• IP has two versions: IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4 packets prevail on the Internet, and the

Internet is undergoing the transition to IPv6. Unless otherwise specified, IP addresses
mentioned in this presentation refer to IPv4 addresses.

▫ IPv4 is the core protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite. It works at the network
layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack and this layer corresponds to the network layer
in the Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI RM).

▫ IPv6, also called IP Next Generation (IPng), is the second-generation standard

protocol of network layer protocols. Designed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), IPv6 is an upgraded version of IPv4.
• Application data can be transmitted to the destination end over the network only after
being processed at each layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Each layer uses protocol
data units (PDUs) to exchange information with another layer. PDUs at different layers
contain different information. Therefore, PDUs at each layer have a particular name.

▫ For example, after a TCP header is added to the upper-layer data in a PDU at the
transport layer, the PDU is called a segment. The data segment is transmitted to
the network layer. After an IP header is added to the PDU at the network layer,
the PDU is called a packet. The data packet is transmitted to the data link layer.
After the data link layer header and tailer are encapsulated into the PDU, the
PDU becomes a frame. Ultimately, the frame is converted into bits and
transmitted through network media.

▫ The process in which data is delivered following the protocol suite from top to
bottom and is added with headers and tails is called encapsulation.

• This presentation describes how to encapsulate data at the network layer. If data is
encapsulated with IP, the packets are called IP packets.
• The IP packet header contains the following information:

▫ Version: 4 bits long. Value 4 indicates IPv4. Value 6 indicates IPv6.

▫ Header Length: 4 bits long, indicating the size of a header. If the Option field is
not carried, the length is 20 bytes. The maximum length is 60 bytes.

▫ Type of Service: 8 bits long, indicating a service type. This field takes effect only
when the QoS differentiated service (DiffServ) is required.

▫ Total Length: 16 bits long. It indicates the total length of an IP data packet.

▫ Identification: 16 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly.

▫ Flags: 3 bits long.

▫ Fragment Offset: 12 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly.

▫ Time to Live: 8 bits long.

• Identification: 16 bits long. This field carries a value assigned by a sender host and is
used for fragment reassembly.

• Flags: 3 bits long.

▫ Reserved Fragment: 0 (reserved).

▫ Don't Fragment: Value 1 indicates that fragmentation is not allowed, and value 0
indicates that fragmentation is allowed.

▫ More Fragment: Value 1 indicates that there are more segments following the
segment, and value 0 indicates that the segment is the last data segment.

• Fragment Offset: 12 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly. This field
indicates the relative position of a fragment in an original packet that is fragmented.
This field is used together with the More Fragment bit to help the receiver assemble
the fragments.
• Time to Live: 8 bits long. It specifies the maximum number of routers that a packet can
pass through on a network.

▫ When packets are forwarded between network segments, loops may occur if
routes are not properly planned on network devices. As a result, packets are
infinitely looped on the network and cannot reach the destination. If a loop
occurs, all packets destined for this destination are forwarded cyclically. As the
number of such packets increases, network congestion occurs.

▫ To prevent network congestion induced by loops, a TTL field is added to the IP

packet header. The TTL value decreases by 1 each time a packet passes through a
Layer 3 device. The initial TTL value is set on the source device. After the TTL
value of a packet decreases to 0, the packet is discarded. In addition, the device
that discards the packet sends an ICMP error message to the source based on the
source IP address in the packet header. (Note: A network device can be disabled
from sending ICMP error messages to the source ends.)
• After receiving and processing the packet at the network layer, the destination end
needs to determine which protocol is used to further process the packet. The Protocol
field in the IP packet header identifies the number of a protocol that will continue to
process the packet.

• The field may identify a network layer protocol (for example, ICMP of value 0x01) or
an upper-layer protocol (for example, Transmission Control Protocol [TCP] of value
0x06 or the User Datagram Protocol [UDP] of value 0x11).
• On an IP network, if a user wants to connect a computer to the Internet, the user
needs to apply for an IP address for the computer. An IP address identifies a node on a
network and is used to find the destination for data. We use IP addresses to implement
global network communication.

• An IP address is an attribute of a network device interface, not an attribute of the

network device itself. To assign an IP address to a device is to assign an IP address to
an interface on the device. If a device has multiple interfaces, each interface needs at
least one IP address.

• Note: The interface that needs to use an IP address is usually the interface of a router
or computer.
• IP address notation

▫ An IP address is 32 bits long and consists of 4 bytes. It is in dotted decimal

notation, which is convenient for reading and writing.

• Dotted decimal notation

▫ The IP address format helps us better use and configure a network. However, a
communication device uses the binary mode to operate an IP address. Therefore,
it is necessary to be familiar with the decimal and binary conversion.

• IPv4 address range

▫ 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000–
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111, that is, 0.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
• An IPv4 address is divided into two parts:

▫ Network part (network ID): identifies a network.

▪ IP addresses do not show any geographical information. The network ID

represents the network to which a host belongs.

▪ Network devices with the same network ID are located on the same
network, regardless of their physical locations.

▫ Host part: identifies a host and is used to differentiate hosts on a network.

• A network mask is also called a subnet mask:

▫ A network mask is 32 bits long, which is also represented in dotted decimal

notation, like bits in an IP address.

▫ The network mask is not an IP address. The network mask consists of consecutive
1s followed by consecutive 0s in binary notation.

▫ Generally, the number of 1s indicates the length of a network mask. For example,
the length of mask 0.0.0.0 is 0, and the length of mask 252.0.0.0 is 6.

▫ The network mask is generally used together with the IP address. Bits of 1
correspond to network bits in the IP address. Bits of 0 corresponds to host bits in
the IP address. In other words, in an IP address, the number of 1s in a network
mask is the number of bits of the network ID, and the number of 0s is the
number of bits in the host ID.
• A network ID indicates the network where a host is located, which is similar to the
function of "Community A in district B of City X in province Y."

• A host ID identifies a specific host interface within a network segment defined by the
network ID. The function of host ID is like a host location "No. A Street B".

• Network addressing:

▫ Layer 2 network addressing: A host interface can be found based on an IP

address.

▫ Layer 3 network addressing: A gateway is used to forward data packets between

network segments.

• Gateway:

▫ During packet forwarding, a device determines a forwarding path and an

interface connected to a destination network segment. If the destination host and
source host are on different network segments, packets are forwarded to the
gateway and then the gateway forwards the packets to the destination network
segment.

▫ A gateway receives and processes packets sent by hosts on a local network

segment and forwards the packets to the destination network segment. To
implement this function, the gateway must know the route of the destination
network segment. The IP address of the interface on the gateway connected to
the local network segment is the gateway address of the network segment.
• To facilitate IP address management and networking, IP addresses are classified into
the following classes:
▫ The easiest way to determine the class of an IP address is to check the most
significant bits in a network ID. Classes A, B, C, D, and E are identified by binary
digits 0, 10, 110, 1110, and 1111, respectively.
▫ Class A, B, and C addresses are unicast IP addresses (except some special
addresses). Only these addresses can be assigned to host interfaces.
▫ Class D addresses are multicast IP addresses.
▫ Class E addresses are used for special experiment purposes.
▫ This presentation only focuses on class A, B, and C addresses.
• Comparison of class A, B, and C addresses:
▫ A network using class A addresses is called a class A network. A network using
class B addresses is called a class B network. A network that uses class C
addresses is called a class C network.
▫ The network ID of a class A network is 8 bits, indicating that the number of
network IDs is small and a large number of host interfaces are supported. The
leftmost bit is fixed at 0, and the address space is 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255.
▫ The network ID of class B network is 16 bits, which is between class A and class C
networks. The leftmost two bits are fixed at 10, and the address space is
128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255.
▫ The network ID of a class C network is 24 bits, indicating that a large number of
network IDs are supported, and the number of host interfaces is small. The
leftmost three bits are fixed at 110, and the address space is 192.0.0.0–
223.255.255.255.
• Network address

▫ The network ID is X, and each bit in the host ID is 0.

▫ It cannot be assigned to a host interface.

• Broadcast address

▫ The network ID is X, and each bit in the host ID is 1.

▫ It cannot be assigned to a host interface.

• Available address

▫ It is also called a host address. It can be assigned to a host interface.

• The number of available IP addresses on a network segment is calculated using the

following method:

▫ Given that the host part of a network segment is n bits, the number of IP
addresses is 2n, and the number of available IP addresses is 2n – 2 (one network
address and one broadcast address).
• Network address: After the host part of this address is set to all 0s, the obtained result
is the network address of the network segment where the IP address is located.

• Broadcast address: After the host part of this address is set to all 1s, the obtained
result is the broadcast address used on the network where the IP address is located.

• Number of IP addresses: 2n, where n indicates the number of host bits.

• Number of available IP addresses: 2n – 2, where n indicates the number of host bits.

• Answers to the quiz:

▫ Network address: 10.0.0.0/8

▫ Broadcast address: 10.255.255.255

▫ Number of addresses: 224

▫ Number of available addresses: 224 – 2

▫ Range of available addresses: 10.0.0.1/8–10.255.255.254/8

• Private IP addresses are used to relieve the problem of IP address shortage. Private
addresses are used on internal networks and hosts, and cannot be used on the public
network.

▫ Public IP address: A network device connected to the Internet must have a public
IP address allocated by the IANA.

▫ Private IP address: The use of a private IP address allows a network to be

expanded more freely, because a same private IP address can be repeatedly used
on different private networks.

• Connecting a private network to the Internet: A private network is not allowed to

connect to the Internet because it uses a private IP address. Driven by requirements,
many private networks also need to connect to the Internet to implement
communication between private networks and the Internet, and between private
networks through the Internet. The interconnection between the private network and
Internet must be implemented using the NAT technology.

• Note: Network Address Translation (NAT) is used to translate addresses between

private and public IP address realms.
• 255.255.255.255
▫ This address is called a limited broadcast address and can be used as the
destination IP address of an IP packet.
▫ After receiving an IP packet whose destination IP address is a limited broadcast
address, the router stops forwarding the IP packet.
• 0.0.0.0
▫ If this address is used as a network address, it means the network address of any
network. If this address is used as the IP address of a host interface, it is the IP
address of a source host interface on "this" network.
▫ For example, if a host interface does not obtain its IP address during startup, the
host interface can send a DHCP Request message with the destination IP address
set to a limited broadcast address and the source IP address set to 0.0.0.0 to the
network. The DHCP server is expected to allocate an available IP address to the
host interface after receiving the DHCP Request message.
• 127.0.0.0/8
▫ This address is called a Loopback address and can be used as the destination IP
address of an IP packet. It is used to test the software system of a test device.
▫ The IP packets that are generated by a device and whose destination IP address is
set to a Loopback address cannot leave the device itself.
• 169.254.0.0/16
▫ If a network device is configured to automatically obtain an IP address but no
DHCP server is available on the network, the device uses an IP address in the
169.254.0.0/16 network segment for temporary communication.
• Note: The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to dynamically allocate
network configuration parameters, such as IP addresses.
• Classful addressing is too rigid and the granularity of address division is too large. As a
result, a large number of host IDs cannot be fully used, wasting IP addresses.

• Therefore, subnetting can be used to reduce address waste through the variable length
subnet mask (VLSM) technology. A large classful network is divided into several small
subnets, which makes the use of IP addresses more scientific.
• Assume that a class C network segment is 192.168.10.0. By default, the network mask
is 24 bits, including 24 network bits and 8 host bits.

• As calculated, there are 256 IP addresses on the network.

• Now, for the original 24-bit network part, a host bit is taken to increase the network
part to 25 bits. The host part is reduced to 7 bits. The taken 1 bit is a subnet bit. In this
case, the network mask becomes 25 bits, that is, 255.255.255.128, or /25.

• Subnet bit: The value can be 0 or 1. Two new subnets are obtained.

• As calculated, there are 128 IP addresses on the network.

• Calculate a network address, with all host bits set to 0s.

▫ If the subnet bit is 0, the network address is 192.168.10.0/25.

▫ If the subnet bit is 1, the network address is 192.168.10.128/25.

• Calculate a broadcast address, with all host bits set to 1s.

▫ If the subnet bit is 0, the network address is 192.168.10.127/25.

▫ If the subnet bit is 1, the network address is 192.168.10.255/25.

• In actual network planning, the subnet with more hosts is planned first.
• Subnet network addresses are:

▫ 192.168.1.0/28

▫ 192.168.1.16/28

▫ 192.168.1.32/28

▫ 192.168.1.48/28

▫ 192.168.1.64/28

▫ 192.168.1.80/28

▫ 192.168.1.96/28

▫ 192.168.1.112/28

▫ 192.168.1.128/28

▫ 192.168.1.144/28

▫ 192.168.1.160/28

▫ 192.168.1.176/28

▫ 192.168.1.192/28

▫ 192.168.1.208/28

▫ 192.168.1.224/28

▫ 192.168.1.240/28
• To improve the efficiency of IP data packet forwarding and success rate of packet
exchanges, ICMP is used at the network layer. ICMP allows hosts and devices to
report errors during packet transmission.
• ICMP message:
▫ ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP packets. Value 1 in the Protocol field of
the IP packet header indicates ICMP.
▫ Explanation of fields:
▪ The format of an ICMP message depends on the Type and Code fields.
The Type field indicates a message type, and the Code field contains a
parameter mapped to the message type.
▪ The Checksum field is used to check whether a message is complete.
▪ A message contains a 32-bit variable field. This field is not used and is
usually set to 0.
− In an ICMP Redirect message, this field indicates the IP address of
a gateway. A host redirects packets to the specified gateway that
is assigned this IP address.
− In an Echo Request message, this field contains an identifier and a
sequence number. The source associates the received Echo Reply
message with the Echo Request message sent by the local end
based on the identifiers and sequence numbers carried in the
messages. Especially, when the source sends multiple Echo
Request messages to the destination, each Echo Reply message
must carry the same identifier and sequence number as those
carried in the Echo Request message.
• ICMP redirection process:

1. Host A wants to send packets to server A. Host A sends packets to the default
gateway address that is assigned to the gateway RTB.

2. After receiving the packet, RTB checks packet information and finds that the
packet should be forwarded to RTA. RTA is the other gateway on the same
network segment as the source host. This forwarding path through RTA is better
than that through RTB. Therefore, RTB sends an ICMP Redirect message to the
host, instructing the host to send the packet to RTA.

3. After receiving the ICMP Redirect message, the host sends a packet to RTA. Then
RTA forwards the packet to server A.
• A typical ICMP application is ping. Ping is a common tool used to check network
connectivity and collect other related information. Different parameters can be
specified in a ping command, such as the size of ICMP messages, number of ICMP
messages sent at a time, and the timeout period for waiting for a reply. Devices
construct ICMP messages based on the parameters and perform ping tests.
• ICMP defines various error messages for diagnosing network connectivity problems.
The source can determine the cause for a data transmission failure based on the
received error messages.

▫ If a loop occurs on the network, packets are looped on the network, and the TTL
times out, the network device sends a TTL timeout message to the sender device.

▫ If the destination is unreachable, the intermediate network device sends an ICMP

Destination Unreachable message to the sender device. There are a variety of
cases for unreachable destination. If the network device cannot find the
destination network, the network device sends an ICMP Destination Network
Unreachable message. If the network device cannot find the destination host on
the destination network, the network device sends an ICMP Destination Host
Unreachable message.

• Tracert is a typical ICMP application. Tracert checks the reachability of each hop on a
forwarding path based on the TTL value carried in the packet header. In a tracert test
for a path to a specific destination address, the source first sets the TTL value in a
packet to 1 before sending the packet. After the packet reaches the first node, the TTL
times out. Therefore, the first node sends an ICMP TTL Timeout message carrying a
timestamp to the source. Then, the source sets the TTL value in a packet to 2 before
sending the packet. After the packet reaches the second node, the TTL times out. The
second node also returns an ICMP TTL Timeout message. The process repeats until the
packet reaches the destination. In this way, the source end can trace each node
through which the packet passes based on the information in the returned packet, and
calculate the round-trip time based on timestamps.
• Physical interface: is an existing port on a network device. A physical interface can be a
service interface transmitting services or a management interface managing the device.
For example, a GE service interface and an MEth management interface are physical
interfaces.

• Logical interface: is a physically nonexistent interface that can be created using

configuration and need to transmit services. For example, a VLANIF interface and
Loopback interfaces are logical interfaces.

▫ Loopback interface: is always in the up state.

▪ Once a Loopback interface is created, its physical status and data link
protocol status always stay up, regardless of whether an IP address is
configured for the Loopback interface.

▪ The IP address of a Loopback interface can be advertised immediately after

being configured. A Loopback interface can be assigned an IP address with
a 32-bit mask, which reduces address consumption.

▪ No data link layer protocols can be encapsulated on a Loopback interface.

No negotiation at the data link layer is performed for the Loopback
interface. Therefore, the data link protocol status of the Loopback interface
is always up.

▪ The local device directly discards a packet whose destination address is not
the local IP address but the outbound interface is the local Loopback
interface.
• Planning rules:

▫ Uniqueness: Each host on an IP network must have a unique IP address.

▫ Continuity: Contiguous addresses can be summarized easily in the hierarchical

networking. Route summarization reduces the size of the routing table and
speeds up route calculation and route convergence.

▫ Scalability: Addresses need to be properly reserved at each layer, ensuring the

contiguous address space for route summarization when the network is
expanded. Re-planning of addresses and routes induced by network expansion is
therefore prevented.

▫ Combination of topology and services: Address planning is combined with the

network topology and network transport service to facilitate route planning and
quality of service (QoS) deployment. Appropriate IP address planning helps you
easily determine the positions of devices and types of services once you read the
IP addresses.