axial forcce that
can bee developeed for drillling is limited by thee vehicle weight.
w

Fig.1.88 Foundatiion holes drilling


d Machine.
M
1: power
p takke-off 2: hyydraulic pump
p 3: prropeller shhaft
4: liffting hydrraulic cylinnder 5: feeeding hyd
draulic cyliinder
6: Presssing Forcee on the M
Machine 7: drill rod

1.4.4 Equipm
ment For Soil Com
mpaction
n
Soil coompactingg machiness are classsified into two mainn types:
a) Static compactio
c on
b) Tampinng or dynaamic comppaction

1.4.4.1 Static Compacction Maachines:


As Figgures 1.9 shows,
s theese machinnes are equuipped eitther with:
• Smooth rollers, orr
• Sheep fooot rollerss, or
• Wobble--wheel rolllers, or
• Pneumaatic rollers
These machiness might be self-propelled or toowed (sem mi-trailed oro trailed)
To enssure satisfa
factory soiil compacttion by rollling, speccific grounnd
pressuure should be appliedd so that the soil rem
mains defo ormed afteer the loadd is
removved.

11
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

Fig.1..9 Static sooil compaacting macchines.


1: pneumatic tyres 2:bballast boxxes
a) compactor withh smooth rollers
r b) ttrailed sheeep foot coompactor
c) trrailed pneu
umatic rolller compaactor

The strress applieed should not overppass the strrength of the


t soil too be compaacted
(up to 90% of th he soil ultiimate strenngth).
To raisse the commpaction efficiency,
e , compacteed surfacee should bee rolled seeveral
times.
Sheep foot roller compacttors allow soil comppaction in layers (0..2-0.25
thick). They gennerate residual strainns in the soil
s which depends on o the rolller
speed.
The wobble-wheeel and pnneumatic rollerr com
mpactors effficiency is
i
influennced by; thhe try inflation presssure, the wheel
w spaacing, the weight
w of
the rolllers, and the
t speed of motionn.

1.4.4.2 Tamping Or Dynamic


D c Compaaction:
When thee soil is compacted by b tamping, stressess in the soil are caussed by
the weeight of thee tampingg hammer (tool). If thet tool weeight is inncreased
to exceeed definite values related
r to soil strenggth, the sooil compacction
deterioorates and the soil sttructure brreaks dowwn.
For loww-cohesivve soils, thhe maximu um permisssible impulses rangge from
0.4 to o.6 Ns/cmm2, and forr highly coohesive sooils from 8 to 9 Ns/ccm2.

12
Chaptter One Intrroduction
n To Heaavy Equippment

As Figg.1.10 show ws, these machines are equippped with compactin


c ng hammeer
(plate)), vibrationn exciter, and liftingg and throw
wing mecchanism.

Fig.1.10 Machinees for dynnamic com mpaction


a) tractorr-mountedd tamping plate b) self-propel
s lled vibratting plate
1: pllate liftingg and throw
wing mechhanism 2: tamping plate p
3:guuides 6: vibbration exxciter 7: enngine

13
Chapter Two Farm Tractor

Chapter Two

Farm Tractor

14
Chapter Two Farm tractor

A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive


effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery
used in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a
farm vehicle that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks,
especially (and originally) tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricul-
tural implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor
may also provide a source of power if the implement is mechanized

2.1 Farm Tractor Design, Power And Transmission


2.1.1 Tractor Configurations
Tractors can be generally classified by number of axles or wheels, with main
categories of two-wheel tractors (single-axle tractors) and four-wheel tractors (two-
axle tractors); more axles are possible but uncommon. Among four-wheel tractors
(two-axle tractors), most are two-wheel drive (usually at the rear); but many are
two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive (often with articulated
steering), or track tractors (with steel or rubber tracks).
The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving
wheels on an axle below and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering
wheel consequently are in the center), and the engine in front of the driver, with
two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This basic design has re-
mained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost all
modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort. In some localities with
heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California, the "Caterpillar" or
"crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior trac-
tion and flotation. These were usually maneuvered through the use of turning brake
pedals and separate track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.
Four-wheel drive tractors began to appear in the 1960s. Some four-wheel drive
tractors have the standard "two large, two small" configuration typical of smaller
tractors, while some have four large, powered wheels. The larger tractors are typi-
cally an articulated, center-hinged design steered by hydraulic cylinders that move
the forward power unit while the trailing unit is not steered separately
In the early 21st century, articulated or no articulated, steerable multitask tractors
have largely supplanted the Caterpillar type for farm use. Larger types of modern
farm tractors include articulated four-wheel or eight-wheel drive units with one or
two power units which are hinged in the middle and steered by hydraulic clutches
or pumps. A relatively recent development is the replacement of wheels or steel
crawler-type tracks with flexible, steel-reinforced rubber tracks, usually powered

15
Chapter Two Farm tractor

by hydrostatic or completely hydraulic driving mechanisms. The configuration of


these tractors bears little resemblance to the classic farm tractor design.

2.2 Engine And Fuels


The predecessors of modern tractors, traction engines, used steam engines for
power.

2.2.1 Gasoline And Kerosene


Since the turn of the 20th century, internal combustion engines have been
the power source of choice. Between 1900 and 1960, gasoline was the predominant
fuel, with kerosene (the Rumely Oil Pull was the most notable of this kind)
and ethanol being common alternatives. Generally, one engine could burn any of
those, although cold starting was easiest on gasoline. Often, a small auxiliary fuel
tank was available to hold gasoline for cold starting and warm-up, while the main
fuel tank held whatever fuel was most convenient or least expensive for the partic-
ular farmer. In the United Kingdom, a gasoline-kerosene engine is known as
a petrol-paraffin engine.

2.2.2 Diesel
Dieselization gained momentum starting in the 1960s, and modern farm trac-
tors usually employ diesel engines, which range in power output from 18 to
575 horsepower (15 to 480 kW). Size and output are dependent on application,
with smaller tractors used for lawn mowing, landscaping, orchard work, and truck
farming, and larger tractors for vast fields of wheat, maize, soy, and other bulk
crops.

2.2.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas


Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or propane also have been used as tractor
fuels, but require special pressurized fuel tanks and filling equipment, so are less
prevalent in most market

2.3 Transmission
Older farm tractors use a manual transmission with several gear ratios, typi-
cally three to six, sometimes multiplied into two or three ranges. This arrangement
provides a set of discrete ratios that, combined with the varying of the throttle, al-
low final-drive speeds from less than one up to about 25 miles per hour (40 km/h),

16
Chapter Two Farm tractor

with the lower speeds used for working the land and the highest speed used on the
road.
Slow, controllable speeds are necessary for most of the operations performed with
a tractor. They help give the farmer a larger degree of control in certain situations,
such as field work. However, when travelling on public roads, the slow operating
speeds can cause problems, such as long queues or tailbacks, which can delay or
annoy motorists in cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible for being duly
careful around farm tractors and sharing the road with them, but many shirk this
responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speed
differential are employed where feasible. Some countries (for example
the Netherlands) employ a road sign on some roads that means "no farm tractors".
Some modern tractors, such as the JCB Fastrac, are now capable of much higher
road speeds of around 50 mph (80 km/h)

2.4 Hitches And Power Applications


The power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or
equipment to do the actual work intended for the equipment. This may be accom-
plished via a drawbar or hitch system if the implement is to be towed or otherwise
pulled through the tractive power of the engine, or via a pulley or power takeoff
system if the implement is stationary, or a combination of the two.

2.5 Drawbars
Until the 1940s, plows and other tillage equipment usually were connected
to the tractor via a drawbar. The classic drawbar is simply a steel bar attached to
the tractor (or in some cases, as in the early Fortson’s, cast as part of the rear
transmission housing) to which the hitch of the implement was attached with a pin
or by a loop and clevis. The implement could be readily attached and removed, al-
lowing the tractor to be used for other purposes on a daily basis. If the tractor was
equipped with a swinging drawbar, then it could be set at the center or offset from
center to allow the tractor to run outside the path of the implement.
The drawbar system necessitated the implement having its own running gear (usu-
ally wheels) and in the case of a plow, chisel cultivator or harrow, some sort of lift
mechanism to raise it out of the ground at turns or for transport. Drawbars neces-
sarily posed a rollover risk depending on how the tractive torque was applied. The
Fordson tractors (of which more units were produced and placed in service than
17
Chapteer Two Farm traactor

any otheer farm traactor) was extremely


e prone to rooll over baackwards ddue to an exx-
cessivelly short wh heelbase. The
T linkagee between the implem ment and thhe tractor uusu-
ally had
d some slacck which could
c lead to
t jerky staarts and greater wearr and tear oon
the tracttor and thee equipmennt.
Drawbaars were ap ppropriate to
t the dawn of mechaanization, because thhey were veery
simple in
i concept and becau use as the trractor repllaced the hhorse, existing horse-
drawn implementss usually already
a hadd running ggear. As the history oof mechaniza-
tion pro
ogressed, however,
h th
he advantag ges of otheer hitching systems bbecame apppar-
ent, lead
ding to new
w developm ments (see below). D Depending on the function for
which a tractor is used, thouugh, the draawbar is still one of tthe usual mmeans of att-
taching an implemment to a trractor

2.6 Farm Tracttor Appllications


The
T most co ommon use of the terrm "tractorr" is for thee vehicles used on faarms.
The farmm tractor is used for pulling or pushing aggricultural machineryy or trailerrs,
for plow
wing, tilling, disking,, harrowing
g, plantingg, and simillar tasks.

Fig
F 2.1
A farm tractor useed to poweer a pump for
f irrigatinng a plot of land
A varietty of specialty farm tractors
t hav
ve been deeveloped foor particulaar uses.
These include
i "ro
ow crop" tractors
t with adjustabble tread w
width to alllow the traactor
to pass down row ws of corn, tomatoess or other crops withhout crushhing the plants,

18
Chapteer Two Farm traactor

"wheat land" or "sstandard" tractors


t wiith fixed w
wheels and a lower ceenter of graavity
for plowwing and other
o heavyy field work for broaadcast cropps, and "high crop" trac-
tors witth adjustable tread annd increaseed ground cclearance, often usedd in the cultiva-
tion of cotton andd other hig gh-growing g row crop plant operations, annd "utility trac-
tors", ty maller tracttors with a low centeer of gravitty and shorrt turning rradi-
ypically sm
us, usedd for generral purposees around the farmsttead. Manyy utility traactors are uused
for nonffarm gradiing, landsccape maintenance andd excavation purposees, particuularly
with loaaders, backkhoes, pallet forks an mall gardeen or lawn trac-
nd similar ddevices. Sm
tors dessigned for suburban anda semiru ural gardenning and laandscape m
maintenancce al-
so exist in a varietty of config
gurations.

Fig 2.2 A tracctor with a chaser binn

Some faarm-type trractors are found elseewhere thaan on farmss: with largge universiities'
gardenin ng departm
ments, in pu ublic parkss, or for highway woorkman usee with blow w-
torch cyylinders strrapped to th
he sides an
nd a pneum matic drill aair compreessor
permanently fastened over th he power take-off.
t Thhese are offten fitted with grass
(turf) ty
yres which are less daamaging to o soft surfaaces than aggriculturall tires

19
Chapteer Two Farm traactor

2.6.1 Row-Crop
R p Tracto
or

Fig 2.3 An Oliveer Row Crrop 60 tracttor

A row-ccrop tracttor is tailorred specifically to thee growing of crops ggrown in roows,


as in tru
uck farming g, and mosst especiallly to cultivaating. Cultivvating can take placee
anytimee from soon n after the crop plantts have sprrouted untill soon befoore they arre
harvesteed. Severall rounds off cultivatin ng may be ddone over the seasonn. A row-crrop
tractor essentially
e brings toggether a farrm tractor aand its culttivator intoo one machhine,
in the saame way motive
m powwer has beeen combineed into othher machineery (for exxam-
ple, horrseless carrriages com mbined the motive
m pow wer into traansport vehhicles; selff-
propelleed guns combined thee artillery tractor
t andd its gun innto one macchine).
The earliest win from
fr introd
ducing tracttors to mecchanize aggriculture wwas in reduuc-
ing the heavy
h effo
orts of plow
wing and harrowing bbefore plannting, whicch could offten
be (almost literally
y) backbreeaking task ks for humaans and draaft animalss. Early traac-
tors werre used maainly to alleeviate this drudgery, but they teended to bee very big and
heavy, so
s were no ot well-suitted to gettin
ng into a fi
field of alreeady-planteed row

crops to
o do weed control.
c Ro
ow-crop traactors—ligght, affordable, and rreliable—
correcteed this flaw
w.

20
Chapter Two Farm tractor

2.6.1.1 Row-Crop Tractor Safety


Many early row-crop tractors had a tricycle design with two closely spaced
front tires, and some even had a single front tire. This made it dangerous to operate
on the side of a steep hill; as a result, many farmers died from tractor rollovers. Al-
so, early row-crop tractors had no rollover protection system (ROPS), meaning if
the tractor flipped back, the operator could be crushed. Sweden was the first coun-
try which passed legislation requiring ROPS, in 1959.
Over 50% of tractor related injuries and deaths are attributed to tractor rollover

2.6.2 Garden Tractors


Garden tractors (mini tractors) are small, light tractors designed for use in
domestic gardens and small estates. Garden tractors are designed for cutting grass,
snow removal, and small property cultivation. In the U.S., the term riding lawn
mower today often is used to refer to mid- or rear-engined machines. Front-
engined tractor layout machines designed primarily for cutting grass and light tow-
ing are called lawn tractors; heavier-duty tractors of similar size are garden trac-
tors. Garden tractors are capable of mounting a wider array of attachments than
lawn tractors. Unlike lawn tractors and rear-engined riding mowers, garden tractors
are powered by horizontal-crankshaft engines with a belt-drive to transaxle-type
transmissions (usually of four- or five-speeds, although some may also have two-
speed reduction gearboxes, drive-shafts, or hydrostatic or hydraulic drives). Gar-
den tractors from Wheel Horse, Cub Cadet, Economy (Power King), John
Deere, Massey Ferguson and Case Ingersoll are built in this manner. The engines
are generally a one- or two-cylinder petrol (gasoline) engines, although diesel en-
gine models are also available, especially in Europe. Typically, diesel-powered
garden tractors are larger and heavier-duty than gasoline-powered units and com-
pare more similarly to compact utility tractors.
Visually, the distinction between a garden tractor and a lawn tractor is often hard to
make - generally, garden tractors are more sturdily built, with stronger frames, 12-
inch or larger wheels mounted with multiple lugs (most lawn tractors have a single
bolt or clip on the hub), heavier transaxles, and ability to accommodate a wide
range of front, belly, and rear mounted attachments.

21
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

Chapter Three

Whole-body vibration (WBV) on agricultural vehicles

22
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

3.1 Introduction
It has been widely recognised for a number of decades, that whole-body vibra-
tion (WBV) is a major source of discomfort for agricultural tractor operators
during typical farm operations (Matthews, 1966; Stayner & Bean, 1975; Bo-
venzi & Betta, 1994; Lines et al., 1995). Engineering solutions to reduce
WBV levels experienced by agricultural vehicle operators are commonplace,
historically in the guise of spring suspension seats, but more recently in the
form of cab and/or axle suspension system.

Whilst these measures have undoubtedly reduced vehicle WBV emission


levels, increased annual utilisation of fewer, larger vehicles in UK agricul-
ture has conspired to increase likely exposure durations for many operators.
The situation is further complicated by the absence of a detailed and reliable
quantitative dose-response relationship between WBV exposure and the de-
velopment of lower-back disorders. Nonetheless, strong evidence exists
linking both WBV exposure to ill health, and increasing levels of exposure to
an increased risk to health.

Minimising WBV exposure is therefore highly desirable, although until re-


cently legislation has not existed to attempt to limit the daily exposure of
workers to WBV in the workplace, thereby protecting against the possibility
of vibration-induced spinal injury. The European Union Physical Agents
(Vibration) Directive (EU PA(V)D, 2002) attempts to address this shortfall
by specifying both practical limits for daily personal vibration exposure, and
(lower) levels above which employers should take steps to reduce exposure.

However, there are widespread concerns within the UK that the Directive
will limit WBV daily exposure levels for operators of agricultural and other
off-road vehicles, thereby potentially requiring alterations in vehicle usage
patterns at a time when the farming industry is under severe economic pres-
sure. It was therefore in the interest of employers, vehicle manufacturers
and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to ensure that the proposed legis-
lation was both adequate (in terms of operator protection) and realistic (in
terms of practical implementation) prior to its introduction in the Member
States (proposed 2007 for new agricultural & forestry vehicles; 2005 for all
other new vehicles).

Consequently, the overall objective of this investigation was to determine


currently- achievable Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) emission and expo-
sure levels associated with representative ‘state-of-the-art’ agricultural vehi-
cles, both whilst traversing standard ISO ride vibration test tracks and whilst
performing typical agricultural operations, the latter in both representative

23
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

controlled field conditions and during normal operation on working farms.


Additionally, the investigation proposed to consider the consequences of
prescribing limits for operator WBV daily exposure, upon agricultural vehi-
cle usage patterns in the UK. The investigation targeted three generic types
of agricultural vehicle (self-propelled sprayers, all- terrain vehicles (ATVs),
and agricultural tractors), the latter whilst operating (‘in-field’ and ‘on-
farm’) with a range of attached agricultural implements. Details regarding
the design, selection and evaluation of these vehicles are given in the follow-
ing Sections.

It is to be expected that agricultural vehicle operators will be exposed to


WBV levels above the (PA(V)D-specified) Exposure Action Value in al-
most all tasks during typical working days. The work presented here indi-
cates the extent to which the Directive may impinge on modern farming op-
erations, by possibly restricting the working day length of certain machines
/ tasks, unless daily vibration exposure levels can be reduced even more
than at present. The latter possibly being achievable by further developments
in machine design (for enhanced operator comfort) and/or by informed
changes in vehicle driving or operating practice / techniques on farms.

3.2 Agricultural Vehicle Review

3.2.1 Agricultural Vehicle Design Features


As previously stated, it is widely recognised that agricultural tractor operators
are exposed to high levels of whole-body vibration (WBV) during typical
farm operations. Low-frequency tractor ride vibration, the resultant problem
of driver discomfort and the possibility of spinal injury, first became recog-
nised issues during the 1960’s. Since that time the majority of agricultural
tractors have incorporated one or more design features that attempt to reduce
the levels of WBV experienced by the operator. This vibration reduction
‘technology’ has subsequently been transferred to other self-propelled agri-
cultural machines as the latter became commonplace during the 1970’s and
1980’s. The following sections review these features found on current, state-
of-the-art tractors and other agricultural vehicles.

24
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

3.2.1.1 Operator Seat Suspension


Suspension seats have been an almost universal feature of agricultural tractors
throughout the last 30 years, being a mandatory requirement upon wheeled
agricultural and forestry tractors in Europe since 1978 (EEC, 1978). Primari-
ly introduced to improve driver comfort, thereby reducing fatigue and im-
proving productivity (e.g. higher vehicle forward speeds on rough ground;
preparedness of operators to work longer daily periods at peak times), sus-
pension seats were rapidly recognised by employers and workers alike as be-
ing a worthwhile investment, especially coupled with the introduction of oth-
er driver comfort-enhancing features, such as low-noise level tractor cabs,
during the mid-1970’s. The effectiveness of some early suspension seat de-
signs may have left something to be desired, but their ability to attenuate the
extreme peak accelerations so common in tractor ride, was indisputable. Ear-
ly suspension seats of the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, which provided sus-
pension solely in the vertical (Z) axis, mainly utilised adjustable rubber-in-
torsion or tension coil spring suspension elements, together with telescopic
hydraulic dampers, giving simple vertical movement. Later designs, some
utilising adjustable mechanical torsion springs, incorporated low-friction
‘scissor’-type suspension linkages, giving true vertical (Z) axis movement and
adjustable ride height. Many modern tractor seats still utilise this basic de-
sign, albeit higher specification models use air springs which are readily ad-
justable to the operator’s weight, in place of the earlier mechanical suspen-
sion elements.

Current off-road vehicle seats are produced almost exclusively by specialist


‘Original Equipment Manufacturers’ (OEMs). The majority of modern seats
commonly fitted to medium – high-powered tractors incorporate (adjustable)
air spring & (adjustable) damper suspension systems in the vertical (Z) axis,
and (fixed) mechanical spring & (fixed) damper systems in the longitudinal
(X) axis, the latter in an attempt to attenuate vehicle pitch acceleration.
Certain manufacturers also offer similar (fixed) mechanical spring
& (fixed) damper suspension systems in the transverse (Y) axis, vehicle lat-
eral ‘roll’ being a major source of WBV as tractors become larger and seat
positions become higher relative to the vehicle roll centre. However, limited
cab internal width and seat proximity to side- mounted controls, restrict
available suspension system movement in this direction, thereby limiting
the scope of this albeit desirable feature. One of the most recent develop-
ments in agricultural tractor seating was introduced by John Deere in 2002.
The John Deere ‘Active Seat’ utilises combined (parallel) electro-hydraulic
and air suspension systems, featuring electronic sensing and electro-
hydraulic control of ride height, plus automatic sensing of seat top (vertical)
acceleration (via an integral accelerometer), effecting dynamic adjustment

25
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

of seat suspension system stiffness in response to the accelerometer output.


In combination,
these features are designed to reduce driver WBV still further, reductions in Z-
axis weighted
r.m.s. acceleration (in comparison with a typical air suspension seat) of
over 65% being claimed by the manufacturers (Dufner & Schick, 2002).

Tractor suspension seat technology has been progressively transferred to oth-


er self-propelled agricultural machines (e.g. sprayers, forage harvesters,
combines), although many of these machines do not experience the same
rough operating conditions / ride vibration levels as agricultural tractors in
the majority of applications. Smaller vehicles (e.g. garden tractors, ride-on
lawn mowers, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs)) typically do not incorporate sus-
pension seats, either due to seat (relative to vehicle) cost or incompatible ve-
hicle design (lack of space for installation).

3.2.1.2 Vehicle cab suspension


The logical method of reducing ride vibration levels upon any vehicle is to
introduce one or more suspension systems between the vehicle vibration
source and the operator. The majority of whole-body vibration present upon
tractors is ground-induced. The basic requirements of a tractor, namely to
pull draught (soil-engaging) implements, to provide a stable mounting
platform for carried implements, and to provide high levels of traction in
adverse, off-road conditions (i.e. incorporate large diameter tyres), together
with the historic ‘unitary’ structural engine-transmission-rear axle construc-
tion method, makes the incorporation of an effective axle suspension sys-
tem a significant (and costly) design challenge. Consequently, many tractor
manufacturers, having embraced the ride vibration reduction benefits of
suspension seats, regarded incorporation of vehicle cab suspension as the
logical (and potentially most economic) next step.

Experimental tractor cab suspension systems were developed by a number of


research institutes / universities during the 1970’s, initially as proof-of-
concept systems (Stayner et al., 1975). Having achieved worthwhile reduc-
tions in operator WBV levels, subsequent systems were developed to facil-
itate simple, economic incorporation into tractor designs of the period
(Lines et al., 1989). Regrettably, at that time (late-1980’s), few tractor
manufacturers considered provision of tractor cab suspension systems, how-
ever effective, to be justified by European market demand. Consequently no
‘global’ tractor manufacturers (e.g. Ford, John Deere, Massey Ferguson, In-
ternational Harvester) offered this feature during the next 10 years, the only

26
Chappter Threee Wholle-Body Vibration
V ((WBV) Onn Agriculttural Vehiicles

exceeption beiing Renauult. Todayy (2003) every


e ‘maiinstream’ tractor manufac-
m
tureer either offers
o som
me form of cab susppension syystem, or is rapidlyy in the
proccess of deeveloping a system to
t meet peerceived market
m dem
mand!

Thee Renault ‘Hydrostaable’ cab suspensioon system m (see Figgure 2.1) was
w the
firstt, mass- produced
p tractor caab suspennsion systtem and is the mostm nu-
merrous in usse, havingg been av vailable onn many traactor models since 1987.
1 A
truee ‘full’ susspension system,
s coombined cooil springg & telescoopic dampper units
(4) support thhe cab upoon each corner (3); cab lateral location n is proviided by
trannsverse Paanhard rodds front anda rear (5),( and tw
win longitudinal strruts (7)
provvide longiitudinal loocation. A rear-mouunted anti--roll bar (6)
( limits cabc (Y-
axiss) roll. Thhe majoritty of otheer Europeean tractorr manufaccturers haave opt-
ed for
f simpleer cab suuspension systems in i which thet rear of
o the cabb is sus-
pennded from m the tracctor rear axle, but the front pivots on anti-vibration
rubbber mountings; lateeral locatiion at the rear beinng provideed by a Panhard
P
rod((s). This approach
a i typifiedd by the Neew Hollannd ‘Comfoort Ride’ cab
is c sus-
pennsion systeem, as fitted to thee New Hoolland Serries TM tractors
t (ssee Fig-
uress 2.2 & 2.3). Som me manuffacturers utilise airr-over-oil suspensiion ele-
mennts in thesse systems, therebyy permittinng control of cab ride heighht with
operators of different mass. However,
H the majority of
manuufacturers choose the simppler combbined meechanical spring-hyydraulic
dampper solutioon, as usedd by New Holland (see Figuree 2.3).

1 Renault ‘Hydrostaable RZ’ cab


Figure 3.1 c suspennsion systeem (courttesy Re-
naullt)

27
Chappter Threee Wholle-Body Vibration
V ((WBV) Onn Agriculttural Vehiicles

3.2.11.3 Vehiccle Axle Suspenssion


As previously
p y discusseed, durinng the 19980’s maany tractoor manufa facturers
viewed tractorr axle susppension as a compllex designn challengee of dubioous eco-
nomiic benefit. Experim mental, prooof- of-cooncept tracctor front axle susppension
systems were developedd by a nu umber of research institutes and univversities
durinng the 1970’s and 1980’s, frequently
f y in conjunnction wiith ‘globaal’ trac-
tor m manufactuurers. Theese experiimental syystems, asa typified d by Peacchey et
al. (11989), meet with connsiderablee success, the Silsooe Researcch Institutte (then
NIAE E) example undergoing extennded pracctical evalluation on n workingg farms.
The m majority of
o system ms provideed suspennsion of thhe tractor front axlle only,
this bbeing a simpler andd cheaper modificattion of the two-whheel-drive tractors
whichh comprissed the maajority of 1970’s saales. Provvision of rear
r axle suspen-
sion was a coonsiderablly more complex
c t
task, givenn variablee weight transfer
onto the rear axle from m mounteed implem ments and the charracteristic unitary
consttruction off tractors of
o that perriod.

Thee Trantor vehicle, developed


d d and marrketed in the 1970’s, provedd that a
fullyy suspend ded (front & rear axle)
a tractoor was feaasible. Hoowever, thhe vehi-
cle suffered from a number of designn and co omponent availabillity re-
stricctions, annd arguablly precedeed markett demand d: it conseequently ffailed to
becoome a com mmercial success. Other fullly suspennded vehiccles, suchh as the
Uniimog, werre marketeed in agriiculture, but
b failed to satisfy all requirrements
placced upon the typiccal agriculturral tractor.
(conntinued)

T tractor ‘Comfortt Ride’ cabb suspensiion sys-


Figuure 3.2 Neew Hollandd Series TM
tem
(ccourtesy CNH)
C

28
Chappter Threee Wholle-Body Vibration
V ((WBV) Onn Agriculttural Vehiicles

Figuure 3.3 Neew Hollannd ‘Comfo


ort Ride’ cab
c suspen
nsion systeem (detail)) (cour-
tesy CNH H)

Figure 3.4 JCB Fastrac


F hassis and suspensioon system (courtesyy JCB)
ch

29
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

3.2.1.3 Vehicle axle suspension (continued)


JCB took up the challenge in the late 1980’s, culminating in the launch of
the ‘Fastrac’; a fully suspended, four-wheel-drive (4wd) vehicle capable of
performing all tractor-type draught operations and travelling legally (and
safely) at up to 65 km/h (40 mph) on the road. Unhindered by previous con-
struction practices, JCB designed a fully suspended vehicle first (arguably
drawing much upon commercial vehicle design principles), and subsequently
made it perform adequately as an agricultural tractor. Departing from the
unitary method of construction, driven axles were attached, via suspen-
sion components, to a ‘ladder’-type chassis (see Figure 2.4). Radius arms,
coil springs, telescopic dampers and a Panhard rod (not shown) provide front
axle location / suspension. A self-levelling hydro-pneumatic suspension sys-
tem supports the rear axle, upper and lower radius arms providing axle loca-
tion. Anti-roll bars (not shown) are fitted to both front and rear axles to pro-
vide lateral roll stability. The rear 3-point linkage system and trailer hitch at-
tach directly to the rear axle. Over a decade on, with an unchanged basic de-
sign and a range comprising six models, JCB can justly claim the Fastrac to
be the most successful fully suspended agricultural tractor produced to date.

Whilst no other major tractor manufacturers have yet launched a fully sus-
pended vehicle in Europe in direct competition with the Fastrac, during
the last 4 years there has been a widespread introduction of ‘optional’ front
axle suspension systems on 4wd tractors of otherwise ‘conventional’ design,
especially above ~70 kW engine power. Indeed, market demand for this
feature is such that front axle suspension and cab suspension systems may
almost be regarded as standard product offering on frontline (high utilisa-
tion) arable farm tractors in Europe today.

‘Conventional’ 4wd tractor front axle suspension systems are typified by


those offered by New Holland and John Deere (see Figures 2.5 & 2.6 respec-
tively). Both utilise self-levelling air-over-oil (hydro-pneumatic) suspension
elements, powered by the tractor hydraulic system and providing both spring-
ing and damping functions. Longitudinal axle location is provided
by a pivoting, tubular radius arm that encases the front axle driveshaft, its
rear end being attached to the centre of the tractor chassis via a spherical bear-
ing. A Panhard rod effects axle lateral location, but the axle is free to oscillate
in a similar manner to an unsuspended design, no anti-roll functionality being
provided. Certain manufacturers (Steyr, Massey Ferguson, McCormick, John
Deere (8020 Series)) utilise independent ‘wishbone’-type front axle suspen-
sion systems, dispensing with the conventional ‘live’ front axle and embody-

30
Chappter Threee Wholle-Body Vibration
V ((WBV) Onn Agriculttural Vehiicles

ing universal-j
u jointed drriveshafts to the froont wheelss. Whilst an
a interestting so-
lutionn to the problem, it is nott known whetherw thhis approach delivers any
beneffits over other ‘live’ front axle suuspension designs. It is deebatable
whethher the recent
r intrroduction of ride-ccomfort en nhancing features, such as
front axle and cab suspension syystems, woould have been quite so widdespread
had iit not beenn for the commerciial compeetition proovided by the JCB Fastrac.
F
In anny case, thhe vehiclee operator can only benefit frrom the grreater avaiilability
of thiis technoloogy

F
Figure 3.5 New Hollland ‘Terrraglide’ frront axle suspension
s n system ((courte-
sy CNNH)

Fiigure 3.6 John


J Deerre ‘Triple Link
L Susppension’ (T TLS) frontt axle susppension
systemm
(couurtesy Johhn Deere)

31
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

3.2.1.4 3-Point Linkage Dynamic Ride Control


This feature is almost exclusive to agricultural tractors, as indeed is the 3-
point (3pt.) implement attachment linkage system of which it is a feature.
Harry Ferguson developed the 3pt. hydraulic linkage, as a means of attach-
ing or ‘mounting’ soil-engaging implements onto tractors, in 1925. Since
then it has become a universal feature of agricultural tractors through-
out the World. During the late-1980’s the implement (draught force and
position) sensing and hydraulic control components of many 3pt. linkage
systems were upgraded by the incorporation of microprocessor-based elec-
tronics (e.g. Bosch EHR-D system). This revolution permitted the subse-
quent development of other 3pt. linkage features, amongst them dynamic
ride control.

The basic principle of dynamic ride control is that during road/track


transport with mounted implements, particularly long, heavy equipment
such as fully-mounted ploughs, a substantial proportion of tractor pitch
(X-axis) acceleration results from the dynamic movement of the imple-
ment in the vertical (Z) axis. These forces are transferred from the im-
plement to the tractor chassis via the 3pt. linkage, which (fortuitously)
incorporates electronic force sensors as part of the draught control sys-
tem. Dynamic ride control systems sense the magnitude of these dynamic
forces and dynamically modulate the hydraulic pressure in the 3pt. linkage
lift cylinder(s), thereby permitting the implement to lower/raise slightly
relative to the tractor at critical moments in the combination’s (relatively
slow) pitching cycle, effectively operating as an active suspension sys-
tem between the tractor and mounted implement. An effective dynamic
ride control system can substantially reduce the ride vibration of a tractor-
implement combination during transport. Unfortunately, current systems
are unable to determine the position of the implement’s centre of gravi-
ty: an important factor in the performance of the system. Consequently,
the majority of systems are optimised for long, heavy mounted im-
plements, for which they are indeed most needed, but they perform less
effectively with shorter/wider implements. However in the latter instanc-
es, vehicle pitching during transport is a lesser problem. 3pt. linkage dy-
namic ride control is a standard feature on the majority of European trac-
tors over 75 kW engine power and was present upon all the tractor
models evaluated during this investigation.

32
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

3.3 Agricultural Vehicle Fleet Composition And Usage Pat-


terns
Agricultural vehicle usage patterns, in general, reflect changes in both the
nature and prosperity of agriculture as a business. To that end the follow-
ing comments are, admittedly, based purely upon an interpretation of
available facts, to enable derivation of the desired information: they also
relate solely to the UK.

Reductions in the value of most arable commodities (e.g. wheat, oilseed


rape) during the last 3 years have significantly reduced UK arable farm
profitability, many enterprises reaching the verge of commercial viability.
Figure 2.7 illustrates that during the 1987 – 2000 period, the number of
UK agricultural holdings diminished significantly across both arable and
livestock sectors: however, those remaining increased in both size (see
Figure 2.8) and productivity. Farm enterprise structure has also changed,
with moves towards operational amalgamation of enterprises, as typified
by corporate / contract farming arrangements in the arable sector, in or-
der to optimise utilisation of larger, more productive machinery and
spread labour costs over larger cropped areas, thereby reducing Fixed
Costs. However, during the period in question, farm labour force re-
ductions have not been restricted to the arable sector; the number of
workers employed in the industry having reduced by 35% (DEFRA, 2001).
10

-10
% Change: 1987 - 2000

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70
Crops Cere- Potatoes Sugar Beet Dairy Cows Beef Breeding Breed- Broilers
& als Sheep ing
Grass Pigs
Oilsee
d
Rape

Figure 3.7 Change in number of UK agricultural holdings: 1987-


2000

33
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

130

120

110

100

90
% Change: 1987 - 2000

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Crops Cere- Potatoes Sugar Beet Dairy Cows Beef Breeding Breed- Broilers
& als Sheep ing
Grass Pigs
Oilsee
d
Rape

Figure 3.8 Change in UK holding average cropped area / herd size: 1987-
2000

These changes have, to an extent, been offset by corresponding


changes in agricultural machinery and associated working practices. Ag-
ricultural tractor sales are recognised by the industry as an accurate indi-
cator of mechanisation trends, particularly in the arable sector. The 1987
– 2001 period witnessed a substantial reduction in tractor unit sales (see
Figure 2.9), but this was largely offset by significant rise in the average
size (engine power) of vehicles sold (see Figure 2.10). Although this
trend may have stabilised in recent years (2000 – 2002), numbers of me-
dium / large (100 – 160 hp) four-wheel-drive tractors sold has continued
to increase (see Figure 2.11), indicating that today’s agricultural indus-
try uses fewer, larger, more productive machines, frequently selected to
enable labour force reductions. Whilst such equipment generally embod-
ies higher technological content and improved levels of operator comfort,
its higher purchase price necessitates greater annual usage in order to off-
set cost of ownership.

34
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

25

20

Tractors sales> 40 hp (thousands)

15

10

0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year of manufacture

Figure 3.9 UK sales of agricultural tractors (above 40 hp)

130

120
Average horsepower of tractors > 40 hp

110

100

90

80

70

60
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year of manufacture

Figure 3.10 Average engine power of tractors (above 40 hp) sold in the
UK

Although independent data is not available to support the view, it is widely


recognised within the agricultural engineering industry that annual, and
particularly daily, usage levels of higher capacity / higher cost machines
has increased significantly, especially given that many customers are
large farming enterprises and/or agricultural contractors.
35
Chaapter Thrree Whoole-Body Vibration
V (WBV) On
O Agriculltural Vehhicles

Todday many y front linee agricultuural tractoors compleete 2000 hours


h workk per
yeaar, whereaas two decades ago usage
u
exceeeding 1,0000 hourss per yearr was connsidered intense. i F exampple a
For
typiccal contraactor woulld now wishw to opperate a seelf-propellled sugar beet
harvvester (andd associatted tractorrs / trailerrs) for at least 70 hours
h per week
w
durinng the Octtober – Feebruary peeriod.
Consequently, more acrres (hectarres) are beeing farmeed by few wer enterprrises,
using fewer men.
m Whillst the prooportion oof farm workw perfoormed by con-
tracttors has unndoubtedly increaseed, the facct remainss that tractor driverrs, be
theyy farmers, farm woorkers or contractor
c r’s employyees, spennd more hoursh
eachh year in thhe driving seat: tracttor annuall utilisation
n is increaasing.
Farmm restructuuring andd greater use
u of conntractors has h led to increasedd use
of seelf-propelled sprayers, althouugh this is i not imm mediatelyy evident from
recennt vehiclee sales staatistics (seee Figure 2.12). No onethelesss, the factt that
machhine saless levels have
h been maintainned, despitte reductiions in arrable
m profitabbility, inddicates thhe importtance of this macchine type in
farm
moddern UK agriculturre. Need to reducee both th he initial purchase and
operrating cossts of maachines haas also lled to a significan nt increasse in
(nonn-recreatioonal) sales of All--Terrain Vehicles
V (ATVs)
( (‘Quad Bikkes’)
(see Figure 2.13),
2 thesse machinnes frequeently suppplementing g or replaacing
expeensive fouur-wheel-ddrive utilityy vehicles on livesto ock farms..

7000
Agricultural tractors currentlly licenced (estimated)

6000

5000
(with respect to hp class)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year of man
nufacture

0
41 - 60 61 - 80 81 - 100 101 - 13
30 131 - 160 161 - 200 201+ (hp)

F
Figure 3.1
11 Enginee power distribution of UK agricultural tractor salles
(aabove 40 hp)
h

36
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

250

200

UK sales of large Self-Propelled Sprayers


150

100

50

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year of manufacture

Figure 3.12 UK sales of self-propelled sprayers

10000

9000

8000
ATV's sold for non-recreational use

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year of manufacture

Figure 3.13 UK sales of ATVs (for non-recreational use)

37
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles
3.4 Target Vehicle Identification
Given the trends in UK agricultural vehicle fleet composition and usage dis-
cussed above, it appeared appropriate for this investigation to target vehicles
which were likely to be subject to high annual usage, the operators of which
therefore receiving longer exposure to whole- body vibration (WBV). Addi-
tionally, it also seemed correct to target vehicles which potentially subject
their operators to high WBV levels and/or are increasing in popularity with-
in UK agriculture. To this end the following vehicles were selected as tar-
gets for this investigation:-

Agricultural Tractors

The primary agricultural power unit and therefore a must for inclusion in the
investigation, four state-of-the-art 4wd tractors were selected from the very
popular 120 – 170 hp (90 – 125 kW) engine power range, these representing
front-line tractors from medium-large UK farms and farm contractors. The
vehicles were selected to encompass the entire range of WBV reduction fea-
tures currently available on the UK tractor market, these being:-
 Unsuspended
 Suspended cab
 Suspended front axle & cab
 Fully suspended (front and rear axle).

Self-propelled sprayers

These machines were selected due to their increasing market popularity and
high utilisation by agricultural contractors. Self-propelled sprayers have his-
torically embodied some form of axle suspension, but system complexity /
capability is increasing due to market demand for greater operator comfort /
productivity. To this end two typical (largely identical) machines were se-
lected, albeit differing in design of suspension system used, one being the
‘new, improved’ replacement of the other.

All terrain vehicles (ATVs or ‘Quad Bikes’)

Selected due to increasing popularity within UK agriculture and typical use at

38
Chapter Three Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) On Agricultural Vehicles

medium-high speeds across rough terrain, which could potentially lead to


high WBV emission levels. However, daily usage periods are likely to be rel-
atively short and so operator WBV exposure may be acceptable. Very little
data is currently available to confirm this. Four competitive machines in the
popular (within UK agriculture) 300 – 400cc engine size range were selected
for investigation.

39
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

Chapter Four

Measurement Equipment

40
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

4.1 Introduction:
In the physical, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the ac-
tivity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-
world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units,
and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and
the referenced unit of measurement.
Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use,
are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring in-
struments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement.
Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform
their measurements. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rul-
ers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators.
Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring
instruments.

4.2 Measurement Equipment:


1. Brüel & Kjær Pulse Type-B Compact Data Acquisition Unit.
2. Accelerometer.
3. B&K PULSE labshop is the measurement software type 7700.

41
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

4.2.1 Brüel & Kjær Pulse Type-B Compact Data Acquisition Unit:

PULSE is a versatile, task-oriented sound and vibration analysis system. It


provides the platform for a range of PC-based measurement solutions from Brüel
& Kjær. A PULSE system consists of a PC with LAN interface, PULSE software,
Microsoft Windows operating system, Microsoft Office, and data acquisition front-
end hardware. Up to 10 front-ends can be combined into one measurement system
with more than 200 input channels ragged.

4.2.1.1 USES:
Signal and system analysis using all PULSE application packages for, or ex-
ample:
1. Time data acquisition.
2. General noise and vibration measurements.
3. Basic and advance acoustics.
4. Structural Analysis.
5. Machine Diagnostics Electroacoustic testing.

4.2.1.2 CONSTRUCTION:

A PULSE system consists of a PC with LAN interface, PULSE software,


Windows® 2000 or XP, Microsoft® Office and IDAe -based data acquisition
front-end hardware. A system can contain 5 input channels.
The input/output conditioning modules perform signal conditioning and digitize
the transducer signals Pulse Type-B Compact Data Acquisition Unit are shown in
(Fig. 4.1.)
Further information on the controller and input/output modules is given in (Table
4.1).

42
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

Fig
g. 4.1

Tab
ble 4.1

4.2.1.3 FEATUR
RES:

1. C
Compact, robust
r casiing for inddustrial annd hard eveeryday use.
2. B
Battery opeerated (5 hours
h conttinuous) orr DC pow
wered (10 ~ 32 V).
3. Siilent operaation to 355°C.
4. C
Cooling fanns can be turned
t offf for silentt operation
n.
5. Syynchronouus samplinng with otther PULS
SE front-ennds.

43
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

R SUPPLY
4.2.1.4 POWER Y:

Type 3560 B can eithher be pow wered by two


t internnal Nickel--Metal Hyydride
batteriess or from a 10 ~ 32 V DC pow wer supplyy. A 100 ~ 240 V AC A mains supply
s
unit is inncluded. The
T unit caan be swittched on and
a off froom the fronnt panel orr, when
using more
m than one
o front-eend in onee system, tthe on/off function can
c be conntrolled
by anothher front-eend using the Multifform Conttrol signall. A third possibility
p y is to
follow ana external DC pow wer supply,, so that it switches on when the
t supplyy is con-
nected.

4.2.1.4 SILENT OPERAT


TION, COOLING
O :

Type 3560 B is silentt, operatinng withoutt fans at am


mbient tem
mperaturees up to
35°C (95°F). Aboove this tem
mperaturee the fans start
s b can be switched off
up, but
from thee PULSE software.
s

4.2.1.5 ACCURA
ACY, SAF ND EFFIC
FETY AN CIENCY:

W
With no inp put range to t set, youu no longeer have to worry aboout overlooads,
under raange measurements or discusssions abouut the validdation andd verificattion of
measureement resuults. And withw no neeed for triaal runs to ensure thaat the inpuut range
is correcct, you havve a far grreater certaainty of geetting meaasurementts right firrst time.

4.2.1.6 DYN-X TECHNO


T OLOGY:

D
Dyn-X is ann innovatiive range of o state-off-the-art in
nput moduules with a single
input rannge from 0 to 10 Vpp and a usseful analyysis range exceeding g 160 dB. To
date, higgh-quality
y transduceers and preeamplifierrs have ouutperformeed measurring
equipmeent with reegard to liinearity annd dynamiic perform mance, beinng able to deliver
a noise- and distortion free signal oveer a dynam mic signall range of 120 to 1300 dB
broadbaand and 1660 dB narrrow-bandss (Fig 4.2).

Figg. 4.2

44
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

4.2.2 Accelerometer:

Accelerometer (Fig. 4.3) is a sensor, or transducer, which is designed to


generate an electrical signal in response to acceleration (or deceleration) that is ap-
plied along (parallel with) its sensitive axis.
The applied or experienced acceleration can fall into one or more of the following
categories:

4.2.2.1 Constant Acceleration:

Acceleration that does not change during an event including the acceleration
due to earth's gravity or the centrifugal acceleration of a merry-go-round at con-
stant rotational speed (Fig. 4.4).

4.2.2.2 Transient Acceleration:

Acceleration that varies over the duration of the event, but is not repetitive.
Examples include the deceleration that an automobile undergoes during braking or
the acceleration effects experienced by a roller coaster as it negotiates its track.
Transient acceleration is the result of discontinuous motion (Fig. 4.5).

4.2.2.3 Periodic Acceleration:

Acceleration that continuously varies over the duration of the event, and is
quite repetitive. Examples include the vibration of rotating machinery such as mo-
tors and bearings or the acceleration experienced by a free-swinging pendulum. Pe-
riodic acceleration is the result of continuous motion (Fig. 4.6).

45
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.44

Fig. 4.6
4 Fig. 4.5
4

46
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

4.2.3 B
B&K PUL
LSE lab
bshop:

C
Complete sound annd vibratio on testingg platform
m (Fig 4.7 7) PULSE E™. The
PULSE hardwaree/software family iss your soliid foundaation upon n which too build a
system tto suit your presentt needs, and
a that caan be exteended as your y requiirements
change.
PULSE Access coomprises a series off basic anaalyzers thaat are the core of anny meas-
urementt system. These baasic analyzzer solutioons contain all you u need forr simple
a vibratiion tests, operatingg supremely as stannd-alone application
sound and a ns. They
can alsoo easily be expandedd to fit largger, industtry-specifi
fic solution
ns.

4.2.3.1 Uses an
nd Features:
1. Sppectral annalysis on up
u to six channels
c
2. Iddeal as a laaboratory or portablle field system.
3. The foundaation for a multichannnel system
4. U
Ultra-comppact system m requirin
ng only onne LAN-XI hardwarre module..
5. Siimultaneo ous multi-aanalysis using
u overrall level analysis,
a multiple
m F
FFTs and
syynthesizedd CPB anaalysis.
6. Suupports IEEEE 1451.4-capablee transducers with TEDS. T

Fig 4.7

47
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

4.2.3.2 Signal data analysis:


There are numerous signal processing techniques in the literature for fault
diagnostics of mechanical systems. Case-dependent knowledge and investigation
are required to select appropriate signal processing tools among a number of possi-
bilities. The most common waveform data in condition monitoring are vibration
signals and acoustic emissions. Other waveform data are ultrasonic signals, motor
current, partial discharge, etc. In the literature, there are two main categories of sta-
tionary waveform data analysis; time-domain analysis and frequency-domain anal-
ysis.

4.2.3.2.1 Time-domain analysis:


Time-domain analysis is directly based on the time waveform itself. Tradi-
tional time-domain analysis calculates characteristic features from time waveform
signals as descriptive statistics such as mean, peak, peak-to-peak interval, standard
deviation, crest factor and high order statistics (root mean square, skewness, kurto-
sis, etc.). These features are usually called time-domain features. A popular time-
domain analysis approach is Time Synchronous Average (TSA). The idea of TSA
is to use the ensemble average of the raw signal over a number of evolutions in an
attempt to remove or reduce noise and effects from other sources to enhance the
signal components of interest. More advanced approaches of time-domain analysis
apply time series models to waveform data. The main idea of time series modeling
is to fit the waveform data to a parametric time model and extract features based on
this parametric model. The popular models used in the literature are the Auto Re-
gressive (AR) model and the Auto Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) model.

4.2.3.2.2 Frequency-domain analysis:


Frequency-domain analysis is based on the transformed signal in frequency
domain. The advantage of frequency–domain analysis over time-domain analysis
is its ability to easily identify and isolate certain frequency components of interest.
The most widely used conventional analysis is the spectrum analysis by mean of
fast Fourier transform (FFT). The main idea of spectrum analysis is to either look
at the whole spectrum or look closely at certain frequency components of interest
and thus extract features from the signal.

48
Chapter Four Measurement Equipment

4.3 Tractor Specifications:

Production
Manufacturer Massey Ferguson
Original price (USD) $20,500 (1974)
Model 285

Engine details
Type Diesel, 4 cylinders, liquid cooled,
2.4 L
Bore/Stroke 3.375x4.062 inches [86 x 103 mm]
Compression 7.4:1
Rated RPM 2250
Starter volts 12

Capacity
Fuel 23 gal [87.1 L]

3-Point Hitch
Rear Type II
Rear lift 4400 lbs [1995 kg]

Power take-off (PTO)


Rear PTO independent
Rear RPM 540

Dimensions & Tires


Weight (operating) 7650 lbs [3470 kg]
Weight (ballasted) 11760 lbs [5334 kg]
Wheelbase 88.75 inches [225 cm]
Width 79 inches [200 cm]
Ground clearance 16 inches [40 cm]
Ag front 9.5L-15
Ag rear 18.4-34

Battery
Number 1
Volts 12

49
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

Power
Drawwbar 669.46 hp [51.8
[ kW]
PTO (tested)
( 8
81.96 hp [61.1
[ kW]

Mechanica
M al
Chaassis 4x4 4WD
4
D
Differentiaal rear locck standard
Steeering Hydro froont wheel
Braakes Wet disk
Cab
C Two-post RO OPS standaard.
Cabin and open operator station
s
availlable.

Hydraulic
H s
Capacity 6.6 gal [25.0
[ L]
Valves 1 too3
Presssure 2
2300 psi [158.6 bar]]

Fig 4.8 Massey


M Feerguson 2885 Tractorr

50
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

4.4 Preeparation beforee the exp


perimenttal test:

4.4.1 T
Tractor steering
s System:
The main problem
p w hard stteering of the drivin
was ng wheel.
After chhecking the steering system (F
Fig. 4.9) w
we found:
1. No leeakage in the feed pipes.
p
2. Leakkage with very
v small rate in thhe piston oil
o seal.
3. The pump
p is w
working.

T
The conclu usion:
There was no n steerinng fluid in the steerinng system
m.
A
After refilliing the steeering fluid the probblem was solved.
s

Fig. 4.9
4

51
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

4.4.2 D
Driver Seeat:
The Probleem was thhat the drriver seat is not reeady to in nstall the required
equipmeent (Fig 4..10).
To solvee this probblem we needed
n to:
1--Deattach the driverr seat from m the tracttor.
2--Attach a T shaped steel bar fixed
f withh 3 steel sccrews (Figg. 4.11).
thhe T shapeed steel baar dimensions (Fig. 4.12).
4
3--Reattach the seat with
w the T shaped baar with thee tractor.
4
4-Install thhe 2 acceleerometers on the T piece
p (Figg. 4.13).

Fig 4.10

52
Chapteer Four M
Measurem
ment Equ
uipment

Fig 4.12
4 Fig 4.111

Fiig 4.13

53
Chapter Five Experimental Results

Chapter Five

Experimental Results

54
Chapteer Five Experrimental Results

This chaapter showws vibratioon measurrements onn the seat of o the tracctor on speeeds
8,10,12 km/hr on low gear. The Expeerimental tractor doesn’t havee speedom meter,
Thereforre the reduuction ratiios were used
u to callculate thee tractor sp
peed. To ffind a
relationsship betweeen the enngine speed and the tractor speed, the foollowing ttest was
performmed in ordeer to calcuulate the to
otal reducttion ratio of
o the tracctor:
5.1 Callibration
n Of Traactor Speeed
To Calibbrate the tractor
t speeed we meeasured thee rpm of thhe wheel nw
n and thhe rpm
of the enngine ne were
w meassured.

Fig. 5.1 measurrement of wheel


w rpm nw
n

The resuults are shown in thee followin


ng table.
1 ggear shift 
low  high
ne  nw  ne  nw 
1000  9.7 1000 40.6
4
1500  14.7 1500 60
2000  19.6 2000 81
2 ggear shift
low  high 
ne  nw  ne  nw 
1000  14.3 1000 58.5
5
1500  21.6 1500 88
2000  28.6 2000 11
16.5

55
Chapter Five Experimental Results

3 gear shift  
low  high
ne  nw  ne  nw 
1000  26.11 1000 109.29
1500  39 1500 160.43
2000  52.42 2000 216
4 gear shift 
low  high 
ne  nw  ne  nw 
1000  31.8 1000 131.3
1500  48.4 1500 197.5
2000  63.7 2000 260.5

Table 5.1

From the above measurements the total reduction ratios can be calculated as fol-
lows:

5.2-Total Reduction Ratio For Each Gear

I1L=102.3

I1H=24.7

I2L=69.7

I2H=17.1

I3L=38.3

I3H=9.25

I4L=31.27

I4H=7.63

56
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.3-Calculating The Engine Speed For (8/10/12 Km/H) Tractor


Speed
For each speed, the angular speed of the tractor wheel can be calculated from the
equation:

Where: 14.9 .85 . 0254 .677 and =8/10/12Km/h


for 8 km/hr
8
3.282
3.6 .677
for10 km/hr
10
4.103
3.6 .677
for 12 km/hr
12
4.924
3.6 .677
From the angular speeds the wheel rpm can be calculated
2
60
60

2
for 8 km/hr
3.282 60
31.33
2
for 10 km/hr
4.103 60
39.16
2
for 12 km/hr
4.924 60
47
2
Using the above calculations, the corresponding engine speeds and gear can be de-
termined to get the required tractor speed. The following table shows the required
engine speed to determine the required tractor speed on the 3rd low shift.

(m/s) (Km/hr)

1200 38.3 31.33 0.677 3.28 2.22 8

1500 38.3 39.16 0.677 4.1 2.78 10

1800 38.3 47 0.677 4.92 3.33 12


Table 5.2
57
Chapteer Five Experrimental Results

After Caalibration of tractor speed. Thhe vibratioon on the seat


s were measured
m at
speeds oof 8,10,12 km/hr and each tesst have beeen repeateed twice beecause wee have
only twoo sensors on
o each teest in two directionss (lateral and
a longituudinal)

Fig. 5.2“T-Piecce” and whhere the seensors werre attachedd in Test xa


x

Fig. 5.3“T-Piecce” and whhere the seensors werre attachedd in Test xb


x

58
Chapteer Five Experrimental Results

The following datta shows the


t “T-Pieece” and thhe locationns of the sensors
s onn the T-
piece for each testt.
The resuults of meaasurementts of verticcal and latteral accellerations on
o frequenncy and
time dommain are illustrated in Fig 5.55. Throughh Fig5.52.
5.4-Meethodology
Experimments on the
t measuurement off vibrationn level wh
here condducted on a con-
crete roaad surface shown inn Figure 5.4.
5

Fig. 5.4

5.5-Tesst 1a
D 1
DX
Gear : 3rd – Low
Speed : 1200
Sensors

5.5.1-D
DX1
Frequenncy
[dB/1.00 m/s²] A
Autospectrum( (DX1) - FFT Input
orking : Input : Input : FFT An
Wo nalyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 4
400 5
500 60
00 700 800
[
[Hz]

Fig. 5.5
59
Chapter Five Experimental Results

20
10
0

10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10
‐20
‐30
‐40
‐50
‐60

Fig. 5.6

Time
[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]
 
Fig. 5.7

20
15
10
5
0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐5
‐10
‐15

Total RMS=5.61m/s2
Fig. 5.8

60
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.5.2-DX2
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.9

20.00

10.00

0.00
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10.00

‐20.00

‐30.00

‐40.00

‐50.00

Fig. 5.10

Time
 
[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.11
61
Chapter Five Experimental Results

15

10

0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐5

‐10

‐15

‐20

Total RMS=6.22m/s2
Fig. 5.12

5.6Test 1b DX
rd
Gear : 3 – Low 1
Speed : 1200
Sensors

DX
2

5.6.1-DX1
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX1) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

-20

-40

-60

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800


[Hz]

Fig. 5.13

62
Chapter Five Experimental Results

10

0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

Fig. 5.14
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

-4

-8

0 200m 400m 600m 800m


[s]

Fig. 5.15

0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐2

‐4

‐6

Total RMS=2.93m/s2
Fig. 5.16
63
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.6.2-DX2

Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

-20

-40

-60

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800


[Hz]

Fig. 5.17

10

0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

Time Fig. 5.18


[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.19
64
Chapter Five Experimental Results

15

10

0
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐5

‐10

‐15

‐20

Total RMS=4.75m/s2
Fig. 5.20

5.7-Test 2a DX 1
Gear : 3rd – Low
Speed : 1500
Sensors

5.7.1-DX1
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX1) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.21

65
Chapter Five Experimental Results

10

10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

‐60

Fig. 5.22
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.23

20
15
10
5
0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐5
‐10
‐15
‐20
‐25

Total RMS=6.90m/s2
Fig. 5.24

66
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.7.2-DX2
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.25

0
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

Fig. 5.26
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.27
67
Chapter Five Experimental Results

15

10

0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐5

‐10

‐15

Total RMS=5.02m/s2
Fig. 5.28

DX
5.8-Test 2b 1
Gear : 3rd – Low
Speed : 1500
Sensors

DX
2

5.8.1-DX1
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX1) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.29

68
Chapter Five Experimental Results

10

0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

‐60

Time Fig. 5.30


[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.31
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐5.00

‐10.00

‐15.00

Fig. 5.32
Total RMS=4.31m/s2

69
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.8.2-DX2
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.33
10

0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

Fig. 5.34
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

10

-10

-20
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.35

70
Chapter Five Experimental Results

15

10

0
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐5

‐10

‐15

Total RMS=4.58m/s2
Fig. 5.36

5.9-Test 3a DX 1
rd
Gear : 3 – Low
Speed : 1800
Sensors

5.9.1-DX1
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX1) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

20

-20

-40

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800


[Hz]

Fig. 5.37

71
Chapter Five Experimental Results

30
20
10
0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
‐10
‐20
‐30
‐40
‐50

Fig. 5.38
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
40

20

-20

-40
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.39

30

20

10

0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

Total RMS=14m/s2 Fig. 5.40

72
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.9.2-DX2
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.41

30

20

10

0
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

‐50

Fig. 5.42
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
40

20

-20

-40
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.43

73
Chapter Five Experimental Results

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐5
‐10
‐15
‐20
‐25

Total RMS=9.06m/s2 Fig. 5.44

DX
5.10-Test 3b 1
Gear : 3rd – Low
Speed : 1800
Sensors

DX
2

5.10.1-DX1
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX1) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.45
 

74
Chapter Five Experimental Results

30
20
10
0

10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10
‐20
‐30
‐40
‐50

Fig. 5.46
Time
[m/s²] Time(DX1) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
40

20

-20

-40
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.47

20
15
10
5
0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
1
7

103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199

‐5
‐10
‐15
‐20
‐25

Total RMS=9.84m/s2
Fig. 5.48

75
Chapter Five Experimental Results

5.10.2-DX2
Frequency
[dB/1.00 m/s²] Autospectrum(DX2) - FFT Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
20

-20

-40

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
[Hz]

Fig. 5.49

20
10
0
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7

100
‐10
‐20
‐30
‐40
‐50

Fig. 5.50

Time
[m/s²] Time(DX2) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
40

20

-20

-40
0 200m 400m 600m 800m
[s]

Fig. 5.51

76
Chapter Five Experimental Results

30

20

10

0
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
163
169
175
181
187
193
199
‐10

‐20

‐30

‐40

Total RMS=10.3m/s2 Fig. 5.52


5.11- Discussions
The purpose of measuring the vibration of existing seat was to determine the
predominant frequencies that correspond to excessive vibration. The above results
of tractor speeds of 8,10,12 km/hr on low gear for each test In two directions show
the difference between vibration frequency of the tractor transmitted to the tractor
seat. All these differences depend on:
1- Tractor speed: due to the road irregularities
2- Engine speed: as it differs from the three tests.

77
References

1-Whole-body vibration on agricultural vehicles: evaluation of emission and esti-


mated exposure levels HSE BOOKS

2-Journal homepage: www.IJEE.IEEFoundation.org Volume 2, Issue 2, 2011


pp.357-366 by Sameh M. Metwalley, Nabil Hammad, Shawki A. Abouel-Seoud

3-IDAe Hardware Configurations for PULSE X ó Types 3560 B, 3560 C, 3560 D


and 3560 E by http://www.specman.pt/PULSE%20HW.pdf

4- http://www.tractordata.com/farm-tractors/000/7/7/775-massey-ferguson-
285.html

78

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