Understanding Geography

Form 1& 2

© 2020

PREPARED BY JOHN EDWARD (BAED-HONS)

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 FOREWORD

Understanding Geography Form 1&2 is among of the best books for Ordinary level students.
It gives us various insights of language skills, its attributes and its development. The distinctive
features of this book are being comprehensive, precise and brief. This book has been carefully
and thoroughly written to suit Ordinary level students. Students will use this book for reference
and clarification on different Geographical perspectives. It uses a helpful method approach for
those students who need to use and critically review Geography concepts hence will enable them
to gain new knowledge about the Geographical concepts together with experience, skills and
ideas.

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 PREFACE

This book covers different topics as indicated in the book. This book has been written in a simple
language which can make the subject matter more readable and accessible.

This book is unique because has been so carefully designed so that it caters for the needs of
various types of learners. The teacher will also find the book very helpful because the examples
contained in the book may guide them on what to involve their students in hence will enable
them to pass their examinations.

The book presents skills as a process that can be mastered in step by step sequence. It is our hope
that this book will be very helpful to all readers together with all students. We cannot pass the
examination without reading hence good preparations prevent poor performance.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The preparation of this book took a long time and involved many people. I would like to express
my thanks for their thoughtful comments, advice and suggestions. Some of these fellows are;
 Rev.Prof Donald Mwanjoka& Dyness Mwanjoka
 Ostina Amulike Mwambene
 Mr.&Mrs Fidelis Kanga
 Mr.&Mrs Asubisye Mejala
 Miss. Anna Mejala
 Dr. Charles Raphael
 Mrs Justina Raphael
 Mr. Wilbert Ruta
 Mzee Bethania Lupendza
 Mr.&Mrs Charles Luhwagho
 Mama Agness Msomba
 Shizya Mwazembe
 Liberty Mwazembe

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD………………………………………………………...2

PREFACE……………………………………………………………3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………..4

FORM 1 NOTES…………………………………………………….6

FORM 2 NOTES…………………………………………………...52

REFERENCES……………………………………………………121

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Geography Form 1 Notes

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 CHAPTER 1

CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY

Meaning of the term Geography

The term "geography" comes from the ancient Greeks, which are geo and graphia. In Greek,
geo means “Earth” and graphia means “to write, draw or describe”. These two words together
form geographia, which means to draw, write about or describe the Earth. These meanings led to
the development of the early definition of geography which is;
1. Geography is the study of distribution and interrelationship of phenomena in relation to
the earth’s surface.
2. Geography is a science that deals with the earth and its life, the description of Land Sea,
air plants and animal life including human being and their activities. It is the science of
distributions and is concerned with spatial variations in any physical or cultural.
3. Geography can also referred to description of the Earth by words, maps and statistics
and included both the physical Earth and everything found on it such as plants, animals
and people. Therefore, geography is the study of the distribution and interrelationship of
phenomena in relation to the Earth’s surface. Alternatively, geography can be described
as the study of the Earth and its environment.
 Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the
human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts
with the natural environment and the way locations and places can have an impact
on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are
there, and how they develop and change over time.

Branches of Geography
There are three main branches of geography, namely physical geography, human and economic
geography and Practical geography.
1. Physical Geography; Deals with the study of natural physical environment of human
kind. The areas covered include:
 Geology-study of the origin, structure and composition of the earth. It includes
study of rocks.
 Geomorphology- the study of internal and external land forming processes and
landforms.
 Climatology- the study of climate and weather
 Biogeography - the study of soils, vegetation and animals.
 Hydrology- the study of water bodies
 Spatial geography-study of space

2. Human and Economic Geography; Study of people and their activities on the earth’s
surface. The areas covered include:
 Mining
 Forestry
 Agriculture
 Fishing

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  Wildlife and tourism
 Industry
 Energy etc.

3. Practical Geography; A smaller branch which equips the learner with practical skills
that enhance their understanding and interpretation of human and physical geographical
information. The areas are:
 Statistical methods
 Map work
 Field work
 Photograph work

The Importance of Studying Geography

1. It helps us to develop knowledge of places and environments throughout the world. This
will help in solving issues about the environment and sustainable development.
2. Geography serves as an important link between the natural and social sciences. As you
study geography, you encounter different societies and cultures. This helps you realize
how nations rely on each other.
3. It helps us to understand basic physical systems that affect everyday life. For instance,
how water cycles and ocean currents work are all explained with geography. These are
important systems to monitor and predict in order to help lessen the impact of disasters.
4. It helps us to learn the location of places and the physical and cultural characteristics of
those places in order to function more effectively in our increasingly interdependent
world.
5. It enables us to explore the methods and strategies used by other nations for economic
developments and how Tanzania can borrow and employ the same for a similar purpose.
6. To be able to make sensible judgments about spatial distribution of human settlements in
relation to physical environment.
7. It helps us to gain knowledge about the available, finite resources that the Earth has been
endowed with and how to manage and use them sustainably.
8. It helps us to take care of the world around us by understanding others better and
knowing the limitations of the Earth. This enable us make our planet a more lovable one.
9. It helps us to understand various types of natural environments and how to harness them
for equitable use by the present and future generations.
10. It helps us to gain positive attitudes and values which enable one become a responsible
and successful member of the society.
11. It helps us to serve as the basis for further studies in specialized fields such as
cartography (the science of map making), land survey, meteorology (the study of weather
and weather forecasting), climatology (study of climate), seismography (the scientific
measuring and recording of the shock and vibrations of Earthquakes), teaching, aviation
and research.

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 Relationship between Geography and Other Subjects
1. Mathematics-mathematical techniques are used in drawing graphs and pie charts and
mathematical formulae are used in geography to calculate distances, areas, population
density, population densities, etc.
2. History-history uses geographical tools like maps, charts and graphs to show where past
events took place e.g. the movement of people in the past.
3. Biology-Geography explains the distribution of organisms and factors influencing their
distribution on the earth’s surface.
4. Physics-geography uses physics principles and formulae to calculate and describe aspects
such as magnetic field, gravity, vibrations of the earth etc.
5. Chemistry-geography applies chemistry in studying chemical composition and chemical
changes which take place in soils and rocks.
6. Agriculture-geography studies farming systems, their distribution and factors affecting
farming activities.
7. Meteorology-geography uses meteorological information in the study of weather and in
classifying climatic regions and mapping them.
8. Geology-geography studies rocks.

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 CHAPTER 2

SOLAR SYSTEM

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Solar System is the arrangement of sun, planets and other solid objects in the space in relation to
the position from the sun. The planets are not arranged in a single line from the sun, they are
scattered in the space.

Components of the Solar System

The solar system is made up of the sun, planets, moons, natural satellites, asteroids, meteors,
comets, dust, ice, and interplanetary space (it contains interplanetary dust and interplanetary
gas). All planets and other bodies revolve around the sun. The sun is the central body of the solar
system, and it is the only body that generates its own heat. Bodies that revolve around the sun are
kept in their orbits (paths) by the sun’s powerful force of gravity.

There are eight known planets in the solar system. The planets, starting from the one closest to
the sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The four
innermost planets in the solar system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are also called terrestrial
planets. They are called terrestrial because they have a compact, rocky surface like the Earth's.

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets, because they
are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature like Jupiter's. The Jovian
planets are also referred to as the gas giants, although some or all of them might have small solid
cores.

Importance of the Components of Solar System

Though the solar system has many components, the two most important components of the solar
system are the Earth and the sun. The Earth sustains lives of a diversity of living organisms
(plants and animals). The Earth contains numerous resources that enable living organisms to
thrive in it. The Earth’s atmosphere contains water and air (a mixture of several gases that are
used by living organisms for survival). In general, the Earth is the only planet known to sustain
life.
1. Mercury = 57600,000 km
2. Venus = 107,200,000 km
3. Earth = 148,800,000km
4. Mars = 227.200,000km
5. Jupiter = 772,800,000 km
6. Saturn = 1,417,600,000km
7. Uranus = 2,854,400,000 km
8. Neptune = 4,468,800,000 km

SUN
Sun is the star. It is one among the millions of stars that one sees at night except that it looks
much bigger because it is closer to the earth than other distant stars. The sun is much larger than
other distant stars from the earth. In fact much larger than all the planets put together. Its
diameter is approximately 14 million kilometers and its mass is approximately 330,000 times

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greater than that of the earth. The elements that form the material of the sun are also in different
proportion from those of the earth: The sun is composed of approximately; 75% of hydrogen,
23% of helium and 3% of other elements.

The earth is relatively cold body but the sun is so hot that nearly all molecules are broken into
their separate atoms and all are mixed together into a single hot gas. Its average surface
temperature is about 6000°c; it is much hotter in the interior where it is about 14,000,000°c.

The sun is the source of all energy that supports life on Earth. The sun is responsible for water
cycle and it is responsible for weather conditions and climate. The moon lights the Earth on
some days of the month, though it gets its light from the sun.

The Importance of the Sun

1. The sun is very important in the plants’ growth. The sun helps the plants to make their
own food by the photosynthesis process.
2. The sun is very necessary for the other living organisms, that is, it provides us with light
for the vision and to do our work.
3. The sun provides us with the heat to warm our bodies.
4. The sun provides some animals and humans (that feed on plants) with food as it helps the
plants to make its own food by the photosynthesis process.
5. The sun is used in heating water and warming houses by the solar heater which changes
the solar energy of the sun into the heat energy. The heat energy is used in warming
houses and heating water.
6. The sun is very important in the formation of the clouds, rain, and winds. The sun
evaporates the water in the seas, lakes and oceans into water vapor. When the water
vapor rises in the sky, it cools and condenses forming the clouds, which eventually forms
rain.

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is the energy produced by the sun. The sun is the source of all energy in the
earth. This is called solar energy.

Uses of Solar Energy

1. For drying clothes, grains, fruits and meat.
2. Growing plants: - when plants grow they use energy from the sun to manufacture their
food through the process known as photosynthesis
3. Solar energy captured in solar panels and stored in batteries provides electricity used in
generating industrial and home appliances like television, refrigerator, Oven, electric iron
and cooker.
4. Many everyday items such as calculators and other low power consuming devices can be
powered by solar energy effectively.
5. It is used as a source of vitamin D for human being
6. It is used for evaporation of water from water bodies which is necessary for rain
formation

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 How the use of solar energy promotes environmental conservation
1. Solar energy is used by plant during manufacturing its food through the photosynthesis.
In this process plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.
In dome so carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere making the ozone layer safe
and more oxygen to be used in troposphere by other living organisms.
2. Moreover, solar energy is clean and safe type of energy suitable for heating and lighting
this is due to the fact that it does not release soot.
3. The use of solar energy in household’s helps to promote and conceive environment in the
sense that it would reduce the need for firewood and charcoal, where by both once
extracted pollute and destroy forest.
4. The use of solar energy also reduces the use of fuel like kerosene as a result it helps to
reduce environmental pollution caused by smoke from burning fuel.
5. Formation of coal and oil: Coal is solar energy stored in the bodies of plants that grew
thousands of years ago, and which after being buried under the Earth for a very long
period, turned into coal. Similarly, oil was formed from dead bodies of organisms.
6. Formation of rainfall: Evaporation of water which is necessary for cloud and finally
rainfall formation also uses solar energy.

Solar energy in relation to the emancipation of women (how solar energy contribute to the
emancipation of women)
1. It helps to reduce the time would be consumed used by the women searching firewood
from forest.
2. The use of solar energy equipments on cooking makes them to have more time to be
involved in money making activities such as business or farming.
3. Through the use of solar energy equipments in cooking and other domestic’s tasks, young
girls get time to go to school and private study as it was to the boys.

PLANETS
The planets are bodies that revolve around the sun. Planets revolve around the sun in
anticlockwise direction following paths called orbits. As they revolve around the sun, they
appear to move among the stars. This is the reason why the Greeks called them the planets,
which in their language means “wandering stars”.

All the light and the heat of the planets come from the sun. Hence, the temperatures on the
planets depend on their relative distances from the sun. All planets revolve around the sun in the
same direction in orbits that are elliptical and nearly in the same plane. They include:
1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Mars
5. Jupiter
6. Saturn
7. Uranus
8. Neptune

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As they revolve around the sun they appear to move around the star. That is why the Greeks
called them planets means “Wondering stars”. All planets revolve around the sun in the same
orbit that are elliptical and nearly the same plane. The time taken to complete an orbit round the
sun depends on the distance of the planet from the sun. All the light and heat of the planets come
from the sun. Hence the temperatures on the planet depend on their relative distances from the
sun. However, Pluto is not a planet because an object to be a planet, it needs to meet these
requirements (criteria) defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as follows:
 It needs to be in orbit around the sun
 It needs to have enough to pull itself in a spherical shape
 It needs to have “Cleared neighborhood of its orbit”

Note: Any object that doesn’t meet these 3 criteria is considered a dwarf planet. And so,
Pluto is a dwarf planet is not a planet.

COMETS
Comets are objects with leading heads and right tail at the sky. At present many scientists believe
that comets are composed of ice crystals and fragment matters. Comets revolve around the sun
far beyond the limits of Pluto. They can be seen from the earth only when they come close to the
sun.

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 ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are solid heavenly bodies revolving around the sun mostly between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter. There are thousands of these, the largest having diameter of less than 800km. These
bodies cannot be seen without a telescope because they are very far away.

METEORS
Meteors are process of hard matter falling from outer space become visible between 110 and 145
km above the earth’s surface, where as a result of friction with the atmosphere become hot and
usually disintegrate. When they do completely disintegrate as they pass through the atmosphere
reach the earth’s surface and are known as meteorites.

Meteorites are usually made of nickel, iron or silica fragments of disintegrated comets. There are
two known meteorites in Tanzania one is found in Mbozi District and the other fell at
Malampaka in Kwimba District in 1930. Sometimes meteors reach the earth’s surface with such
force; hence they make large holes or craters. An example of such craters in the world is the
great meteor crater in Arizona desert in United States of America which is 150 meters deep and
about 1 kilometer width.

SATELLITES
Satellites are moons of the planets. The number of satellites depends on the nature and size of
planet up to the moment space researches has proved that only seven planets have satellites.

THE EARTH
The Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is the only planet known to have an atmosphere
containing free oxygen, oceans of liquid water on its surface, and supports life. Earth is the fifth
largest of the planets in the solar system, smaller than the four gas giants namely Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune, but larger than the three other rocky planets, Mercury, Mars and Venus.
We live on the planet earth. The Earth is made of the;
 Atmosphere (air)

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  Hydrosphere (water bodies)
 The crust solid
 Molten material
 Biosphere (living things)

About 3/4 of the earth’s surface is covered by water. In fact no other planet in the solar system is
known to have water bodies, the shape of the earth is a flattened sphere This flattening is very
slight as indicated by measurements in diameters through poles and at the equator. The diameter
through the poles is 12,713 km while at the equator it is 12,757 km.

The Shape of the Earth and its Evidence

The Earth is not perfectly round. Its shape is an oblate spheroid which is a flattened sphere. The
flattening is very slight at the poles than at the equator. There are some several evidences, which
are used to prove that the earth is sphere like structure, some of them are shown in the following:
1. SUNRISE AND SUNSET; The sunrise and sunset at different places of the earth, people
in the east see the sun earlier than the people in the west due to earth’s rotation from west
to east. If the earth was flat the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at the same
time.
2. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH; If traveling from a certain point of the
earth and you go straight around the earth you will come to the point of origin. The first
traveler around the world named Magellan in 1519-1522 proved this; image did not
encounter abrupt edge over the world in his voyage.
3. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS; Photographs taken by satellites or airplane from the air
show that the earth has a curved or round shape
4. SHIP’S VISIBILITY; If you are in the coast viewing a ship which is very far you will
see the soot, then the pipe and eventually the whole ship gradually appears. If the earth
were flat the ship would have been seen all at once.
5. LUNAR ECLIPSE; The shadow of the earth thrown to the moon during lunar eclipse is
always rounding. Only a spherical object can give a circular shadow.
6. EARTH’S CURVED HORIZON; The earth’s horizon appears curved when observed
from a very high point like a tower.

THE MOON
The moon is a natural satellite of the earth. It has a solid spherical body with a diameter of 3456
kilometers. The distance from the earth to the moon is a 384,403 kilometers. The moon appears
to rise in the east and set in the west because the earth spins from west to east. Among all planets
only the earth sustains life due to its position from the sun. It is not very close or very far from
the sun. Other body such as Pluto which is very far from the sun does not sustain life because it
is very cold. Likewise Mercury which is very close to the sun does not sustain life because it is
very hot.

EARTH’S MOVEMENT
The earth is in motion all the time. One does not feel this motion because one moves with it, like
all other planets, the earth has two motions known as: -
a) Rotation
b) Revolution

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 ROTATION
Rotation refers to the spinning of a body on its axis. The Earth rotates or spins on its axis in an
anti-clockwise direction, from West to East through 360 degrees. It makes one complete rotation
in 24 hours. Thus, for every 15 degrees of rotation, the Earth takes one hour which is the same as
four minutes for every 1 degree.

An axis is an imaginary line joining the N (North) and S (South) poles through the centre of the
Earth. The rotation of the Earth is very rapid although it is difficult to feel its motion. At the
equator, every point of the Earth's surface is travelling eastwards at about 1600 km per hour. At a
Latitude of 40 degrees, the speed is about 1280 km per hr. The Earth’s axis makes an angle of 66
½ degrees with the plane of its orbit. In other words, the axis is tilted 23 ½ degrees from the
perpendicular. It makes one complete rotation after every twenty four hours or one day.

The following observations illustrate the earth’s rotation from west to east;
1. When traveling in a fast moving vehicle we notice trees and other objects on both sides
of the road moving in the opposite direction. This observation is similar to the movement
of the earth’s rotation to the sun.
2. At night most of the stars appear to move across the sky from east to west. This shows
that the earth is moving from west to east.
3. Sunrise and sunset: the sun rises over the eastern horizon in the morning and sets over
the western horizon in the evening. But since the sun is in the centre of the solar system
and the fact that it does not move, this shows that the point of observation (the Earth) is
moving by rotation from West to East.
4. Day and Night: During the Earth's rotations some regions face the sun while others do
not face it. The regions facing the sun experience day time whereas the regions which are
not facing the sun are in darkness (night). If the Earth was not rotating, one half of the
Earth would be having daylight while the other half would be in total darkness forever.
The occurrence of day and night proves that the Earth is rotating.
5. Photographs of the Earth taken from the satellite at different times of the day show
that different parts of the Earth experience daylight at different times. If the Earth was not
rotating, different photographs taken at any time of the day would all look alike.

Significances of Earth's Rotation

1. Alternation of day and night: Rotation of the Earth causes the side of the Earth which
face the sun to experience daylight which is the day, whereas the side that is not facing
the sun at that time will be in darkness (night). This ensures that, at any time of the day,
one half of the Earth is in darkness and the other is in daylight. If the Earth did not rotate
then it’s one half would be in daylight while the other half would be in darkness all the
year round.
2. Occurrence of tides: Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the
combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun on the
rotating Earth.
3. Deflection of winds and ocean currents: As the Earth rotates on its axis from West to
East, winds and ocean currents flowing over the Earth’s surface are deflected. The

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 anticlockwise rotation of the Earth deflects prevailing winds to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
4. Time difference between longitudes: The rotation is responsible for the difference in
time between different places on Earth. It causes the difference of one hour in every 15
degree interval between longitudes, which is equivalent to 4 minutes for each degree of
longitude.

REVOLUTION
Is the movement of one body around another. Earth’s revolution is the movement of the
earth around the sun. The earth takes 365 1/4 days for a complete revolution. When the
earth takes 366 days to accomplish one revolution is called a Leap year. The earth
revolution revolves around the sun in an elliptical. Due to the shape of the earth’s orbit,
the earth is very closer to the sun one point of the year than at another

APHELION AND PERIHELION

 Aphelion is the furthest position of the earth’s orbit from the sun. The earth is at
Aphelion each year on 4th July when it is in 152 million kilometers from the sun.
 Perihelion is the nearest position of the earth from the sun. The earth is at perihelion
each rear on 3rd January when it is 147.3 million kilometers from the sun. Therefore the
speed of revolution is about 29.66 km per second.

The Effects of Earth’s Revolution

1. The four seasons of the year, namely summer, autumn, winter and spring. A season is
one of the distinct periods into which the year may be divided.
2. Change in the altitude of the midday sun at different times of the year at any place.
3. Varying lengths of the day and night at different times of the year. The axis of the
Earth is inclined to its elliptical plane at an angle of 66.5 degrees. If the axis of the Earth
was vertical, the sun rays would always be overhead at the Equator, thus all places on the
Earth would always experience 12 hours of daylight (day) and 12 hours of darkness
(night).
4. The eclipses (eclipse of the sun and eclipse of the moon).

SEASONS
Season is one of the four periods of the year separated from each other by different
temperature conditions. The seasons are summer, autumn, winter and spring. They are
more pronounced between 23°c and 66°c of latitudes At the equator the year is divided
between hot and wet seasons while at the poles is very cold all the year around and the
season cannot be identified easily.

The Northern hemisphere summer months are May, June and July. Autumn months are
August, September and October; Winter Months are November, December and January
while spring months are February, March and April. In the Southern Hemisphere summer
months are November, December and January, autumn months are February, March and
April Winter has May, June and July while spring months are August, September and
October.

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 CAUSE OF SEASONS
Seasons are caused by inclination of the earth’s axis and the earth’s revolution around the sun.
The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 66˚ to the earth’s orbital plane and it is always pointing to
the same direction in space. In its revolution around the sun one of the hemispheres is inclined
towards the sun to one period of the year and away from it at another period of the year.

ECLIPSE
This is the movement of one heavily body between the two others, such that it casts shadow over
the other. The eclipse involves three heavily bodies namely; the Sun, the Earth and the Moon. As
long as the sun is the central both- of the solar system, it never moves, only the earth and the
moon are in the motion all the time.

An eclipse is said to be total eclipse when the whole body is obscured i.e completely blocked
from the sunlight and it is described as a partial eclipse when the only part of the body becomes
obscured. At any place an eclipse will last short time, hardly seven minutes because both the
earth and the moon are in motion.

Types of Eclipse
1. LUNAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE MOON); this occurs when the earth moves
between the sun and the moon, this casting its shadow over the moon.

2. THE SOLAR ECLIPSE; The solar eclipse is also known as the eclipse of the sun. This
occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun casting its shadow over the
earth.
 Umbra or total eclipse is when the whole body is obscured i.e completely
blocked from the sun’s light.
 Penumbra or partial eclipse is when only part of the body becomes obscured.

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 THE APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE OVERHEAD SUN
The apparent movement of the overhead sun is related to the different positions of the earth on
its movement as it revolves around the sun. The overhead sun appears to move northwards and
south wards in an osculating (swinging) manner.

However the overhead sun’s northward limit is latitude 23°N People beyond this latitude never
see the sun vertically above their head. The latitudes 23°N is known as Tropical of cancer.
Similarly the overhead sun ends 23°S in its apparent Southward movement. This latitude is
known as the Tropic of Capricorn on 2l June the sun is vertically overhead on the Tropical of
cancer. This is known as the summer solstice in the Northern hemisphere. On 22nd December
the sun is vertically overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn this is the winter solstice in the
Northern Hemisphere.

Solstice means equal night or is when the sun on these days appears to stand still between its
northward and southward journeys.

THE SOLSTICES
The sun is overhead twice a year at the equators 21st March and 23rd September. 21st March is
known as the spring equinox and 23rd September is known as the autumn equinox in the
Northern Hemisphere. Equinox means equal nights, at equinox the length of day and night is
equal over all places on the earth’s surface. Viewed from the Southern Hemisphere the solstices
and the equinoxes are reversed.

LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT

Places along the equator experience equal day and night all the year, but northwards or south
wards towards the poles. The length of day and night varies with latitudes. For instance in
Northern Summer when the Northern Hemisphere is inclined towards the sun, days are longer
than nights. However at latitude 66°N known as the Arctic. Cycle and beyond the sun appears
around the sky without setting in the North Pole daylight is experienced for six months before
the sunset.

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Then this region remains in darkness for the next six months; Latitude 66° south is known as the
Antarctic cycle. The Polar Regions south of the Antarctic cycle experience the long six months
night from March to September and the six months day light from October to February.

PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS

Parallels are more commonly known as latitudes. Latitude refers to the angular distance North
or South of the equator calibrated in degrees, minutes and seconds, measured from the centre of
the Earth. The equator is given a value of 0º. It is an imaginary line which divides the Earth into
two hemispheres (northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere).

The Northern hemisphere has latitude of 90ºN and the Southern hemisphere has latitude of 90ºS.
All other latitudes are drawn north or south, parallel to the equator. Particular latitude, say 60ºN
joins all points on the surface of the Earth which make an angle of 60º from the centre of the
Earth (the equator). Any circle drawn around the Earth, parallel to the equator, is a parallel of
latitude.

Latitude Parallel
Meridians are commonly known as longitudes. A longitude is an imaginary line drawn on the
map from the North Pole to the South Pole. Meridians are numbered in degrees East or West of
longitude 0°, called Greenwich Meridian (because it passes through a town in England called
Greenwich). It is also known as the Prime Meridian because it is the line of reference from
which all other meridians are established.

A longitude, therefore, refers to angular distance measured in degrees East and West of the
Greenwich Meridian. The Prime Meridian runs through the poles and the Greenwich observatory
near London. All lines of longitude are in equal length and divide the Earth into two equal semi
circles. There are 360° in a circle, with 180° lying east of the Greenwich Meridian and the other
180° west of Greenwich.

The Greenwich line has been chosen by convention (meaning that any other line could have
served the same purpose).

Longitude/Meridian: Is angular distance measured in degrees east or west of the prime

meridian, the run from north to south.

The importance of parallel and meridians

1. They are used by pilots and sailors to guide their paths as they steer the planes and ships.
2. When used together, longitude and latitude define a specific location through
geographical coordinates. Each location on Earth has its unique latitude and longitude.
For example, the location of a point shown on figure 1.23 below is 40°N, 60°W.
3. Longitudes enable geographers to calculate the local time of a place, X, given the local
time and longitude of place Y, as the point of reference.
4. Latitudes are used as a guide to explain the variation in climate on the surface of the
Earth. It is generally known that places along the equatorial belt experience a hot and
wet climate for most of the year. As you move north or south of the equator, the climate

20
 progressively become cold. Places at the north and south poles are extremely cold and
are covered by ice and snow throughout the year.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Latitude: Is the angular distance north or south of the equator measured in degrees, minutes and
seconds. Also can be defined as the lines drawn on a map from east to west.
 The equator is latitude of 0°
 The equator divides the earth into two equal parts (Hemisphere)
 The hemisphere north of the equator is northern hemisphere
 The hemisphere south of the equator is known as Southern hemisphere
 Latitude is also known as a parallel line of equator because they never meet.
 The lines of latitude are measured from 0° (the equator) to 90° north and south.

Lines of Latitude are;

 The equator 0°
 The tropical of cancer 231/2°N
 The Tropical of Capricorn 231/2°S
 Arctic cycle 661/2°N
 Antarctic cycle 661/2°S

Longitude
Is an angular distance measured in degrees east or west of the prime meridian, they run from
north to south.
 Greenwich is a longitude 0°. It is also known as prime meridian. The prime meridian is
the line running through the poles (North and South) and is known as Greenwich 0°.
Longitudes are measured from 0° to 180° east or West of Greenwich, all meridians are
passing through the North and south poles.

LONGTUDE AND TIME

The earth rotates on its own axis from west to east once every twenty-four hours (one day). This
means that the earth turns through 360° in twenty-four hours. All places along a given meridian
will experience midday along the same meridian, it is known as Local Mean, on the Greenwich
meridian is known as Local Mean Time (LMT).

When it is 12:00 noon; on the Greenwich meridian it will be 1:00 pm at a place of 15°E or 11:00
at a place of 15°W. To find time for example for Musoma in Tanzania (34°) when it is 12:00 in
Kinshasa Zaire
1. Note the 1onitude position of Kinshasa 15°30°E and Musoma 34°
2. Find the difference in degree of longitude between Kinshasa and Zaire 34° 15°30 = l81/2
3. Find the difference in time between Kinshasa and Zaire
4. Since Musoma is to the east of Kinshasa, Musoma time will be ahead of that of Kinshasa
by 1 hour and 14 minutes therefore time for Musoma will be 12:00 + 1:14 = 13:14 pm
Or 1:14 pm.

21
In the other hand given the time difference between two places and the longitude of one of them,
one can calculate the longitude position of the second places Kinshasa 15° 30° and 1 hour and 14
minutes behind the time of Musoma.

Find the longitude position of Musoma

Difference in time between Musoma and Kinshasa 1 hour and 14 minutes
 Difference in degrees of longitude between Musoma and Kinshasa is l hr and 14 minutes
= 74/4 or 18°30°
 Since the time of Kinshasa is behind that of Musoma, Musoma must be east of Kinshasa.
Therefore the longitudinal position of Musoma will be 15°30´ + 18°30´ = 34°E.

GREAT CIRCLE
The intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane through its centers for example meridians
of longitude and equator e great circle in the earth’s surface. Therefore there is no limit to the
number of great circle that can be drawn.
 Great circle also is a circle drawn on a globe (or other sphere) with a center that includes
the center of the globe. Thus a great circle divides the globe into two equal halves.

IMPORTANCE OF GREAT CIRCLE

1. The great circles are important for aero planes which use them as route ways to guide
their path
2. Great circles are important for ship to follow routes along great circles

TIME
Refers to a period that is used for an event or activity. It is measured in seconds, minutes, hours,
days, months or years.

TIME ZONES
Is the region having the same standard time, Standard time is common on time for all countries
belonging to the same time zone for example; Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Djibouti and
Somalia use the same standard time. This is commonly referred to the East African Standard
time.

There would be problems of telling time if every place had its own time set according to local
mean time. For example, there would be great confusion in railway and airway timetable or in
radio programs if they had to show difference time each one place within a small area. To avoid
this problem, different stretches of land take their time from great Meridian. The time adopted is
known as STANDARD TIME.

In East Africa, standard time is taken from meridian of 45ºE when a whole stretch of land keeps
to the same standard time that stretches from a time zone. Therefore time zone refers to a stretch
of land where standard time is accepted through out a longitudinal zone 15° width. Countries
with large stretches of land have several standard time zones. There are 24 time zones in the
world. The Greenwich Meridian is the starting point for dividing the globe into 24 time zones,
the standard time for Greenwich is known as the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

22
 Essence of Time Zone
In a certain place there could be a place on the surface using its’ own local time. This would be
brought a lot of confusion example every radio station would have to announce different times
for every region within the same country: Local time of Bukoba would be different from that of
Dodoma.
 The above confusion was avoided when it was internationally agreed to split the world
into 24 time zones according to Longitudes.
 The longitudinal division across the earth with an approximates with of 15 of longitude
which is regular across the oceans.
 Each time zone has a standard time which is the time of the longitude (meridian near the
center of time zone. In the same way, all countries belonging to the same time zone have
common time.

Note: Large countries like Canada, USA and Russia have different standard times for different
regions within them because they are crossed by many time zones.

Sample Questions
1. If it is 9:30 am at Kasse 33°15°E what time is in Zanzibar 45°15°E?
2. Find the time for the Yaoundé 30°w if it is 12.00 noon London
3. When it is 3.30 pm at Nairobi (25°E) what is the time for Comoro 120°E?

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

The line where date is changed or where the calendar day begins. One travels eastwards and
cross the date line, one will gain a day, if one travels westwards and cross the date line, one will
lose a day, if Greenwich it is noon on Tuesday a place 90°W would be 10 am on Tuesday, at a
place 180°W it would be midnight Monday. On the other hand a place 90°E would be 6.00pm on
Tuesday and at a place 180°E would be midnight on Tuesday. International Date Line is zigzag
at certain places so as to avoid one country to have two dates for one day.

CALCULATIONS;
Examples;
1. What is the local mean time at Morogoro 45˚E 35˚S, when it is noon at Kigali 30˚E
20˚N?
Solution;
 Difference in degrees = 45˚E- 30˚E = 15˚
 Change 15˚ into time. 15˚= 1hour, time difference=1 hour
 We add, because Morogoro is more East than Kigali, at Kigali it was 12:00
Noon+ 1 hour = 1:00 pm
= the local mean time at Morogoro will be 1:00 pm

2. Find the time of Musoma 34˚E, if it is 2:00 pm at Kinshasa is 15˚ 30’E.

Solution;
34˚.00’- 15˚30’ = 18˚30’
Change 18˚.30’ into time; to get difference
Take 18˚.30’ as 18˚ 30/60 = 18 1/2
Then 15˚ = 1 hour

23
 18˚ ½ = x
15x/15 = 18 1/2÷ 15
= 18 1/2÷ 15
= 37/30
= 1 7/30 x 60
= 1 hour and 14 minutes.
2:00 pm + 1 hour and 14 minutes = 3:14 pm
Then Musoma’s time = 3:14 pm

3. If it is 1:00 am at 10˚E, find the local mean time at longitude 20˚W.

Solution;
10˚E + 20˚W = 30˚
Change 30˚ into time
15˚ = 1 hour
30˚ = x
15x/15 = 30/15
X = 2 hours
The local mean time at longitude 20˚W = 1:00 am – 2hrs = 11:00 pm

4. Find the longitude of Senegal whose local mean time is 9:00 am, when it is Noon at
Greenwich Meridian [0˚]
Procedure;
i. Find the difference in time between two points.
12:00 – 9:00 = 3 hours
ii. Changing 3 hours into degrees
15˚ = 1 hour
X = 3 hours
X = 15 x 3
X = 45˚
The longitude of Senegal will be more West than that of Greenwich by 45˚= 0˚+45˚=45˚W

24
 CHAPTER 3

MAJOR FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE

CONTINENT
Continent is a major landmass rising from the ocean floor. Formerly the continents were big
landmass known as Pangaea. Due to the forces operating continuously, the landmass was
separated into two parts namely Laurasia to the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland to the
Southern hemisphere. Further separation or drifting led to the formation of the present continents
which include Africa. Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and Southern
America.

The boundaries of the continents with the exception of Asia and Europe were filled with water.
Ural Mountains separated Europe and Asia. While other continents are separated by water bodies
called seas and oceans. For instance African continent and Asia to the north are separated by
Mediterranean Sea and Red sea. Africa and South America are separated by Atlantic Ocean, etc.

The land surface occupies 29% of the surface of the globe, and the remaining 71% is covered by
water. The land surface forms seven continents. A continent is a major landmass rising from the
ocean floor. It includes islands adjacent to the continent. There are seven continents namely,
Africa, Asia, South America, North America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica. These continents
are surrounded by the following oceans: The Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific
Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Southern ocean.

There is more land surface in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere but there
is more water surface in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere. The
continents are broader in the northern hemisphere. The seven continents that make up the globe
are explained below:
1. Asia: Asia is the largest of all continents. It covers more than one third of the land
surface of the earth. It is approximately one and a half times the size of Africa. Its total
area is about 45.6 million square kilometers. Asia stretches from 0° to 67°N and from
30°E to about 18°E. The Ural Mountains form the boundary between Asia and Europe.
This continent is attached to Africa by the narrow Isthmus of Suez which has been dug to
form the Suez Canal. The continent is bordered to the North by the Arctic Ocean, to the
East by the Pacific Ocean, and to the South by the Indian Ocean.
2. Africa: Africa is the second largest continent with an area of about 3.6 square kilometers.
Africa extends from 37°N to 35°S and from 50°W to 50°E and it is crossed by Tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn. Thus the greater part, about three quarters of the whole area lies in
the tropics. Africa is bordered to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, to the west by the
Atlantic Ocean, and to the East by the Indian Ocean.
3. South America: South America is the third largest continent and it is about two-thirds
the size of Africa. Its size is about 24.3 million square kilometers. It lies between 10°N
and 50°S and between 35°W and 80°W. This continent is bordered to the east by the
Atlantic Ocean, to the West by the Pacific Ocean, and it is joined to North America by
the Isthmus of Panama.
4. North America: North America is the fourth continent in size and it is slightly more than
half the size of Africa. Its size is about 17.9 million square kilometers. If extends from

25
 10°N to 65°N and from 60°W to 160°W. It is bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean,
to the East by the Atlantic Ocean, and the North by the Arctic Ocean.
5. Antarctica: Antarctica is the fifth continent in size and it is about one-third the size of
Africa. Its area is about 11.4 million square kilometers. This is the southernmost
continent, forming a circle at the South Pole and extends south of ⁶⁶¹⁄_°S. It is surrounded
by the southern ocean. The continent is mostly uninhabited.
6. Europe: Europe is the sixth continent in size and it is about two-fifth the size of Africa.
The size of Europe is 9.8 million square kilometers. Most of Europe lies between 40°N
and the 1 Arctic circles, and between 10°W and 60°E. It lies to the west of Asia,
separated by the Ural Mountains. Europe is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to
the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Mediterranean Sea.
7. Australia: Australia is the smallest continent and it is about a quarter of the size of
Africa. Its size is about 8.5 million square kilometers. Australia is approximately 10°S
and 40°S and between 115°E and 150°E. The islands of New Zealand to the south east of
Australia are part of this continent. The continent is bordered to the west and north by the
Indian Ocean, to the east by the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by the Southern Ocean.

MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES OF CONTINENTS

The surface of the continents is not smooth. It has mountains, hills, rivers and valleys, plateaus,
and plains.
 Mountains are landforms which have high relief generally over 300 meters above the
surrounding area.
 Hills are landforms that have moderate relief generally between 150 and 300 meters
above the surrounding area.
 Plateaus are extensive highland areas with more or less uniform summit level, bounded
by one or more slopes falling steeply away, sometimes rising on one or more sides by
steep slopes to mountain ridges.
 Plains are continuous sketches of comparatively flat land not much above sea level,
sometimes gently rolling or undulating.

Mountains
There are four types of mountains. These are the Fold Mountains, Block Mountains, Residual
Mountains, and Volcanic Mountains. These mountains are all named according to the way they
were formed.
1. Fold Mountains; Fold Mountains are formed by wrinkling or (folding) of the Earth’s
crust. Fold Mountains usually form parallel ranges which extend for hundreds of miles
across a continent. Thus, Fold Mountains are the most extensive ranges in the world. For
example, the Rocky Mountains in North America vary in width from 640 to 1,600
kilometers and are about 5,000 kilometers in length. These types of mountains have some
of the highest peaks in the world. Mount Everest in the Himalayas is 8,848 meters above
sea level and the Aconcagua in the Andes is 7,003 meters above sea level. Examples of
Fold Mountains include the Himalayas in Asia; the Rockies in North America; the Andes
in South America; the Alps in Europe; the Atlas in North Africa; the Cape ranges in
South Africa; the Appalachians in the USA; and the Great Dividing Ranges in Australia.
2. Block Mountains; Block Mountains are formed when a movement in the earth’s crust
forces the rocks to break instead of folding. As a result enormous cracks or faults are

26
 formed. When two sets of faults run parallel to each other and the ground between is
forced to rise up, a block (fault) mountain is formed. Usually Block Mountains do not
extend over wide areas as Fold Mountains do. Examples of Block Mountains are the
Usambara, Uluguru and Ruwenzori Mountains in Africa; the Vosges and Black Forest
Mountains in Europe; and Mount Sinai in Asia.
3. Volcanic Mountains; Volcanic Mountains are formed from the piling up and cooling of
hot molten lava and ashes that are thrown out from the earth’s interior after a volcanic
eruption. Some of the volcanic mountains existing today were built up by a single
eruption, but others were built by several eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are still taking
place in some parts of the earth. Among the existing volcanic mountains, some still
experience periodic eruptions, for example, the Vesuvius in Italy; the Krakatoa in
Indonesia; the Mufimbiro in Uganda; and the Oldoinyo-Lengai in Tanzania.
 Active volcanic mountains. The Volcanic Mountains that still experience
periodic eruptions.
 Dormant Volcano; The Volcanic Mountains which erupted once in historical
times and are no longer active. In this group are included the Kilimanjaro and
Meru mountains in Tanzania.
 Extinct (dead) volcano; those volcanic mountains which have never
experienced eruption and have shown no signs of erupting again are said to be.
Included in this group are mountains Kenya, Elgon, Ngorongoro and Rungwe in
East Africa; and Demavend in Iran.

Volcanic mountains are usually conical in shape and mostly contain craters or
depressions at their summits, for example, mountains Fujiyama and
Kilimanjaro. Sometimes the craters are filled with water to form crater lakes.

4. Residual Mountains; Residual Mountains are formed when an area of highland remains
standing above the general level of land after the rivers and other natural agents have
lowered the surface of the surrounding area. Sometimes such highlands are called
mountains of denudation. These mountains may in some cases appear as isolated hills but
in other cases they appear as long ridges, generally steep on one side (the scarp slope)
and gentle on the other side (dip slope). Examples of residual mountains are the Ahaggar
Mountains of central Sahara; the Sekenke hills of Singida in Tanzania; the Admawa
mountains of eastern Nigeria; the Highlands of Scotland; the Sierras of central Spain; and
the Mesas and Buttes of the western plateau of the United States.

Other features;
1. Plateaus; In geology and earth science, a plateau (plural: plateaus or plateaux), also
called a high plain or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting of relatively flat
terrain that is raised significantly above the surrounding area, often with one or more
sides with steep slopes.
 The largest and highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau, called the
"roof of the world”. The Tibetan plateau covers approximately 2,500,000 km2 at
about 5,000 m above sea level.

27
  The second-highest plateau is Deosai National Park (also known as Deoasai
Plains) at an average elevation of 4,114 m and is located in the Skardu District of
Gilgit-Baltistan, in northern Pakistan.
 The third-largest plateau is the Antarctic Plateau, which covers most of central
Antarctica, where there are no known mountains, but rather 3,000 m or more of
ice.
 Other plateaus in the world include the Colorado Plateau (North America); the
Great Central Plateau, Ahagger Plateau and Fouta Djallon Plateau (Africa);
Brazilian Plateau (South America), Mexican Plateau and Laurentian Plateau
(North America); Arabian Plateau, Deccan Plateau and Tibet Plateau (Asia).

2. Plains; A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land. Plains are one of the major
landforms, or types of land, on Earth. They cover more than one-third of the world’s land
area. Plains exist on every continent except Antarctica. Plains occur as lowlands and at
the bottoms of valleys but also on plateaus or uplands at high elevations.
 Plains in many areas are important for agriculture because where the soils were
deposited as sediments they may be deep and fertile, and the flatness facilitates
mechanization of crop production; or because they support grasslands which
provide good pasture for livestock.
 Plains vary widely in size. The smallest occupy only a few hectares, whereas the
largest cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometers. For example, the
Great Plains of North America extends from Pyrenees Range on the French–
Spanish border across northern Europe and Asia, almost halfway around the
world.

BASINS AND DRAINAGE OF THE CONTINENT

BASINS; A basin is a depression, or dip, in the Earth’s surface. Basins are shaped like bowls,
with sides higher than the bottom. They can be oval or circular in shape, similar to a sink or tub
you might have in your own bathroom. Some are filled with water. Others are empty. Basins are
formed by forces above the ground (like erosion) or below the ground (like earthquakes). They
can be created over thousands of years or almost overnight.

The major types of basins are river drainage basins, structural basins, and ocean basins.
1. River Drainage Basins; A river drainage basin is an area drained by a river and all of its
tributaries. A river basin is made up of many different watersheds. A watershed is a
small version of a river basin. Every stream and tributary has its own watershed, which
drains to a larger stream or wetland. These streams, ponds, wetlands, and lakes are part of
a river basin. The Mississippi River basin in the U.S., for instance, is made up of six
major watersheds: the Missouri, Upper Mississippi, Ohio, Tennessee, Lower Mississippi,
and Arkansas-Red-White Rivers.
2. Structural Basins; Structural basins are formed by tectonic activity. Tectonic activity is
the movement of large pieces of the Earth’s crust, called tectonic plates. Tectonic activity
is responsible for such phenomena as earthquakes and volcanoes. The natural processes
of weathering and erosion also contribute to forming structural basins. Structural basins
form as tectonic plates shift. Rocks and other material on the floor of the basin are forced
downward, while material on the sides of the basin are pushed up. This process happens

28
 over thousands of years. If a basin is shaped like a bowl, a structural basin is shaped like
a series of smaller bowls, stacked inside each other. Structural basins are usually found in
dry regions.
3. Ocean Basins; Ocean basins are the largest depressions on Earth. Edges of the
continents, called continental shelves, form the sides of ocean basins. There are five
major ocean basins, coordinating with the major oceans of the world: the Pacific basin,
the Atlantic basin, the Indian basin, the Arctic basin, and the Southern basin. Many
smaller basins are often considered oceanic basins, such as the North Aleutian Basin,
between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

WATER BODIES
1. RIVERS; A river is a stream of water that flows through a channel in the surface of the
ground. The passage where the river flows is called the river bed and the earth on each
side is called a river bank. A river begins on high ground or in hills or mountains and
flows down from the high ground to the lower ground, because of gravity. A river begins
as a small stream, and gets bigger the farther it flows.
 The water in a river is called fresh water. It comes from rain or snow and it can
usually be drunk safely, unless it has been polluted. The water in a sea cannot be
drunk safely because it is salt water. Many plants, animals and people live near
rivers. They need water to survive and, for humans, rivers were once the best
means of transport.
 Tributaries; A tributary or affluent is a stream or river that flows into a larger
stream or main stem (or parent) river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly
into a sea or ocean. Tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding
drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater, leading the water out into an
ocean.
 Distributaries; A distributary, or a distributary channel, is a stream that branches
off and flows away from a main stream channel. Distributaries are a common
feature of river deltas. The phenomenon is known as river bifurcation. The
opposite of a distributary is a tributary. Distributaries are found where a stream
nears a lake or an ocean. They can also occur inland, on alluvial fans, or where a
tributary stream bifurcates as it nears its confluence with a larger stream. In some
cases, a minor distributary can divert so much water from the main channel that it
can become the main route.
 Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Water generally collects in a river from
precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources such
as groundwater, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snow
packs (e.g. from glaciers). Examples of rivers in Africa include the Nile, Congo,
Niger, Zambezi and Orange. In Tanzania we have rivers like Rufiji, Ruvuma,
Ruaha, Pangani, Wami and Malagarasi.
2. LAKES; A lake is a large body of water (larger and deeper than a pond) within a body of
land. As a lake is separated from the ocean, it is not a sea. Some lakes are very big, and
people in the past sometimes called them seas. Lakes do not flow, like rivers, but many
have rivers flowing into and out of them.
 Some lakes are artificial (man-made lakes) and are constructed for industrial or
agricultural use, for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply, or

29
 for aesthetic or recreational purposes. Examples of man-made lakes include Lake
Nasser (in Egypt), Lake Kariba (Zambia), and Lake Volta (Ghana).
 Many lakes are man-made reservoirs built to produce electricity, for recreation,
or to use the water for irrigation or industry, or in houses.
 The majorities of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern
Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in
the form of a river or stream, which maintains a lake's average level by allowing
the drainage of excess water.
 However, some lakes do not have a natural outflow and lose water solely by
evaporation or underground seepage or both.
 Lakes are not evenly distributed on the earth's surface; most are located in high
latitudes and mountainous regions. Although lakes are usually thought to be
freshwater bodies, many lakes, especially in arid regions, become quite salty
because a high rate of evaporation concentrates inflowing salts. The Caspian Sea,
Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake are among the greatest of the world's salty lakes.
 The Great Lakes of the United States and Canada is the world's largest system of
freshwater lakes. Lake Superior alone is the world's largest freshwater lake with
an area of 82,414 sq km. The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the world, with an
area of 372,960 sq km. Lake Titicaca in the Andes Mountains of South America
is the world’s highest lake at 3,800 m above sea level; while the Dead Sea is the
lowest at 425 m below sea level.
3. OCEAN; an ocean is defined as a body of saline water covering much of the earth. The
largest ocean is the Pacific. Its area is about 165.3 million square kilometers. The second
largest Ocean is the Atlantic, which covers about 82.2 million square kilometers. The
Indian Ocean, covering about 73.4 square kilometers is the third largest, followed by the
Arctic Ocean, covering about 14.0 million square kilometers.
 An ocean is defined as a body of saline water covering much of the earth. The
largest ocean is the Pacific. Its area is about 165.3 million square kilometers. The
second largest ocean is the Atlantic, which covers about 82.2 million square
kilometers. The Indian Ocean, covering about 73.4 square kilometers is the third
largest, followed by the Arctic Ocean, covering about 14.0 million square
kilometers.

Composition of Ocean Water

Ocean water contains a number of dissolved mineral salts. These mineral salts include sodium
chloride (common salt) which makes up 78% of all salt in the ocean water; and compounds of
magnesium, potassium and calcium. Most of the minerals in the ocean are a result of constant
accumulation since the formation of the oceans. However, a small amount of the minerals come
from the land, having been dissolved by water and brought into the ocean by rivers. But the
mineral salts in rivers are only in very small quantities.

The saltiness of the ocean water is not the same everywhere. Saltiness of the ocean water
depends mainly on temperature which affects the amount of salt that can dissolve in the water,
the amount of fresh water brought into the ocean by rivers and rainfall, and the amount of
evaporation taking place from the surface.

30
 Water Temperature
Water is heated by the sun’s rays much more slowly than land is. Water also loses heat to the air
around it more slowly than the land does. This causes the temperature of the sea water to vary
only slightly from season to season. In general, the temperature of the ocean water decreases
from the equator, where the surface temperature is 25°C to the polar regions where the water is
very cold (-2.2°C). But the decrease in temperature pole ward is not uniform because of the
occurrence of warm and cold ocean currents. On the other hand, water temperature decreases
with depth in the tropics up to the depth where the temperature is 1.1°C.

Water Movements
Ocean water is constantly in motion. There are two types of movement. One is horizontal
movement, which is in the form of ocean currents and tides, and the other is vertical, which is the
rising of subsurface water and the sinking of the surface water. The movements of ocean water
are a result of density variations in the water which is particularly important in vertical
movements and winds which are particularly important in horizontal movements.
1. An ocean current is the permanent or seasonal movement of surface water in the ocean.
There are warm and cold currents, the ocean currents are set in motion by a combination
of prevailing winds, differences in density and temperature of the ocean waters, the
rotation of the earth, and the shape of landmass.
2. Tides are the rising and the falling in the level of water in the oceans, seas and lakes.
They occur twice a day (in 24 hours). The level to which tides rise and fall varies from
day to day. On the days when it rises to its highest level, it also falls to its lowest level.
The rising and falling is caused by the pull of gravity of the moon and the sun.
3. Waves are to and from movements of the surface water. When water is thrown into
waves, its surface gets a shape of ups and downs. The highest part of the wave is called
the crest and the lowest the trough. The distance from one crest to the next, or from
trough to trough is called the wave length. Waves travel in some definite direction, and
give the impression that they move forward, but in reality only the shape moves forward
while the water moves up and down. For example, a cork thrown into the water does not
travel with the waves, it moves up and down and to and fro, but not forwards. A wave is
driven on the shore by wind, and its height and force are determined by the strength of
the wind and the distance of open water over which it has blown.

Causes of ocean currents;

1. Prevailing winds
2. Rotation of the Earth
3. Salinity
4. The shape of continents
5. Differences of density and temperature of ocean water

The Ocean Floor

The ocean floor is literally the floor of the ocean. It is the bottom of the ocean when you dive.
The floor of the ocean is irregular. The major relief features of the ocean floor are explained
below:

31
1. Continental shelf: This is a gentle-slope margin of a continent that forms the shallow
areas of oceans. These shallow areas extend from the coast to a depth of about 200 meters
towards the ocean, and usually end suddenly.
2. Continental slope: The continental slope is found at the point where the continental shelf
forms a steep slope with the lower slope of the ocean floor towards the sea.
3. Ridge: A ridge is the raised part of the ocean floor. Some of these rides appear above the
surface of the oceans as oceanic islands.
4. Ocean deep or trench: An ocean deep is a long, narrow depression (or trough) found on
the ocean floor.
5. Deep sea plain (ocean plain): An ocean plain is the most extensive, flat area of the
ocean floor. It is a monotonous and undulating area. A large part of the plain is covered
by mud.

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 CHAPTER 4

WEATHER

Weather:
The conditions of the atmosphere which occur at a place at specific time period from hour to
hour or day to day. There for when we say it is hot, or wet, or cloudy we are saying something
about weather, which is the condition of the atmosphere at a place at a specific time periods
(from hour to hour or day to day). It is never be static, and thus cannot be generalized. In the
same country, even over a small area weather can vary tremendously. It may be sunny in one
part of district but raining heavily in few kilometers.

Climate:
Is the average weather condition of an area recorded over a long period of time (over 30 or 35
years). This involves systematic observation, recording and processing of the various elements of
climate such as rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, winds, clouds and sunshine before
any standardization of the climatic means or average can be arrived at. For example when we say
climate of Norway is hot wet equatorial climate that is the summing up of the average everyday
weather conditions of the country throughout the year.

Importance of weather:
1. Good weather improves people's lives
2. Weather determines the kind of clothing to be worn by people in an area.
3. Knowledge of the weather of a place enables people to carry out economic activities
which can be sustained by the weather in that place. E.g. dairy cattle do well in a cool and
wet place.
4. By studying the weather of a place over a long time, we can establish its climate.

Weather and Human activities

Most human activities affected by weather that is experienced at a place. For example, when the
rains are heavy, flooding occurs and causes damage to crops, animals and infrastructure like
roads. This means that few economic activities can take place. When there is no rain, plants and
animals die, rivers and streams dry up, and irrigation and other economic activities like fishing
cannot be carried out. Therefore weather affects the social economic activities of a place.

Elements of Weather
1. Sunshine
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Cloud cover
5. Precipitation
6. Wind
7. Atmospheric pressure

IMPORTANCE OF EACH ELEMENT OF WEATHER

1. Sunshine; this is the sun's rays that reach the surface of the earth.

33
 Importance of Sunshine
 The sun's energy enables plants to manufacture food through the process of
photosynthesis
 People need sunshine to dry their crops, food like cassava, millet, maize and fish
They also use sunshine to warm themselves Dries clothes after washing them

2. Temperature; This is how hot or cold an object or place is. The heat in the atmosphere is
supplied by the sun.
Importance of Temperature
 Warm is essential for plant and animal survival
 Plants need warm in order to manufacture their fool Facilitates formation of
clouds

3. Humidity; is the amount of water vapor (moisture) in the atmosphere. There are two
types of humidity:
a) Absolute humidity: Is the actual amount of water vapor or moisture in a given
volume of air at a particular temperature.
b) Relative humidity: Is the ratio of the actual amount of water vapor or moisture
in a given volume of air (i.e. absolute humidity) to the maximum amount of
water vapor that the same volume of air can hold at the same temperature

4. Cloud Cover; Clouds are masses of tiny droplets of water or ice particles or both which
are suspended in the atmosphere. They are formed when water vapor or moisture in the
atmosphere cools and condenses.
Importance of cloud cover
 Are important because they condense to form rain and other forms of
precipitation.

5. Precipitation; This refers as the fall or deposition of moisture water vapor or frozen
water from the atmosphere onto the earth’s surface. All life on the earth is purely
dependent on moisture provided through precipitation.
Importance of Precipitation
 Rain provides water for plants to grow (i.e. water for irrigation, growth of grass
and pasture depend on rain).
 Animals also need water to drink
 Human needs water for domestic and industrial uses.

Note: Excess rain and rainstorms result in disasters due to flooding

6. Wind; Wind is air in motion. It is made up of variety of gases, such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Wind move horizontally from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure.
Importance of wind
 They cause flow of heat and moisture and their transfer from one point to
another and are also responsible for the movement of clouds.

34
  Wind direction and wind speed or velocity is two important aspects in
geography.
 Wind direction is important because it help us to understand characteristics of
the particular winds in terms of temperature and moisture content.
 Wind speed or velocity determines wind strength or force and therefore
determines weather conditions of a place. Example, when strong winds blow
over a place, little or no rainfall will be experienced.

7. Atmospheric Pressure; this is the force at a point on the earth's surface due to the
weight of air above that point. The atmosphere is the air surrounding earth's surface and it
has weight, which is force with which it presses down on a unit area. The weight of
atmosphere on the earth's surface and at sea level at 1033.3g/cm2. Areas of very low
pressure cause feeling of weightlessness and that is the feeling one gets when he or she is
on top of a very high mountain like Mt Kilimanjaro. Areas under very low pressure may
experience very strong winds periodically as air flows into such areas from high pressure
regions.

Weather Station
Is a place where the elements of weather are measured and recorded. Or a station for taking
meteorological observations, making weather forecasts, and disseminating such information.
Examples of the elements are temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall, wind direction and speed,
cloud cover, and sunshine.

Stevenson Screen
Is the white wooden box, which is mounted on four legs with louver sides in order to allow free
air to enter inside. In order to prevent sun’s heat to reach inside, the roof is double bodied. The
screen is painted white to improve insulation. The screen is then placed on a stand which is about
121 centimeters above the ground. Instruments used to measure elements of weather.

Instruments Used for Measuring Elements of Weather

1. TEMPERATURE; is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body, an instrument used to
measure temperature is THERMOMETER and expressed in degrees of centigrade or
Fahrenheit scales. There are three main types of thermometer inside the Stevenson
screen, these includes minimum thermometer, the maximum thermometer, and six’s
thermometer.
a) Maximum Thermometer; Is the thermometer made of glass and uses mercury
to measure and record the highest temperature reached in a day. The maximum
temperature is read from the side of the metal index nearest to the mercury. When
the temperature falls the mercury falls, leaving behind the metal index still
indicating the maximum temperature reached. A magnet is used to bring back the
metal index into contact with the mercury.
b) Minimum Thermometer; Is the thermometer used to measure and record the
lowest temperature reached in a day. Alcohol is used because it has lower
freezing point than mercury. Any fall in temperature will cause the alcohol
column to contract and the meniscus (the curved upper surface of the alcohol
column) will pull the index back along the tube whenever temperature rises, the

35
 alcohol will expand and flow freely past the metal index without pushing it up.
Therefore the metal index is always left as a record of the lowest temperature
reached between the readings. The part of the metal index away from the bulb
will indicate the lowest temperature reached.
c) Six’s Thermometer; This thermometer used for measuring and recording
maximum and minimum temperature reached in a day. The thermometer consists
of a “U” shaped glass tube. When temperature rises, the alcohol on the left hand
side expands, pushing the mercury underneath downward and up the right hand
side. While the mercury on the right hand side rises, it pushes the metal index
upwards, until the highest temperature is reached for the day. This temperature is
read from the scale on the right hand side, when temperature falls the alcohol on
the left hand side contracts. This pushes the mercury downward and up by the
mercury. Reading and Recording Temperature are taken every day in the
morning at regular fixed times but not later than 9:00 a.m. In well-equipped
meteorological station, temperature are measured and recorded continuously by
self-recording instrument called thermograph.

What does the following mean?

a) The mean daily temperature is the average of the maximum and minimum temperature.
The monthly range of temperature is the difference between the highest mean daily
temperature and the lowest mean daily temperature in a month.
b) The daily range of temperature Daily range of temperature is the different between the
maximum and the minimum temperatures.
c) The annual range of temperature the annual range of temperature in a year which is the
difference between the highest mean monthly temperature and the lowest mean monthly
temperature. The temperature is represented by using a graph. Lines are drawn to connect
places with the same mean monthly temperature. These lines are known as isotherms.

Factors Affecting Temperature

Factors that affect temperature include: altitude, ocean currents, and distance from the sea,
latitude and prevailing winds.
i. Altitude; Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude at the rate of 0.6˚c for every
100 meters. That is why the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro with 5895 meters above sea
level permanently covered with ice.
ii. Ocean Currents; Ocean currents are either warm or cold. Warm currents raise the
temperature of wind blowing across them while cold currents lower temperature of such
winds. Some winds blowing on shore will influence the temperature of such winds in
some of coastal areas with the temperature of the ocean currents.
iii. Distance from the Sea; Distance from the sea affects temperature. This is because large
areas of land masses lying at great distance from the sea do not get the moderating
influence of the oceans. Lack of these moderating effects makes the land masses
experience very low temperature in winter and very high temperature in summer. This
extremely results in high annual range of temperature. The interior of the continent of
Asia is a typical example.

36
iv. Latitude; The amount of heat received at any place depends on the angle at which the
sun’s rays strike the surface of the earth and the duration of sunshine. At the equator the
sun’s rays reached the earth’s surface at almost right angles. Throughout the year but the
angle decreases as one move towards the pole. Therefore temperature decreases with
increase in latitude because the sun rays spread over a larger area and its heating effect
decreases.
v. Prevailing wind; winds which blow from warm region increase the temperature of a
place while winds from cold region lower the temperature of a place.
vi. Aspects; the slopes facing the sun get higher temperature than the slopes facing away
from the sun.
vii. Clouds; if there are clouds in the sky the temperature become low. Clouds lower the
temperature of a place because absorb or reflect sun rays.

2. HUMIDITY; The sun’s heat causes water to evaporate from the surface of the ocean and
other water bodies. To form water vapor in the atmosphere. Humidity is the amount of
water vapor in air. Or Humidity is the state of the atmosphere in relation to the amount of
water vapor it contains. Humidity indicates the degree of dampness of the air and it is one
of the main influences on weather. It is expressed in either absolute or relative terms.
Absolute humidity, expressed in grams per cubic meter, is the actual amount of water
vapor present in a certain volume of air at a given temperature. Relative humidity is the
amount of water vapor present in a mass of air expressed as a percentage of the total
amount of water vapor that would be present when that air is saturated at the temperature.
Air is saturated when the atmosphere cannot hold any more water vapor. This condition
depends on the temperature and pressure of the air.

Humidity is measured by a HYGROMETER which consists of wet and dry bulb

thermometers. The wet bulb thermometer is kept moist (wet) by wrapping it in Muslin
which is then dipped in a container of distilled water. When the air is not saturated water
evaporates from the muslin and cools the wet bulb. The cooling effect causes the mercury
to contract. The dry bulb is not affected in the same way as wet bulb because it does have
a Muslin wrapping.

It is affected by the surrounding air. So when the air is not saturated the two
thermometers show different readings, when the air is saturated the two thermometers
show the same readings. Therefore when there is a big difference in reading between the
two thermometers humidity is low and when there is small difference humidity is high.

3. PRECIPITATION; Precipitation refers to the deposition of moisture from the

atmosphere on the earth’s surface. It includes dew, frost, snow, mist and hail, sleet and
rain.
i. Dew; Is the water vapor that condenses on solid objects when the dew is reached.
The droplets formed after condensation of water vapor which is then deposited
on the cool surface such as building, leaves, grass and stones.
ii. Frost; Frost is a tiny ice crystals deposited on objects on the ground; frost is
formed when temperature falls below freezing point.
37
iii. Snow; Snow is the frozen droplets of water; snow formed when water vapor in
the atmosphere turns into crystals of ice and reaches the ground before melting.
iv. Mist; Mist refers to tiny water droplets suspended immediately above the
ground. Frost is similar to mist but it is denser with less visibility.
v. Hail; Hail is the form of precipitation falling with small ice blocks.
vi. Sleet; Is a mixture of snow and rain. It forms when the temperature of the ground
is lower than the temperature above.
vii. Rain; Rain is the droplets of water falling from the atmosphere after
condensation. When water vapor rises, It cools at high altitude until dew point is
reached. Dew point is the temperature rate at which the atmosphere is saturated
with water vapors. Condensation takes place after dew point has been reached to
form water droplets. These droplets combine to form larger drops which fall as
rain.

Types of Rainfall
i. Convectional Rainfall; When rain is formed through vertical rising of moist air
currents it is called convectional rain Convectional currents arise due to
differential heating of the earth’s surface. Convectional rains are common in the
tropical areas.
ii. Relief Rainfall; Sometimes moist winds are forced by a high mountain to rise
and when they reach high altitude the moisture in them condenses to form
droplets, which fall as rain. Rain formed in this way is called relief or
orthographical rain. The sides of the mountain facing the direction of the winds is
known as the wind ward side while that which faces away from the direction of
the wind is known as the lee wards side or the rain shadow, the lee ward side gets

38
 very little rain is a typical example of rain shadow in Tanzania is found in the
western side of mountain Kilimanjaro, winds blow from the Indian Ocean in the
east and are forced by this mountain to rise and drop most of their moisture on
the eastern and south eastern slopes. When these winds blow to the western side
of the mountain they already relatively dry.
iii. Cyclonic Rainfall; When large masses of air with different characteristics of
temperature and moisture, cyclonic rain may occur. As the warm and moist air is
forced up over the cool and dry air, it expands. At higher altitude the warm air
cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds and rain. On the other hand
tropical cyclones are formed over oceans is the tropical between latitude 8°N and
8° S. They usually bring very heavy rainfall and are associated with
thunderstorms and very fast moving wind, which often causes destruction along
coastal settlements. In the Caribbean and U.S.A tropical cyclones are called
hurricanes in Africa they are known as cyclones and in China and Japan they are
called typhoons. Rainfall is measured by using a RAIN GAUGE. The rain gauge
consist of an outer case , a copper receiving vessel, a funnel whose diameter is
normally 13 centimeters, a clear glass jar or bottle and a graduated measuring
cylinder.

Convectional rainfall

39
 Orographic rainfall

Cyclonic rainfall

Rainfall Variation
Rainfall variation is a normal phenomenon on the earth which is caused by a number of factors.
Some of them include Ocean currents, distance from the equator, prevailing winds, water bodies,
nature and shape of the coast, distance from the sea, altitude and human activities.
i. Ocean Currents; There are two types of Ocean Currents. The warms and the cold
currents. The warm Ocean Currents yield rainfall over the adjustment land. This is
because the winds cross over them do carry large amounts of moisture for example
Mozambique current. Much rainfall is experienced along the East Coast of Africa. Cold
ocean currents are crossed by wind which have no moisture, hence brings very little or no
rain in the adjacent land. For example banguera currents in South-West Africa coast and
the canary current in the north-west coast of Africa.

40
 ii. Distance from the Equator; Areas along the equator receive more rain than areas away
from it. This is because of high amount of solar radiation, which result into evaporation
and raising of air moisture hence condensation takes place resulting into convectional
rainfall. Congo basin and Brazil are few examples which receive much rainfall due to
their position. Prevailing winds. Winds blowing from the land towards the sea (off-shore)
are carrying moist air from the land and yield no rainfall except in the sea. These winds
usually lead to dryness of the land with very low rains in the coast. Effects of these winds
are development of deserts. E.g. the Sahara Dessert in the North of Africa.

Lack of water bodies. Areas with large water bodies such as areas around Lake Victoria
receive much rain than areas without water bodies like central Tanzania and North
Eastern Kenya. Water bodies increase much rain to adjacent areas. Nature and shape of
the coast. The coastal areas, which align parallel to the prevailing wind such as the N.E
trade winds move parallel with the North Eastern Coast of Kenya, yield no rainfall. As
result a dry climate is experienced along the coast.

iii. Distance from the Sea; The areas near the sea or ocean experience high rainfall due to
winds blowing moisture from the sea which would cause rainfall to the coastal areas.
Areas that are very far from the sea receive very little or no rainfall for example, Dar es
Salaam in Tanzania and Mombasa in Kenya receive heavier rains than Dodoma, Singida
and Tabora, which have long distance from the Indian Ocean.
iv. Altitude; Altitude is also a factor for uneven distribution of rainfall; highlands force the
warm air to rise over them. When they condense, they cause rain to fall on the wind ward
side. The other side of the highland (leeward) may receive very little or no rainfall at all.
People of such areas includes the eastern part of South Africa receives heavy rain
(orographic) while the Western part experiences prolonged droughts due to effects of
Drankersburg mountains. The eastern part of East Africa also receives heavier rainfall
than the western side due to warm moist winds blowing from the Indian Ocean.
v. Human Activity; Besides other environmental benefit plants or trees intercept
precipitation and return moisture to the air through transpiration and evaporation. This
process becomes balanced when there is no destruction of the vegetation. Human activity
such as settlement, animal rearing, farming and transportation however can cause rainfall
variations on the earth’s surface through land degradation.

When people cut trees or clear the bushes, land is naturally destroyed. The destruction of
vegetation disturbs evaporation, condensation and precipitation process, which are
necessary elements of rainfall. In turn the amount of precipitation in the air is interrupted
either by causing floods or droughts. The California desert in U.S.A and the Sahel in
Africa are the results of droughts caused by human activities, which have led to the
expansion of the deserts in the 1980s.

Rainfall Effects
Too much rainfall for example, the case of Elnino (1998) results into negative impacts on life
and properties such as:
i. Heavy rainfall may cause destruction of houses, roads bridges and crops.
ii. Loss of life for both human and animals.

41
iii. Floods, which are the results of heavy rainfall, may result into eruption of diseases such
as malaria, cholera, and dysentery.
iv. On the other hand, too little rainfall leads to little yield of food and cash crops. Famine
and hunger in the parts of the world is a result of lack of rainfall.

Prolonged dry seasons in some parts of the world have resulted into the loss of lives of
both animals and the people. North Eastern Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Ethiopia are
some of the areas where people and animals have lost their lives because of long
droughts. Rainfall reliability leads to continuous crops production and animal keeping
hence improves standard of living and the industrial development of a nation may be
realized. Sustainable agriculture is made possible and people are assured of enough food
and cash crops.

4. PRESSURE; It is the air surrounding the earth’s surface from the atmosphere. The
atmosphere has weight. The force with which it presses down on a unit area is called
atmospheric pressure. The pressure is exerted equally in all directions. To demonstrate
that atmospheric pressure is exerted equally in all directions one can do the following
experiment. Take a glass with full of water. Cover the top of the glass with a piece of thin
paper Hold the glass upside down. Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument
called a BAROMETER.

Types of Barometer
i. Mercury Barometer; It is a simple apparatus consisting of a glass of about 9.2
centimeters long and bowl filled with mercury. The glass tube is filled with
mercury and being put upside down in the bowl of mercury. At sea level the
mercury will fall until the column is about 76 centimeters above the surface of the
mercury in the bowl. A vacuum is left at the top of the tube. To read the pressure
centimeter rule is placed besides the glass tube and the change in height of the
mercury column gives the reading of the atmospheric pressure. Mercury
barometers are not portable.
ii. Aneroid Barometer; It consists of an air fight box of thin metal containing very
little air. The top of this box moves inwards and outwards with changes in
atmospheric pressure. This movement is transmitted by a system of levers to a
circular seal with a pointer which shows the reading of atmospheric pressure.
Pressure is expressed in millimeters with reference to the height of mercury
column or in mill bars. A bar is the standard unit of pressure measurement. It is
divided into one thousand units called mill bars. At sea level pressure is one
thousand millimeters of mercury or 1.5 kilograms of force per square centimeters.
This is equivalent to 1013.2 mill bars approximately one bar. Lines joining places
with the same pressure are called isobars. Pressure decreases at the rate of 10 mill
bars for every 100 meters increase in height because the thickness of the
atmosphere decreases.

42
 Questions and Answers
i. What is pressure? Pressure is the air surrounding the earth’s surface forms the
atmosphere.
ii. Define atmospheric pressure – Is the force with which atmosphere presses down on
a unit area
iii. Atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer
iv. Two types of barometers are; a) A mercury barometer. b) Aneroid barometer.
v. Pressure is expressed in millimeter.
vi. A bar is the standard unit of pressure measurement
vii. It is divided into one thousand units called mill bars.
viii. Lines joining places with the same pressure is called isobars.

Mention three roles of pressure in human life.

i. Partial filling of tires hinders proper movement of the vehicle.
ii. Pressure is also helpful to the patients whose parts of body fail and pump blood to
other parts of the body.
iii. Other pressured things include the decoration balloons and playing.

5. WINDS; Wind is air in motion from high pressure to low pressure area.
 SEA BREEZE (DAY) is when winds blow from sea to land during a day.
 LAND BREEZE (NIGHT); this occurs during night when winds blow from land
to sea.
During the day the land is usually warmer than the sea, and the air pressure on the land is
lower than that over the sea. Therefore winds blow from sea to land. These winds are
known as sea breezes. During the night the land is cooler than the sea and there is low
pressure on the sea. Therefore winds blow from land to sea, these are called land breezes.
There are great variations in the general patterns of wind systems in areas of the earth’s
surface where there are large land masses adjacent to large water bodies. During summer,
intense low pressure develops in central Asia in the Northern hemisphere and winds blow
inform of high pressure over the Indian and pacific oceans. Wind belts of the world
occasionally in the westerly wind system depressions and anticyclones develop.

A depression is an area of low pressure in which winds blow a circular motion. This
motion is anti-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere but clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. A depression develops when cold heavy air comes into contact with warm
moisture. A depression is usually associated with cyclonic rains.

 Anticyclones are areas of high pressure in which winds blow in a clockwise circular
motion in the Northern hemisphere. They normally follow a depression and are
associated with cool fine weather with no rain.

i. Wind Direction is measured by a WIND-VANE. A wind-vane consists of a freely

rotating arrow fitted to a central rod. The arrow of the wind-vane always points to the
direction from which winds blows, and the wind is named after this direction. Four arms
marking the directions of the cardinal points are fixed to the stationary central rod.

43
 ii. Wind Speed is measured by an instrument called an ANEMOMETER. This instrument
consists of three or four horizontal arms that when there is wind the arms rotate. This
movement operates a meter which records the speed of the wind in kilometers per hour.

WEATHER FORECASTING
Weather forecasting is defined as a prediction of weather condition of a place at a given time
approximately 24 to 48hrs. Weather forecasting is obtained through two methods namely,
traditional and modern methods.
i. The traditional method predicts weather through observation of types of birds’ voices,
crocking of frogs, rainbow, migration of birds, changes of wind direction, position of the
moon and general body feeling. The method is still widely used in predicting weather by
the indigenous communities.
ii. Modern method involves the use of modern equipment such as satellites, electronic
computers, radar, and aircraft, balloons, ships, submarines, rockets and daily records
from weather stations. This method of predicting weather is more reliable and accurate.

Modern Methods and Instruments Used for Weather Forecasting

1) Radio sound; this is an instrument used to register pressure and temperature from the
ground to roughly 12km above the ground. The instruments are fixed to balloons filled
with helium gas and are released into the atmosphere every day at a particular time from
different weather stations. The radio sound transmits radio signals to computers on the
ground station where they are analyzed. The signal transmitted give pressure, temperature
and humidity readings at different altitude. These balloons are made in such a way that
they burst when they reach a certain altitude.
2) Satellite; The satellite used for predicting weather is human made space. They move
around the earth so that they can provide various types of information. They are also used
in radio, television and telephone communication. Satellite transmits photographs on
weather conditions on a daily basis. The movement of clouds can be predicted from an
analysis of the movement of winds force period of 24hours.
3) Persistence method This is simpler way of making a weather forecast. It assumes that
the atmosphere conditions of a place at the time of forecast will not change. For example,
if it is 28°C in Dodoma today the persistence method predicts that it will still be 28°C in
Dodoma tomorrow. If two inches of rain fell in Arusha yesterday, this method predicts
that two inches of rain will fall in Arusha today.
4) Statistical forecasting; In this method, meteorologists ask themselves how is the weather
usually like at this time of the year?. They then collect records of average temperatures
and rainfall over the last five years. This give forecasters an idea of what the weather is
"supposed to be like" at the certain time of year.

Weather Forecasting is Useful to People in the following ways;

1) Farmers planning their work for a year. This is because weather broad casting helps
farmers to adjust their farming activities to suit the expected weather conditions.
2) Weather broadcasting greatly influence transport since it helps sailors and air travelers to
know condition of the winds.
3) Helps in planning sport activities.
4) Helps in selecting suitable clothes.

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5) Helps fishermen to plan their fishing activities.
6) Helps contractors to plan for suitable houses.
7) Helps in geographical expeditions like tours and military.
8) Military personnel benefit from weather broadcasting as they can plan their military
activities depending on weather conditions.

TERMS;
1. Ocktas; is used to express the amount of clouds.
2. Isonephs; the lines on the map which joins/ connects all places with equal clouds cover.
3. Comp bell stokes/ sunshine recorder; is used to measure amount of sunshine.
4. Rain gauge; is used to measure amount of rainfall.
5. Hygrometer; is used to measure amount of humidity.
6. Thermometer; is used to measure amount of temperature.
7. Isohels; the lines joining all places with the same/ equal duration of sunshine.
8. Isohytes; the lines on the map joining all places with equal amount of rainfall.
9. Cyclones; area with low air pressure.
10. Anti-clones; area with high air pressure.
11. Wind ward; the side of mountain facing the wind and receives more rainfall.
12. Lee wards; the opposite side facing away from the wind and receives low rainfall.
13. Isobars; the lines on a map joining all places with equal amount of pressure.
14. Milibars; the units of atmospheric pressure.
15. Doldrums; equatorial low pressure.
16. Isokinetics; the lines on a map which join all places with equal movement of wind.
17. Evaporimeter; is used to measure amount of evaporation.

CALCULATIONS;

1. If the temperature at Dar es Salaam at the sea level [0 meters] is 35˚C. Find the
temperature of Singida 1200 meters high.

Solution;
Different in height = 1200-0m=1200m
Note; in every 100m upward above sea level temperature decreases about 0.6˚C
Change 1200m into temperature by using the rate 0.6˚C= 100 meters
0.6˚C= 100m
X = 1200m
100x = 720m
100x/100= 720/100
X= 7.2˚C
Notes; the altitude of Singida is higher than Dar es Salaam hence the temperature of
Singida will be low.
= 35˚C-7.2 = 27.8˚C
Temperature of Singida will be 27.8˚C

2. If the temperature of Mbeya [2000 meters] above the sea level is 28˚C what will be the
temperature at Kilwa [700 meters] high?

45
 Solution;
2000m-700m = 1300m
0.6˚C= 100m
X =1300m
100x/100= 0.6 x 1300/100
X= 7.8˚C
The temperature of Kilwa will be higher than that of Mbeya because the altitude/ height
of Kilwa is lower than Mbeya. Hence; Kilwa’s temperature= 28˚C+ 7.8˚C= 35.8˚C

3. Find the height/ altitude of Mbeya if its temperature is 28˚C, when it is 35.8˚C at Kilwa
[700meters] high.

Solution;
Different in temperature = 35.8˚C- 28˚C= 7.8˚C
Change 7.8˚C into meters
0.6˚C=100m
7.8˚C= x
0.6x=7.8 x 100
0.6x/0.6= 780/0.6
= 7800/6
=1300m
The height of Mbeya will be higher because its temperature is low. Hence Mbeya’s
altitude/ height = 1300m+700m= 2000m.

46
 CHAPTER 5

MAP WORK

Meaning of a map
A map is a scaled representation the earth’s surface on a flat material. For example a piece of
paper, wall, clothes and a piece of wood. Map reading is the process of examining the given
topographical map, conventional symbols and signs Map interpretation is the process of
examining a given topographical map of an area represented for the purpose of identifying the
geographical information of an area.

TYPES OF MAPS
1. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS; are the maps which show natural and artificial features on
the Earth’s surface e.g. oceans, lakes, hills, mountains and forests.
2. STATISTICAL MAPS; are maps which show the distribution of different geographical
elements on the Earth’s surface e.g. rainfall, population and temperature.

COMPONENTS / ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD MAP

A map is good if it contains all the essentials of maps, therefore the essentials are good qualities
of maps. The essentials of a good map are:
1. Key. Used to interpret symbols and signs found on a map. They appear in a box at one of
the bottom corner of the map.
2. Title; Used to show what’s map is all about. This is the heading of the map. It can appear
on top of the map or anywhere else.
3. North direction; this is an indication of the north direction. It shows where north is and
by knowing north one can know the direction and bearing of the place.
4. Margin; this is a boundary or limit around the map. It gives or shows the reader and
interpreter the end of the map.
5. Scale; It shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance for
example 1cm to 10km means one centimeter on the map represents ten kilometers on the
ground.
6. Latitude and Longitude / Grid Reference. It used to locate the place on the map. For
example the map of Tanzania is located at latitude 6°00' south of the equator and
longitude 35°00' east of Greenwich meridian.
7. Publisher and date publication; this shows when the map was produced and a publisher.

MAP SCALE
Is the relationship or ratio between map distance and actual ground distance.
Scale = Map distance / Ground (actual) distance.

Types of Scale
We can classify the scale according to the size in our criteria. There are three types of scales;

47
1. Large Scale; they are used to present information on small areas for example a map of
village buildings and farms. The map size involves all numbers less than 1:25000 i.e.
1:10000 and 1:5000

Characteristics of large scale

 It has smaller numbers in the denominator.
 It shows features clearly
 It contains geographical details.

2. Medium Scale; They are used to represent medium details shown on the map. i.e.
1:50,000 and 1:100,000. Example of a map that can be drawn using medium scale is a
map of a district, region, city etc.
3. Small Scale; They are used to present information that is long. This type of scale covers
a big area with less detail. For example a map of a country, continent or world. May
involve numbers between 1: 500,000 to 1 :1000,000

Characteristics of small scale

 It has the largest denominator.
 Contains a lot of geographical information.
 It does not show geographical features clearly.

Ways Used to Express Map Scale

1. Statement Scale; Refers to the scale which is expressed in terms of words or
explanation. For example one centimeter on a map is equivalent to 10 centimeters on the
ground.
2. Linear Scale; Also is called plain or graphic scale. This is a line which is divided into
two parts. The primary division and secondary division. The secondary are expressed in
meters and placed on the left side from zero and primaries are expressed in kilometers
and placed on the right side from zero.
3. Representative Fraction (RF) Scale; Is written as a fraction or ratio eg. 1:50,000 50,000
the distance on a map is expressed as fraction of the actual distance on the ground.
Therefore, RF scale = map distance Ground distance. The top number (numerator)
represents the map distance on the ground and is usually more than.

Scale Conversion
a) To change R.F scale into statement
1:50,000 convert into statement scale
Soln;
1 KM = 100,000 CM
Take the denominator (50,0000) divide by 100,000 (actual number in a km) 50,000 /
100,000 = 0.5 KM Thus, One centimeter to half kilometer (1cm to 0.5km)

b) To change statement to R.F scale.

1cm represents 60km
Soln;
1km=100000cm

48
 60km= x 1:6000000
Therefore R.F scale = 1:6000000

Importance of Scale on the Map

1. Scale help to calculate area of a map
2. It enable us to calculate distance on a map
3. Scale shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance
4. Scale help us to enlarge and reduce the area on a map or the whole map
5. Scale can be used to calculate the vertical exaggeration on a map
6. Scale is used to calculate the gradient on a map

Measuring Distance on the Map

Distance is the length of elongated features on the earth’s surface such as road, railway and
river. In order to obtain distance of any feature on the map, consideration should be made on
whether the distance to be measured is straight or curved. Straight distance for all straight
distances a ruler is used to obtain the distance directly from the topographical map given. Curved
distance; It becomes difficult to obtain curved distance of the features by the use of a ruler
directly from the topographical map when the area is inclined. In this case the following devices
can be used:-
1. A pair of divider; A pair of divider is commonly used to measure the distance. You
should start by breaking the length by using a pair of dividers then transfer some of the
already drawn straight lines. Then transfer the measured line to the linear scale or ruler
for calculation to get the actual distance.
2. A piece of a string; Slowly measures the distances by a piece of string along a given
length then transfer it to a linear scale or ruler for actual calculation of the distance.
3. A piece of strip paper; Slowly lay a piece of paper along a given length then break your
lengths into short segments then transfer to the linear scale for measuring and calculation.

Measuring Areas on a Map / Calculate Area of Regular Irregular

Area size refers to the bigness or smallness of an area on the earth’s surface i.e. the bigness or
smallness of earth’s surface from topographical map consideration should be made whether the
area is regular or not.
1. Regular Shape; These are areas with definite shapes such as squares, triangles etc. Their
total perimeters or areas are obtained by mathematical formula i.e. length x width, side x
side etc.
2. Irregular Shape; These are areas with indefinite shapes such as lakes, farms, ponds etc
where these areas can be obtained by any of the following three methods;
 Square method
 Strip Method
 Geometrical method

Square Method
This is the most accurate and most widely method used. Square methods are normally used as
follows;
 Count all full squares that are complete
 Count incomplete squares and divide them by 2

49
  Add them with the full squares to obtain the total area in km square.

Methods Used to Show or Locate Positions of a Place on a Map

1. Grid reference
2. Place name
3. Bearing and compass direction.
4. Latitude and longitude.

1. Grid Reference; Grid reference is a network of vertical lines and horizontal lines on a
map. Vertical lines whose numbers increases towards the east are called easting.
Horizontal lines whose numbers increase towards the north is known as Northing’s.
Where horizontal lines and vertical lines meet or cross each other they form a square
known as grid square. A grid reference point is written inform of six digits starting with
three digits of Easting’s then three digits of Nothings.
A = 343086 B = 333036 C = 383077 D = 397046
NB: To write numbers of grid reference starts with easting then northing.

2. Place Name. You can locate the position of a place by where the features are found i.e.
Kigoma, Mbeya, Dodoma and Lindi.
3. Compass Bearing and Direction

How to find direction of a place on map

 Identify them due to points on the given map.
 Points may be given by using grid reference points, place name or letter.
 Draw a straight line connecting the two points Mark the major four cardinal
points at the starting point with the word from.

How to Find Bearing on the Map

1. Identify the grid reference points given on the maps.
2. Draw a straight line connecting the two points
3. Draw the major four cardinal lines at the starting
4. Use a protector to measure degree clockwise from north up to the line joining the two
points.
5. Then Provide your answer in degrees

BEARING
1. Forward Bearing Is a bearing into a subject.
Procedures to calculate forward bearing
 Identify the two points.
 Join them with a straight lines
 Draw north direction on a second point.
 Measure the angle by using a protector.
 State the bearing in terms of degrees of the direction.

2. Backward Bearing. Is the opposite of forward bearing, it’s taken from the object to
the observer while forward bearing is taken from observer to the object.

50
 How to determine the back bearing:
 Find forward bearing.
 Mark the cardinal point north direction of the opposite point
 Find the bearing of the observer along the straight line principally to
determine the back bearing
BB= FB +1800 if FB < 180°
BB= FB -1800 if FB >180°

For example:
The forward bearing (FB) of Tukuyu from Kyela is 45°, Back bearing (BB) will be; BB = FB +
or – 180°. BB = 45° +180° (FB added because it’s not greater than 180) Therefore Back bearing
is 225°

Importance of the Use of Maps

1. People use them to reach their directions
2. Maps are used to describe the features of the earth
3. Builders are maps to plan the best use of the land
4. Road constructors use maps to construct new roads
5. Maps are useful in military activities
6. Maps are used in conducting various geographical researches

51
Geography Form 2 Notes

52
 CHAPTER 1

HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Human activities can be defined as follows:

1. Are what people do or cause to happen in order to achieve a certain goal in life.
2. Are functions or tasks or work carried out or done by human beings over time for
achieving certain purposes or goals.
3. Are acts or processes of producing certain things intended by people in a place, which
can be a country, region, district or a village.

Therefore human activities are carried out with certain goals or purposes;
1. Production of food crops.
2. Production of cash crops.
3. Construction of infrastructure that facilitate movement of goods, services and people
4. Cleaning the area to avoid pollution and outbreak of diseases like cholera, amoebic
dysentery, etc.
5. Human activities use up resources to produce products and services.

MAJOR TYPES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

1. Primary Activities; Primary activities involve exploitation of nature in the production of
materials. Production in this kind of activities largely depends on the earth’s natural
resources. Examples of primary activities include:
 Farming (Agriculture), hunting and gathering
 Mining and Quarrying,
 Fishing, mining and quarrying,
 Forestry (Lumbering)
 Hunting and gathering, livestock keeping
2. Secondary Activities; These are human activities that involve a process of
manufacturing raw materials into useful products. Secondary activities are of great
importance as they lead to fast economic development since they produce products that
have immediate demands in the society. They also accelerate development of primary
activities by providing a market for raw materials produced through lumbering,
agriculture and mining. Examples of Secondary Activities:
 Coffee pulping, cotton ginning,
 Sisal decortications, cloth making,
 Construction of houses, manufacturing of glass,
 Car assembly, making paper, making glue,
 Processing of steel and iron from ore.
3. Tertiary Activities; these are the activities that involve the provision of services that are
needed in the society. Examples of tertiary activities include:
 Trade (restaurants, hotels, lodges, supermarkets), water supply
 Schools (Teachers), advertising, mechanics
 Hospitals (Doctors), legal services in court, entertainment,
 Transportation (Driving), plumbing, waste management, religious services.

53
 4. Quaternary Activities; These are activities that involve provision of intellectual services
and information. These activities were formally included in the tertiary activities.
Quaternary activities include; High-tech industries with information technology, scientific
research, consultancies and library services. Computer based activities like making
software are part and parcel of quaternary activities. In general quaternary activities are
considered to be new and started in the last decade.
5. Quinary Activities; these are activities that are done by top executives or officials in
fields such as governments. They involve the highest level of planning and decision
making in the society or economy. Quaternary and quinary activities e.g. research and
information is important in the development of farming, mining, tourism and trade.

Importance of Human Activities

1. Helps in generation of government revenue
2. Helps in producing raw materials such as cotton for textile industries.
3. They provide employment to peoples in the country.
4. Human activities such as agriculture and fishing lead to production of food.
5. Activities like construction of roads contribute to the development of transport and
communication networks.

Environmental Problems Caused by Human Activities

Apart from having positive impacts on the development of the country, human activities tend to
lead to occurrence of various environmental problems as follows:
1. Air pollution. This can be caused by industrial emissions and burning of agricultural
activities
2. Water pollution. It can be caused by dumping of untreated waste materials into the water
bodies.
3. Soil pollution. It can be caused by dumping of radioactive materials into the ground and
applying chemicals in the farms.
4. Deforestation. This can take place when trees are excessively cleared during preparation
of large farms, lumbering, overgrazing and settlements.
5. Soil erosion. This takes place easily on the land that has been left bare due to excessive
cutting of trees for lumbering, farming and construction.

Measures for Controlling Environmental Problems Caused by Human Activities

Environment problems caused by human activities can be addressed in various ways which
include:
1. Discouraged the improper dumping of waste in the soil or water
2. The use of modern methods in agricultural activities such as crop rotation, inter cropping,
fallowing strips, contour ridging.
3. Encouraging Afforestation and restricting deforestation
4. Excessive use of chemicals in the control of pests should also be discouraged.
5. The government should enact strict laws.

54
 CHAPTER 2

AGRICULTURE

Meaning of agriculture
Agriculture is the branch of science which deals with crop cultivation and animal keeping. Crop
cultivation is also called arable farming, and or animal keeping is called pastoral farming or
livestock husbandry. Agriculture is categorized as a primary activity since it involves the
production of raw materials that can be used by other industries.
1. SMALL SCALE AGRICULTURE; This is a farming system that takes place on a
small area (1 to 5 hectares) to produce food crops, cash crops and small scale livestock
farming aimed at providing the essential needs of the family.

Characteristics of Small Farming at Subsistence Level

a) Labor force involves the use of members of the families
b) Implication of simple tools like hoes, machete to cultivate and few cases they use
animals.
c) There are varieties of ways to improve the fertility such as the use of organic
manure, mulching (covering the top soil with dead crops and animal remains to
retain moisture)
d) Many crops are grown at once. You can find the farm with mixed crops such as
beans, maize, sunflower and some watermelon.
e) Very little or no surplus. This is because subsistence agriculture is for
consumption.
f) The land cultivated for subsistence farming is always small
g) Little or no use of technology inform of seeds, manure and tools.
h) The common are maize (African staple food), millet, sunflower, fruits and
vegetables.

Advantages of Small Scale Agriculture

a) It is cheap because of the use of simple tools, local manure and local seeds
b) It provides food required to feed the population e.g. Maize, millet and wheat
c) Provide employments to the family members
d) It provides raw materials for the industries like cotton, tobacco, tea and coffee
e) It has encouraged the development of settlement among the farmers
f) It needs small area of land hence encourages the environmental conservation aspect

Disadvantages of Small Scale Agriculture

a) There is low production due to the use of simple tools, poor methods and poor diseases
control.
b) Poor quality of products of due to the use of poor farming methods and failure to control
diseases
c) Poverty among the farmers due to low production
d) Poor use of fertilizers can cause soil exhaustion
e) Poor storage facilities which lead to losses

55
 Effects of Rapid Population Growth on Small Scale Agriculture
Rapid population; is the demographic situation where number of people at a given area is
greater than the available resources. The available resources may include; Land, Water, Minerals
etc. Over population is sometimes called population pressure Continuous increase in the number
of people is a serious problem facing small scale agriculture because:
a) It leads to pressure for land
b) It leads to land degradation
c) amount of rainfall decrease because of clearing vegetation
d) There occurs shortage of food leading to starvation or famine
e) Poor health among the farmers due to shortage of food
f) It reduces the average size of land,
g) Over exploitation which lead to reduced soil fertility. In the other side increasing
population has increased amount of labor force in agriculture.

TYPES OF SMALL SCALE AGRICULTURE

1) SHIFTING CULTIVATION; Is the system in which a peasant keeps on shifting from
one area to another as a result of soil exhaustion. In this type of agriculture peasants
cultivates certain piece of land until the soil is exhausted after 2-5 years then shifts to a
new piece of land where he cleans and cultivates. It is the oldest method. Done by
burning of trees on a given area and set the area ready for cultivation. The crops grown
most of them being scanty crops. It involves slashing and burning of bushes and grasses.

It is practiced when there is low population for easy shifting and possession of a certain
piece of land Production is for subsistence Simple tools are used like hand hoes because
of low technology. The cultivators do not have permanent settlements since they expect
to leave any time, sites are selected in the virgin forest and therefore tend to be fertile

Advantages
a) More than one crop can be harvested in a plot
b) Burning involves production of ashes which assist in soil fertility
c) Food supply is assured since the family cultivates for self-sufficient basics
d) The system does not cost since simple tools are used for production
e) Family labor is used in the production process

Disadvantages
a) Deforestation and soil erosion
b) The use of fire kills [destroys] the natural habitats and wild animals
c) The system can be applied on the low populated areas
d) Low productivity because the plots are small and due to poor control of pests and
diseases.
e) Destruction of ozone layer due to burning of bushes and grasses.

Decline of Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation nowadays decline due to the following reasons;
a) Increased population, rapid increase of population has resulted in the shortage of land for
cultivation.

56
b) Advancement of science and technology
c) Influence of government policy which encourages on sedentary and other farming types
which are environmental friendly.
d) Reaction from environmentalists Engagement of people in other economic activities

2) BUSH FALLOWING; Is the system of farming in which peasant cultivates in a certain

area until it gets exhausted and leave it for a certain period of time to regain its fertility. It
differs from shifting cultivation in that farmers are settled and hence are rotating rather
than shifting to a new home. Rotational bush fallowing is the simplest form of sedentary
farming. This system took place after shifting cultivation failed to perform well due to
increase in population.

Characteristics of Rotational / Bush fallowing

a) Simplest tools are used through slightly more advanced technology than shifting
cultivation Slashing and burning of bushes
b) The community can involve or engage itself into other activities like fishing, hunting etc
c) Farmers are settled but the farms are the ones which are rotating.

Advantages
a) Since the people are settled they engage fully and effectively in the production process.
b) Slashing and burning involved in the farm preparation adds fertility to the land
c) Fallowing gives room for the improvement of the soil and encourages the recovery of
vegetation.
d) It takes places where there is high population unlike shifting cultivation.
e) Farmers can involve in other economic activities such as fishing.

Disadvantages
a) There is low production because of the use of low technology and simple tools
b) Slashing and burning can lead to environmental degradation as well as loss of
biodiversity.
c) Poor trade among communities

Ways of Improving Small Scale Agriculture

a) Proper ways of using fertilizers and pesticides etc
b) To educate farmers on good farming methods/practices
c) To discourage some traditional ways of life i.e. sex preference
d) Farmers should be given loans.
e) To establish market for selling crops
f) The government should facilitate good transport and communication network.
g) To encourage people to have permanent settlements so that they can organize their
farms.

2. LARGE SCALE FARMING; Is a type of agriculture which takes place in a large area
of land approximately 100 hectares. This is also known as commercial agriculture or state
agriculture. The money gained from large scale agriculture is essential for keeping the
system going on. The type of farming practiced is normally monoculture. In developing

57
 countries monoculture is associated with tropical and sub-tropical plantations which were
established through European colonization. The most pronounced from large scale
agriculture is plantation agriculture.

Characteristics of large scale farming

a) Involves the production of cash crops
b) Only one crop is produced [monoculture]
c) Farms are very large found in sparsely populated areas
d) Use of high levels of technology [tools are very much modern] hence high
capital.
e) It involves the use of skilled and unskilled laborers.

Advantages of Large Scale Agriculture

a) Productivity is very high and large amounts of capital/income is obtained
b) Risk of pests and diseases is highly reduced
c) Promotes the growth of other sectors
d) Promote the development of social services i.e. Housing Electricity And
water supply
e) Provides employment to the people.
f) It is the source of foreign money exchange.

Disadvantages of Large Scale Agriculture

a) Large capital is needed
b) Fluctuation of price in the world market [the farmers may face loss when
the price falls down]
c) It causes unequal development in different areas.
d) Loss of soil fertility due to continuous application of artificial fertilizers
for example ammonia sulfate.
e) It involves the exploitation of workers.
f) It causes air pollution.
g) It may cause separation of people away from home.

Problems Facing Large Scale Agriculture

a) Population increase which resulted into short age of land.
b) Lack of Government support.
c) Loss of soil fertility due to the act of practicing monoculture.
d) Poor science and technology
e) Poor transport and communication
f) Shortage of fund

Ways to Improve Large Scale Agriculture

a) The Government should enact and implement laws about population increase e.g. family
planning policy.
b) The Government should improve transport and communication systems such as railways,
roads etc.

58
 c) The Government should control rural-urban migration to overcome the problem of labor
supply.
d) The Government should provide loans/capital to the farmers.
e) The Government / stakeholders should encourage the use of modern farming methods
such as the use of machine and fertilizer.

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Refers to the large farm or large area of land designed for agricultural growth. Often includes
housing for the owner and workers. The crops planted for commercial purposes. Major African
countries involving in plantation agriculture:
 Palm oil are found in Nigeria and DRC,
 Rubber –Liberia,
 Sisal – Tanzania (Morogoro, Tanga),
 Tea - Malawi and Kenya,
 Sugar – South Africa,
 Tobacco – Zimbabwe & Tanzania (Lyamungu)

The major crops grown in plantation agriculture include the following:

1. Coffee; There are several types of coffee but the famous ones are three;
 Arabica; Have large leaves and can grow to 9m high; It has the finest flavor
 Robusta; they grow up to 5m tall.
 Liberica; It is a low land coffee

Uses of Coffee
 Beverage packing
 Source of income
 Leaves are used as medicine to treat stomach aches
 Trees are used as fire wood
 Pulps are used for fertilizers.

The chief producers of coffee in the world are such as; Brazil Columbia Ivory coast. And
the other percent comes from Mexico, Uganda, Indonesia, Ethiopia and India, in
Tanzania coffee is produced in Mbeya, Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Bukoba.

2. Cotton; It is an annual crop which is divided into three varieties basing on the size of the
fibrous and the lint. It is grown in Egypt and Persia. In Kenya, cotton is grown in Nyanza
district while in Uganda cotton is grown in the Buganda District.
3. Tea; Tea is grown in Tanzania mainly in Mbeya, Bukoba, Iringa, Kagera and Tanga
regions. Cotton in Kenya, cotton is grown in Nyanza district while in Uganda cotton is
grown in the Buganda District.
4. Sisal; In Tanzania sisal is mostly grown in Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Morogoro, Lindi
and Mtwara regions. Mombasa, Thika, Murang’a, Machakos and Taita-Taveta are areas
where sisal is produced in Kenya.
5. Wheat; The wheat yields in the world are highest from countries of Western Europe. The
following are leading producers of wheat: Russia, USA, China, India, Canada France,

59
 Turkey, Australia, Pakistani, German, Romania, Italy and Argentina. In East Africa,
Kenya is the leading procedure of wheat followed by Tanzania.

LIVESTOCK / PASTORAL FARMING

It is the keeping / rearing of animals (goats, cattle and sheep) and poultry (birds) .It can be
distinguished into traditional (subsistence) livestock keeping and modern (commercial) livestock
keeping
1. TRADITIONAL / SUBSISTENCE LIVESTOCK KEEPING; Livestock are kept in
one permanent place. Food and water are brought to the animals hence zero grazing
because no grazing is involved.
i. Pastoralism; Pastoralism is an economic activity which involves grazing
livestock (animals) on natural pastures. The pure pastoral societies of East
Africa include: Maasai, Karamajong. The cultivator pastoralists (mixed farmers)
include the Sukuma, Gogo and Nyamwezi.
ii. Nomadic Pastoralism; Is practiced by wondering groups of people in remote
areas especially semi –desert and desert areas. Nomads are members of a group
of people who having no fixed home, move around seasonally in search of food
and water. The farmers specialize in keeping animals on natural pasture land for
example, Maasai, Barbaig, Kwavi and Karamajong.
 They keep on moving looking for water and grazing land (pasture)
 They live in simple temporary houses.
 Their wealth depends on number of cattle they have thus they do not
sell their animals unless are exchanged for necessary requirements,
hence the problem of overstocking, soil erosion and desertification.

Characteristics of Nomadic Pastoralism

a) Animals i.e. cattle are kept for prestige, for paying bride gift, for food and for sale.
b) The breeding process is uncontrolled
c) The herds are large in size
d) There is poor control of pests and other diseases
e) The animals are of poor quality and low value
f) It takes place where the population is scarce
g) There is no permanent settlement as farmers move constantly with animals
h) There is no crop cultivation and therefore animals are the support for family life.
i) There is poor or no use of technology.

Advantages of Nomadic Pastoralism

a) It is cheap
b) It guarantees food for the family especially when the animals are many
c) Some traditional varieties of animals are resistant to diseases and other
environmental hardships

Disadvantages of Nomadic Pastoralism

a) The animals produce little milk and of low value
b) A lot of time is wasted moving from one place to another
c) This system of livestock keeping causes soil erosion and desertification

60
 d) Many animals perish due to lack of pests control

iii. Semi-Nomadic / Sedentary Pastoralism; This is the system of livestock

keeping in which a farmer has started selling and began growing crops to
supplement pastoral activities. The farmers travel from their home state with
their herds to distant places grazing, in search of pasture and water especially
during the dry season.
iv. Sedentary Livestock Farming; This is a system of livestock keeping where by
a farmer keeps animals while settled permanently in one place.

Factors for the Change from Nomadic Pastoralism to Sedentary Livestock Farming
a) Population increase has decreased the size of the pasture
b) Involvement of farmers in other economic activities
c) Advancement of technology iv) Government advice

Characteristics of Sedentary Livestock Farming

a) More advanced technology is used
b) The number of animals is not so high
c) The animals are kept in shades
d) There is disease control
e) It can be practiced in relatively densely populated areas e.g. town

Advantages of Sedentary Livestock Farming

a) The animals are healthy and hence have high yields
b) There is a disease control
c) The method encourages the improvement of the environment
d) Sedentary live stock keeping enables the farmer to engage themselves in other
activities.

2. COMMERCIAL LIVESTOCK FARMING; This is the practice of keeping livestock

for sale. It includes Beef farming and dairy farming on ranches.
 Beef farming is keeping of animals for production of meat for sale.
 Dairy farming is keeping of animals for production of milk for sale.
 Commercial livestock farming is more developed in the temperate grasslands such
as the prairies of USA and Canada, the pampas of Argentina and the downs of
Australia.

Characteristics of Commercial Livestock Farming

a) Commercial livestock farming takes place in ranches which occupy thousands of
hectares.
b) It is characterized by the application of modern scientific and technology methods.
c) It normally involves the use of improved breeds or hybrids in order to advance high
yields.
d) It is capital intensive, substantial amount of capital is required for farm machinery and
fencing.

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 e) Large amount of animals is kept for commercial purpose (sale) rather than for
subsistence purpose.
f) There is little or no migration in livestock farming. This is due to the permanent and
reliable food supply.
g) The animals are of high quality and value.

Advantages of Commercial Livestock Farming

a) It stimulates the development of other sectors such as industry
b) It reduces unemployment through creating employment chances
c) It generates government revenue
d) It provides food products such as meat and milk.
e) They are source foreign exchange.

Disadvantages of Commercial Livestock Farming

a) It involves ranches which are expensive to maintain and establish.
b) It needs large areas with scarce population; therefore it cannot take place where the
population is high.
c) It may cause environmental problems such as land degradation, deforestation.
d) It influences climate changes due to deforestation in order to establish ranches.

LIVESTOCK KEEPING IN AUSTRALIA

The Australian continent is found in the Southern part of Africa and the Northern part of
Antarctica. The continent is famously known as the founder of sheep farming in the world.
Sheep are kept for wool or meat. The sheep kept for wool require dry and cool conditions. The
sheep kept for meat need wet conditions which encourage a great supply of pasture. Sheep also
produce products like skin and milk. Australia has a sheep population of over 135 million. The
sheep farms are very large. A single farm can have up to 50,000 sheep. Australia is the world’s
leading wool producer.

Factors that led to the Development of Sheep Farming in Australia

a) The use of advanced technology like the use of refrigerators
b) Availability of pasture supporting large-scale sheep farming as it assures reliable
supply of pasture.
c) Good climate providing reliable rainfall
d) Good soil that supports the growth of grass
e) Reliable water availability due to precipitation
f) Ready market for selling sheep products
g) Good agricultural policies
h) Availability of capital

LIVESTOCK KEEPING IN TANZANIA

Livestock production is one of the major agricultural activities in Tanzania. This contributes to
the natural food supply, converts arable land resources into products suitable for human
consumption. Tanzania’s Government provides about 30 per cent of the agricultural commercial
ranching in Tanzania, which accounts for about 2% of the total cattle herd. The national ranching
company is responsible for managing all ranches in the country. Most of the livestock products

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are for domestic market. This sub-sector needs to be developed particularly in the dairy farming
and its products, meat processing to meet the domestic demands and for export market
opportunities.

Advantages of Livestock Keeping

a) Livestock keeping can provide manure that is used in gardens and farms.
b) Livestock keeping increases the living standard of people due to fast economic
growth from animal products.
c) It ensures the availability of food especially when the animals are so many, example
nomadic pastoralism.
d) Sedentary livestock keeping encourages environmental conservation as the animals
do not move from one place to another.
e) It facilitates the development of transport and communication systems, example
farming in Argentina.

Disadvantages of livestock keeping include:

a) Livestock keeping can lead to soil erosion due to movements from place to place for
finding pasture and water. Example: nomadic pastoralism.
b) Farmers do not settle for cultivation but move place to place with their animals for
finding pasture and water in semi-nomadic pastoralism
c) Expensive in establishing ranches and capital for establishing and maintaining the project
d) Acceleration of deforestation as most ranches result from clearing forestry in order to be
established.
e) Livestock leads to environmental pollution example the decomposition of dung leads to
the emission of methane gas that pollute the air

Conclusion; Livestock keeping in Tanzania has many benefits; it leads to employment,

provision of food and other animal resources like skin and dairy products. So the
government must provide capital and support to livestock keeping in promoting
development of a nation.

Comparative study of livestock keeping between Australia and Tanzania;

Livestock keeping in Tanzania and Australia has some similarities and differences

Similarities
a) Livestock keeping in both countries there are common types of livestock kept. There
mainly cattle, goats, sheep and poultry.
b) Animal products ad like animals are sold in countries, some common products meat,
milk, skin, etc.
c) In both Countries are practiced at both the subsistence ad commercial levels.
d) Sedentary livestock keeping is practiced in both countries. This is done in areas that are
highly populated .E.g. Chagga in Tanzania.
e) Ranching in Tanzania and Australia is carried out in the sparsely populated areas. In
Tanzania, It is mainly carried out in areas such as Kagera, Tanga, and Morogoro which
in Australia this is practiced in the areas.

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 Differences
a) In Australia more scientific methods are employed in the management and running of
livestock keeping compared to Tanzania. Australia they use paddocks, animal food
supplements and proper animal health care.
b) Livestock keeping in Australia is more advanced than in Tanzania For example when it
comes to use of machinery in activities such as milking ad sheep shearing.
c) Pastoralism and sedentary livestock keeping ad the main types of livestock keeping
practiced in Tanzania while in Australia, ranching in the main type of livestock keeping.
d) In Tanzania main types of animals kept are cattle while in Australia main types of
animals kept are sheep.
e) Ranching in Tanzania and Australia is carried out in the sparsely populated areas. In
Tanzania, It is mainly carried out in areas such as Kagera, Tanga and Morogoro while In
Australia; this is mainly practiced in the areas.

Contribution of Produced Crops to the Economy of USA and Tanzania

The following are the major contributions of produced crops to the economy of USA and
Tanzania:
a) It has stimulated the development of industries. Cash crops provide raw materials for
processing and manufacturing industries for example Mbeyatex in Tanzania.
b) It has led to the creation of employment opportunities in the country.
c) It has contributed to the generation of government revenue in the country and capital
development.
d) It has stimulated external trade and international relations.
e) It has contributed to the development of transport and communication systems.
f) Encourages the improvement of living standard of the people in the country.

Explain the Problems Facing Large Scale Agriculture (Tanzania and USA Case Study)

In Tanzania;
a) Low capital for investment.
b) Land is becoming smaller and smaller due to the increase in population and land
degradation.
c) There are frequent tribal conflicts like those in Mara and Morogoro between the Maasai
pastoralists and non-Maasai agriculturalists.
d) There is poor support from the Government.
e) Climatic problems like drought and too much rainfall that cause price fluctuation and
especially low prices discourage the farmers.
f) Rural-urban migration leads to the problem of labor supply.
g) Mismanagement of funds set for agriculture as well as poor pro-agricultural policies.

In USA;
a) Adverse climatic variations due to severe winter
b) Severe erosion especially in many parts of USA e.g. high plains.
c) Competition from other countries like China.

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 CHAPTER 3

WATER MANAGEMENT FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

TERMS;
 Water is a colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid found naturally on land surface,
atmosphere and water ground reservoirs, and essential for most plant and animal life.
 Water management Refers to the skillful and careful use and control of water and water
resources. It is the management of water resources under set policies and regulations.
Water should be managed since it is becoming a more valuable commodity due to
droughts and over uses.

Economic Uses and Importance of Water

1. Water is used for domestic purposes
2. Water is used for agriculture development [irrigation]
3. Water is used as a source of hydro-electric power
4. Water is used for industrial development
5. Water encourages the development of the fishing industry
6. It encourages the development of the tourist industry Water is used for
navigation i.e. it stimulates the development of transport and communication
7. Water influences weather activities i.e. rain formation
8. Water provides habitat for various living organisms

Relationship between Family Size, Water Supply and Quality of Life

1. There is a very close relationship between quality of life and water. An adequate and
reliable water supply greatly improves the quality life of people. This is because they do
not have to spend most of their time, income and effort searching for water.
2. Availability of water means that family members are easily able to cook, clean
themselves and do other family chores.
3. Also the family size determines how much water is needed at a given time and how
frequently available it should be. The larger the family the larger the amount of water, the
smaller the family the lower consumption of water.
4. Where the water is not piped and frequently supplied for example in rural areas, family
members especially girls and women spend most of their time and effort looking for
water. In some other communities, girls are not allowed to go to school since they are
required to fetch water and ensure that it is available for the whole family.
5. In case of a smaller family, they are able to use stored water over a long period in case
the frequency of water supply is low. Therefore, under conditions of low water supply, a
small family is more likely to experience water shortage problem than a large family.

Relationship between Vegetation and water supply

1. Vegetation plays a very crucial role in ensuring a continuous water supply. Presence of
places with dense forests and other forms of vegetation act as water catchments. This
means that they retain water by preventing it from easily washing away or rapidly
evaporating.
2. Places with abundant vegetation therefore have higher chances of experiencing a reliable
water supply than places that have little or no vegetation. Indeed, the lack of vegetation
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 may lead to desertification and consequently very little or no water availability. It is also
important to note that vegetation cannot exist if there is lack of water. Even desert
vegetation requires water, though in small amounts for it to exist. The more available
water is the denser and healthier the vegetation will be. Where there is little water
available the vegetation is sparse. Vegetation and water supply are therefore highly
related and dependent on each other.

How long distance to water sources affects the girl child

In rural areas, family members especially girls and women spend most of their time looking for
water. In Tanzania, most rural communities the task of fetching water are placed on women and
girls. It is the girls who have to do this as the women are engaged in other domestic duties or
family chores such as taking care of babies and cooking. The distance between the home and the
water source affects the girl child in the following ways;-
1. When the distance is long, it means that the girls have to walk the long distance to fetch
the water. By walking the long distance they get tired, they may get attacked/molested
along the way and in some cases, there is a little time left for activity such as learning or
playing. For those who are lucky to go to school, they tend to be too tired to pay much
attention in class hence, poor performance. But for those who are not lucky enough to go
to school are condemned illiteracy. All of these may turn into early marriages or teenage
pregnancies and some of them tend to experience psychological problems in their
childhood as well as in their adulthood due to lack of time to play, robs them of a happy
and balance childhood.
2. On the other hand, if the distance from the home to the water source is short, then the
girls spend less time in fetching water and hence they have more time to play and to go to
school, thus they will be able to pay attention in the class and do well in their studies.
3. In addition, children who are consistently exposed to hazardous, un-portable water or
exposed to pumps or water source that have been contaminated by water-borne bacteria,
contracting diseases such as cholera and they are often affected by life threatening
diarrhea from parasites in unclean water.

Problems Caused by Water

1. Water causes floods
2. Water provides habitat of dangerous animals
3. Polluted water is a source of water born diseases
4. Flowing water causes soil erosion
5. Large water bodies may cause barrier for communication.

RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT RUFIJI BASIN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY RUBADA, Tanzania

It was authorized by the government of Tanzania in 1975 to plan and coordinate the development
activities in the Rufiji River. Rufiji River has two main tributaries: - Great Ruaha Kilombero
River It is situated in Iringa but there are other centers which are located close to the basin
Boarders i.e. Dar es salaam, Morogoro, Mbeya, Songea and Dodoma.

Benefits of RUBADA
1. Hydro power plants. Twenty two major hydro power sites have been identified in the
Rufiji basin of kidatu, Mtera, Mpanga, Ruhudji, Mnyera and Iringa Lukose. It generates
electricity which is used within the immediate area in other parts of the country.

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2. Agriculture; A large number of irrigation projects have taken place in the basin
(Improvement of Agriculture production due to irrigation).e.g. Sugarcane, growing rice in
the Kilombero and Usangu plains.
3. Forestry 10% of the total basin is covered by forests which are important for regulation of
water resources.
4. Industrial development Due to the availability of power, industrial activities have
advanced in the region hence increases the volume of trade in the country.
5. Tourism Rufiji basin is one of the major tourist attraction in Tanzania e.g. Selous game
reserve, Rungwe and Usangu game reserve as well as Mikumi and Ruaha and National
parks which are tourist attractions, are located within the basin.

Problems Faced by RUBADA

1. Lack of enough capital to invest in the area Infrastructure is poorly developed.
2. Lack of qualified personnel Low level of technology Fluctuation of water levels Lack of
support by local Communities.
3. Diseases like cholera and malaria affect the farmers such that they fail to contribute
effectively in the development of the scheme.
4. The climate problems like draught have been affecting water availability, sometimes the
volume of water in the river decreases.
5. There are transport problems prevailing since the roads and bridges are not well
constructed, hence during the wet season the area is not well accessible.
6. Low technology knowledge among the local people and hence they need intensive
training to get the required knowledge and skills.
7. The researches and preliminary plans are taking too long. This will lead to the decline of
other small projects because the government is concentrating more on that big project.

Prospects of Rufiji Basin Development

1. More funds have to be solicited from various donors both internally and externally.
2. Private sector should be encouraged to invest in the development of the valley, thus good
investment climate has to be created in order to attract private investors.
3. Construction of more dams for retaining water.

Importance of Rivers, Dams and Lakes

1. Helps in generating HEP
2. Promote transport and communication
3. They supply water for irrigation and domestic uses and industrial activities
4. They modify the environment like introducing moisture to the atmosphere which later
leads to the formation of rainfall.
5. They attract settlement
6. Features like waterfalls attract tourists
7. They promote fishing industries

Problems of Rivers, Dams and Lakes

1. Fluctuation of volume of water
2. May lead to spread of diseases like bilharzias etc
3. Flooding of rivers may lead to destruction of properties

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 4. The invasion of vegetation in these water bodies lead to problems in fishing and
navigation.

TENNESSEE RIVER VALLEY AUTHORITY (TVA)

Tennessee River valley is found in the U.S.A and is a tributary of Ohio River. The government
of U.S.A organized the development of the valley with the general aim of solving economic
difficulties of the people.

Benefits of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

1. There has been an increase in water supply for irrigation, domestic use and industrial use.
2. Navigation in the Tennessee River has improved such as the commercial freight ships
operating in the river.
3. Hydroelectric power was made available to many people.
4. The floods have highly been controlled.
5. The project has created job opportunities for many people.
6. Increase on the size of arable land due to soil control.
7. Fishing industry has developed due to the construction of dams.
8. Provision of hydroelectric power has led to the development of different manufacturing
and heavy industries.

Problems Facing Tennessee River Valley

1. Soil erosion can also affect the established Tennessee River Valley project.
2. Soil exhaustion due to intensive farming hence poor farming and low yield.
3. Water pollution especially by the industries discourages the utilization of water from the
river basins for economic development.
4. Accumulation of silt in the dams leads to the reduction of the volume of water.
5. The outbreak of diseases like cholera due to accumulation of water.
6. Unreliable rainfall and excessive evaporation lead to the drying of the river and other
water bodies’ hence economic activities cannot take place easily due to the dryness.

Prospects of the Tennessee River Valley

1. Constructing more dams for retaining water all year round
2. Maintaining the roads and modifying them to better standards
3. Training the local people on other economic activities like navigation fishing and not to
rely on one activity to solve the economic problems of the people.

LAND RECLAMATION
The recovering of land that has been rendered unsuitable for use to make it usable again. Or Is
the process of turning the poor land into a useful state through the improvement practices for
economic and social development.

Aims of Land Reclamation

1. To increase the size of land available for agriculture purposes. This was carried out in the
Tennessee valley. Previously unused land was irrigated in order to increase crop
production.

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 2. To increase the size of land available for human settlement. This may become necessary
if the population of an area grows beyond the land is available. It may also create land to
resettle people who are being moved from another area.
3. To make available more land for the establishment of industries and offices.
4. To be in proximity to resources in order to be able to gainfully utilize them.

Factors which may Cause Land to become Unusable

1. Land may be damaged due to natural hazards like fire
2. Human activities can also damage the land i.e. poor farming methods, mining and
pollution.
3. Cares of water logged land for example swamps and marshes

Methods of Reclaiming the Land / Land reclamation Techniques

1. A forestation or reforestation [planting trees]
2. Tsetse fly control which is done by clearing, spraying the area in order to kill them
3. Irrigation which is practiced where the natural precipitation is not sufficient to meet the
crop moisture requirements.
4. Draining water using canals and pumps can reclaim or constructing embankment for
water logged land/marshy areas or wetlands
5. Planting reeds so as to allow water absorption by plants so as to dry the areas for
cultivation.
6. Planting grass cover to check erosion
7. Burning reeds so as to clear the area for cultivation and settlement

Purposes of Reclaiming the Land

1. To increase availability of arable land for cultivation.
2. To expand carrying capacity of land. This means that the land can be used for industrial
areas as well as residential areas.
3. For road and railway construction.
4. To control floods caused by water from the sea. The best example of land reclamation in
the world is the Zuider Zee land reclamation scheme in Holland (Netherlands).

LAND RECLAMATION IN NETHERLANDS

Netherlands lies between the North Sea [north] and Belgium [south], Netherlands means low
lands, it was covered by flood water from the sea, in one part were marshes, swamp land or land
covered with poor soil. Netherland occupies an area of 40844 square km. the land in the northern
parts of the country have been reclaimed from the sea and made arable. An area of reclaimed
land is called POLDER. A project drawn by a Dutch engineer called CORNELIS LELLY.

Aims of Land Reclamation in Netherlands

1. To increase dry land for residential and industrial development
2. To reduce the danger of over flooding and obtain land for agriculture and livestock
keeping activities e.g. in 1953, 1800 people died due to the rise of sea level.

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 Steps of Land Reclamation taken in Netherlands
1. Dykes / embankments were built to enclose part of the sea water. The sand was imported
from Germany and Sweden.
2. Water was pumped out of these areas using wind mill and electrical pumps.
3. The dry land was planted with reeds to control weeds and preserve moisture in the soil
and to absorb more salt from the soil.

UNDERGROUND WATER
Underground water is the water found in the ground. It was also called as subterranean water.
The true underground water is held in the ground in the zone of water saturation called aquifer or
phreatic zone. It occupies interstices (pores) or voids of pervious rocks and soil. Like surface
water, it is derived principally from precipitation that falls upon the earth’s surface and
percolates downward under gravity.

Types of Underground Water

1. Connate water: It may also be described as fossil water. This is water trapped in the
pores of the rock during the formation of the rock. Connate water can change in
composition thought the history of the rock. Connate water is normally saline. Formation
water or interstitial water, in contrast, is simply water found in the pore spaces of rock
and might not have been present when the rock was formed. This type of water can be
found in desert rocks where rainfall does not occur for a long period of time. Connate
water generally plays an insignificant role in ground water studies. Agro-forestry as
practiced in Shinyanga region.
2. Meteoric water: This refers to underground water which originates from rainfall and
other forms of precipitation such as hailstorms and snowfall. When the rainfalls or snow
melts, a considerable portion of this water gradually infiltrates into the ground. This
infiltrating water continues its downward journey to the zone of saturation to become part
of the ground water in aquifers (water-bearing rocks).
3. Juvenile water: Juvenile water, also described as magnetic water, is water that exists
within magma. It is brought close to the earth during vulcanicity. Magnetic water rises
from great depth accompanying the magma flow from down the earth’s crust.
4. Oceanic water: This is underground water that results from the seepage of ocean water
into the ground. It is common in coastal areas where ocean water seeps horizontally into
the ground from the ocean.

Tapping Underground Water

Underground water can be tapped and put into various uses. The water tapped from the ground
can be used for domestic and industrial purposes. Domestic uses include cooking, washing,
bathing, watering plants, cleaning and many other uses. Industrial uses may include cooling of
machinery, dissolution and dilution of chemicals, beverage manufacture, etc. Underground water
can be tapped in a number of ways which include the following:
1. Drilling boreholes: These are holes dug deep into the ground to reach the water table.
When the water table or underground water is reached, the water seeps up through the
hole under pressure. It is then brought above the ground by pumping manually or using a
water pump.

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2. Digging wells: Just like boreholes, a hole is dug into the ground until water is reached.
The difference between boreholes and wells is that water from the well is mainly drawn
mechanically using containers such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by use of
simple pulleys or hand. The walls of wells may be lined with bricks or stones and cement.
3. Where the water occurs very close to the surface, the soil may be scooped to expose the
water. The water may then be scooped using cups or other containers. It may be directed
to farms for irrigation via channels or trenches. The water may also be pumped and
channeled into pipes to provide tap water.
4. Underground water may be naturally exposed to form springs or oases in deserts. This
water may be scooped directly using containers. It may also be directed to farms through
channels.

The Resources that can be extracted from Water

1. Fish and other edible creatures, such as crabs and prawns: These resources may be
caught either for sale or family consumption.
2. Building materials: The building materials obtained from water include sand, coral rock,
gravel and clay. Sand can be obtained from beaches of seas or lakes or river valleys and
rocks are collected from the sea shore. The rocks and gravel are a result of erosion of the
coastal rock by sea waves. Clay can also be obtained from the sea floor or river bed.
3. Electricity: Marine wind is used to turn windmills to generate electricity. Hydroelectric
power is also a resource from the water since it results from the running water which is
used to turn turbines to generate electricity.
4. Salt which is used at home and in industries is mainly obtained from sea water though it
can also be extracted from salty rivers and lakes. Brick-lined well
5. Ornamental items such as cowries’ shells, snail shells, lobster shells, etc are also water
resources since they come from animals that inhabit water.
6. Sea weed is used in many maritime countries as a source of food, for industrial
applications and as a fertilizer. High utilization of these plants as food is in Asia,
particularly Japan, Korea and China, where sea weeds cultivation has become a major
industry.
7. Limestone and gypsum: Limestone forms from shells of dead marine organisms ranging
from mollusks to corals and plants. Limestone can be used directly or converted into
cement for construction purposes. Gypsum forms during evaporation of sea water and
thus may occur with limestone. The gypsum deposits are mined and generally converted
into Plaster of Paris which is mainly used as a building material.

Methods Used for Extracting Resources from Water

1. Fish and other edible marine creatures. Fish may be obtained from water through use
of a hook and line, nets, herbs, spears or traps. In the case of a hook and line, bait (such
as worm or meat) is attached to a hook which is joined to a string tied to a long stick or
rod. The hook is sunk into the water. When the fish bites the bait, it gets caught by the
hook and pulled out. This method is used for small-scale fishing.
2. The use of certain plants called tephrosia. This plant is poisonous to fish. When the
leaves of this pea plant are pound and mixed with water, the fish are poisoned and they
fall unconscious and float on water. They are then picked from the water by hand or use

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 of a spear (harpooning). The fisherman spears fish in water and it is attached to the tip of
the spear from which it is detached and put in a container.
3. The traps are mainly used where there are floods or at the coast where there are
tides. These traps are set up at the bank of the river or on the beaches. The fish are
washed into the banks or beaches by the water. As the water receded the fish remain
trapped behind the traps.
4. Nets are used to catch a large number of fish. With nets the fish are enclosed in a net
with Small perforations through which fish cannot penetrate. They are then hurled to the
sea shore, removed from the net and put in containers.
5. Sand is extracted from the beaches or dredged from the ocean or river beds. This
can be done by using scooping machinery or by hand using shovels, pans, hoes, etc. It is
then loaded onto truck or lorry using shovels or a grab dredge.
6. The process of extraction of salt from water involves evaporation. The salty water is
trapped in evaporation ponds. The sun evaporates the water. As the water vaporizes, the
salt remains behind. Eventually, enough of the water evaporates to leave behind a layer of
salt crystals that can be collected, dried and stored in bags. Another alternative for salt
extraction from the water is by means of evaporation tanks. Salty water is pumped into
the tanks where the water is evaporated, leaving the salt behind.

The Problems Caused by Extraction of Water Resources

1. Overfishing, and indiscriminate fishing whereby even very young fish are caught
reduces the availability of fish resources in water. It also causes an imbalance in the
ecosystem.
2. Water pollution is a problem where dynamites or poisons are used as methods of
fishing. Dynamites produce loud sounds which disturb the fish and other aquatic
organisms while poison kills fish, aquatic plants, and other marine organisms.
3. Sand harvesting may lead to loss of media for growth of plant life. It may also disturb
aquatic life, for example, it may interfere with breeding of some marine organisms such
as monitor lizards, Salt evaporation ponds, snakes, crocodiles, alligators and turtles.
These animals normally lay eggs in the sand. Sand extraction from river banks may also
lead to flooding since the sand deposited besides a river acts as a levee which prevents
water from leaving its channel during floods. It may also accelerate river erosion because
the extraction process loosens the soil and makes it easy to erode.
4. Harnessing hydroelectric power from river water requires dams to be constructed.
This can cause water shortage to the areas downstream. Water trickling from the tank to
the nearby areas may also lead to flourishing of disease vectors such as mosquitoes and
snails which harbor causative agents for malaria.

The Solutions to these Problems include the following:-

1. Giving guidelines on the kind of nets allowed for fishing certain fish species. To achieve
this, the fishermen must be closely monitored to ensure that holes of the nets they use for
fishing are not too small to catch even young fish.
2. Restricting fishing in some parts of the water, especially those areas identified as fish
breeding grounds, so as to allow fish to breed and increase in number.
3. Encouraging and educating people to practice fish farming so as to reduce fishing
pressure on natural water bodies such as rivers, lakes and seas.

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4. Restricting or controlling sand harvesting in beaches and shores so as to ensure that
aquatic environment is not destroyed and that aquatic life is not disturbed.
5. Banning the use of dynamites or poisons in fishing because this act pollutes the water and
is likely to harm fish consumers.
6. Taking stern actions against those people breaching environmental conservation laws.
The actions may include fines, jail sentences or both. Water pollution Water pollution is
the introduction of substances that lower the quality of water bodies such as oceans,
rivers, lakes, aquifers and ground water. This makes the water unsafe for use in homes
and industries. Water pollution also affects living organisms (plants and animals) living
in water.

The Major Causes of Water Pollution

1. Agricultural chemicals; Agricultural chemicals that are applied to crops and animals
drip onto the soil and may eventually run off into the local streams and rivers. They can
also seep down to reach ground water. These chemicals contaminate the water and make
it unwholesome for human use and can drastically affect the aquatic life.
2. Oil spills; Oil spills in oceans and seas cause water pollution and big problems for local
wildlife, fishermen and aquatic organisms. Oil spilled onto land is also carried into water
bodies by surface run off. This includes drips of oil, fuel and fluid from motor vehicles,
oil spilled onto the ground at filling stations; and drips of oil from industrial machinery.
These sources and many more combine together to form continual petroleum pollution to
all of the world’s waters.

Mining causes pollution in a number of ways:

1. The mining process exposes heavy metals and sulphur compounds that were previously
locked deep in the earth. Rain water leaches these compounds out of the exposed earth,
resulting in “acid mine drainage” and heavy metal pollution that can continue long after
the mining operations have practically ceased.
2. The action of rain water on piles of mining waste (tailings) transfers harmful chemicals to
freshwater supplies.
3. In gold mining, cyanide is intentionally poured on piles of mined rock (a leach heap) to
chemically extract the gold from the ore. Some of the cyanide ultimately finds its way
into nearby water.
4. Huge pools of mining waste slurry (semi-liquid mixture) are often stored behind
containment dams. If a dam leaks or bursts, water pollution is likely to take place.
5. Mining companies in developing countries sometimes dump mining waste directly into
rivers or other water bodies as a method of disposal.

Other Pollutants which affect the Quality of Water and the Lives of Aquatic Organisms
1. Sediment: The act of clearing the forests to get ample land for agriculture, settlement or
wood, leaves the land bare and exposed to the agents of denudation. This accelerates soil
erosion and the sediment is free to run into nearby streams, rivers and lakes. The
increased amount of sediment running off the land into nearby water bodies seriously
affects the fish and other aquatic life. Poor farming practices and cultivation along and
close to the rivers, exposes the soil to erosion agents. Soil erosion causes water pollution.

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2. Industrial Chemicals: Most of the water that is used in the production process in
industries is eventually discharged into water bodies. This waste water may contain
harmful chemicals such as acids, alkalis, salts, toxic chemicals, oil, heavy metals and
even harmful bacteria, and other reagents. In some cases, the waste water discharged into
a water body may be hot enough to kill any organism living in that water.
3. Sewage: In developing countries, about 90% of untreated sewage is discharged directly
into rivers and streams. This renders the water unwholesome for domestic and other uses.
Untreated sewage harbors a myriad of disease-causing organisms. This is the reason why
diseases such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid and bilharzias are very common among
African countries. Leaking septic tanks and other sources of sewage can contaminate
ground and stream waters as well.
4. Marine debris: (marine litter) Marine debris is trash in the ocean. This is litter that ends
up in ocean, seas or other large water bodies. The debris mainly comes from urban
sewers and garbage thrown overboard from ships and boats. Examples of marine debris
include plastic bags, water bottles, balloons, shoes, lags etc. It can also include items that
wash in from the ocean, such as fishing line, ropes, nets and traps, and items from ship
such as lost cargo from container ships.
5. Heat: Heat is a water pollutant. Increase in water temperature results in deaths of many
aquatic organisms. This is because, as water temperature increases, the amount of oxygen
that can dissolve in it also decreases. Therefore, warm and shallow water will contain
very little oxygen to an extent that the dissolved gas will not sustain aquatic life. This
increase in temperature is most often caused by discharge of cooling water (which is
always hot) by factories and power plants. Global warming also contributes significantly
to heating of the oceans.

Ways of Conserving Water Resources

1. Avoiding wastage: All people should use water wisely to minimize wastage. All taps
should be turned off when they are not used. The used water may be re-used again. For
example, water that has been used to rinse clothes can be re-used to mob the floor, soak
the dirtiest clothes, rags etc. Do not use water directly from the tap, instead fetch the
water in a container and use it wisely.
2. Controlling polluting: People should neither throw wastes carelessly nor introduce any
chemicals into water. Stern laws should be made and enforced to stop industries from
dumping toxic wastes into the water bodies. Any industry found polluting the water by
any means should be heavily punished or even closed down altogether.
3. Protection of water catchment: Vegetation in water catchment areas should be
protected and cared for. People should not carry out agricultural activities close to water
sources. Planting of trees that consume a lot of water, such as eucalyptus, near water
sources or rivers should also be avoided. Any activity that destroys the water catchment
should be banned. In the past, the government ordered people to cut down all eucalyptus
trees planted close to water sources so as to prevent the water sources from drying up.
4. Education: People should be educated about the importance of conserving the water
resources. This education can be conveyed thought mass media and introducing water
conservation courses in schools and colleges. The government and other organizations
concerned with conservation of water resources should involve local communities so as
to get maximum cooperation in their endeavors. The local people must be involved at all

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 levels and should be given freedom to suggest how best these resources can be
conserved.
5. Sewage treatment: Sewage is water containing waste matter produced by people. Much
industrial sewage contains harmful chemicals and other waste materials. Sewage must be
treated before it flows from sewerage systems into lakes, rivers, and other bodies of
water. Untreated sewage contaminates the water and, in time, can kill fish and aquatic
plants. The sewage makes the water unsafe to drink and can also prevent use of the water
for swimming, fishing, and other recreation. Most cities and towns have at least one
sewage treatment plant. In most rural areas, homeowners must provide their own sewage
treatment. Most do so with large underground containers called septic tanks or pit
latrines.
6. Controlled use of agrochemicals: Farmers should be educated on the correct use of
agrochemicals. Also agricultural activities should not be carried out in areas close to
water bodies. The use of organic manures and chemicals in place of harmful industrial
chemicals for agricultural production should be emphasized.
7. Recycling of products: People should be advised to recycle the waste instead of
dumping it in water sources. This will help reduce the problem of water pollution.
8. Immediate clean up When oil is accidentally spilled in water; it should cleaned up
immediately before causing any harm to aquatic life or people using that water. This can
be done by use of chemicals or special machines called skimmer ships Water Pollution
Many resources are extracted from water and used by man.

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 CHAPTER 4

SUSTAINABLE USE OF FOREST RESOURCES

FOREST;
Forest refers to an extensive area of land which is mostly covered by trees of different sizes and
species. Or a forest is a dense growth of trees, plants and undergrowth covering a large area of
land. Forests can be natural or man-made (planted) / Artificial forest.

Importance of Forests
1. Forests prevent soil erosion; Trees and grasses preventing movement of agents of erosion
like water winds and moving ice.
2. They maintain water sources like rivers, catchment areas, springs and lakes. This is due
to the fact that forest support rain formation.
3. Forests are also used for scientific studies (research).
4. Where there is a variety of trees, tourism can develop because of scenic beauty. Hence
the country can gain foreign money.
5. Forests provide habitats for animals and birds of different varieties.
6. Forests contribute to the modification of the climate especially through rain formation
and moisture conservation.
7. Forests also introduce oxygen in the environment which is produced during
photosynthesis. In this process the trees clean the air by absorbing carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is the raw material used during photosynthesis.
8. Trees are also a source of fuel energy since they are used for firewood and charcoal
making.
9. Forests also provide raw materials for paper and pulp industries from which writing
materials are produced.
10. They provide building material like poles and timber.
11. Some tree species are used for making medicine and also provide fruits as well as
ornamental flowers.
12. Forests contribute to soil development through rotting of leaves which lead to formation
of humus. Humus is very important in plant growth.

Distribution of Forests by Type

Due to factors such as climate and tree species, natural forests can further be subdivided into the
following broad categories:
1. Tropical rainforests: They are found around the equator, between 23.5°N and 23.5°S.
Trees in the tropical rainforests are tall and often take a very long time to mature. They
consist of indigenous trees which are typically broad-leaved, and they contain thick under
growths of shrubs and other vegetation.
2. Temperate forests: These forests occur in the mid latitudes of both hemispheres. There
are four distinct seasons in temperate deciduous forests and precipitation falls throughout
the year, as rain in the spring, summer and fall and snow in the winter. The forest floor in
temperate forests supports mosses, ferns and wild flowers. Maple, oak and birch trees are
some examples of the deciduous trees that dominate these forests. There are also small
numbers of evergreen trees such as pines and fir.

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3. Coniferous forests: Coniferous forests are typically found in coastal areas with mild
winters and heavy rainfall or in in-land mountainous areas with mild climates with
temperature that fluctuates little throughout the year. Evergreen conifers dominate these
forests. They are characterized by evergreen, need-leaved trees, with little undergrowth
and tall trees which take very long time to mature. Dominant tree species found in
coniferous forests include cedar, cypress, Douglas fir, pine, spruce and redwood. Some
deciduous trees such as maple, and mosses and ferns are common in coniferous forests.
4. Boreal (taiga) forests: These are the northernmost forest type and are found between
50°N and 60°N. Boreal forests are characterized by long winters and short summers.
Most precipitation is in the form of snow. Trees are mostly evergreen and include species
such as spruce, fir and pine.

Factors for Distribution of Forests

Forest distributions are affected by a number of factors which include the following:
1. Soil: Different types of soil offer various types of vegetation. For example, a damp and
marshy soil will favor growth of types of trees such as mangroves, which are generally
found on the coastal areas of the tropics or subtropics. On the other hand, sandy soils
located in dry desert areas will support prickly bushes and cactus where the aim of the
plant is to conserve water.
2. Rainfall: Water is an essential component of all living organisms. Trees need water for
various physiological functions such as photosynthesis and cooling. Hence, it is essential
for growth and development of any particular vegetation. Forests thrive well in areas that
receive sufficient rainfall which is evenly distributed throughout the year.
3. Temperature: The warm and wet equatorial climate supports the growth of mainly huge,
tall, deciduous trees. The cooler temperate climate supports needle-leaved trees which are
adapted to that particular climate. The moderately hot tropical climate supports a variety
of softwood and hardwood trees which thrive best in the tropics.
4. Relief: Relief refers to variation in altitude in an area. Differences in altitude along the
slope of a mountain bring about differences in the type of forests along a mountain slope.
For example, you will always find dense forests on the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro. As
you move up from the foot of the mountain, the vegetation type and density changes
gradually. At a height ranging between 1800 and 2800 m, there is the tropical rainforest,
followed by the temperate forest at around 4000 m. between 3000 and 3500 m, the forest
is dominated by scanty vegetation, with patches of a bamboo forest.
5. Aspect: In physical geography, aspect generally refers to the horizontal direction to
which a mountain slope faces. The slope of a mountain facing the direction of prevailing
winds (windward side) will always receive higher amounts of rainfall than the slope
facing the opposite side (leeward side). For this reason, dense forests will always grow on
the windward side, due to abundant rainfall, while the leeward side will consist of scanty
and poor vegetation.
6. Drainage: If the soil has too much water, plants cannot get enough oxygen from the soil.
This will affect root respiration and the plants may eventually die. On the other hand,
plants cannot grow well if they do not have healthy roots for absorbing water from the
soil. So, the proper balance of plant health, water and air is necessary for maximum plant
growth and development. Well drained soils support growth of a variety of big trees

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 compared to water-logged and swampy lowland. However, few plants such as mangrove
can thrive in shallow sea shores which are more or less permanently covered by water.
7. Human activities: Human activities such as clearing the vegetation to get land for
agriculture or settlement greatly affect the distribution of forests. Most of the natural
forests of the world have been cleared by man. In some parts man has planted forests
(artificial forests) on bare lands or in place of natural forests.

TYPES OF FOREST RESOURCES

1. Timber For making furniture and constructional works or match making for pit pups and
making of wood pulp for manufacturing new prints and crayon. In Brazil 30% of timber
is used mainly for furniture, harbor piles and clock gates, boat building and tanning
extractions, 70% is used for fuel.
2. Raisins and gum Are obtained from tree balks
3. Fiber materials for different uses such as shifting for upholstery cushions etc
4. Oil from nuts can be processed for vegetable oil
5. Fruits and flowers for human and animal consumptions
6. Medical plants including the castor oil plant, salsa parilla, cinchona which are used for
making genuine.

Ways of Obtaining Forest Resource

1. Uncontrolled method; Plant cover is removed over an extensive area and leave the land
open unreliable to erosion agents i.e. using fires, shifting cultivation, deforestation.
2. Controlled method; Are governed by government directions which discourage the use
of fire and encourage sustainable development of forests for the benefits of the people
and the creatures that inhabit such places. They include reforestation i.e planting trees to
replace harvested forest resources.

Problems Arising from Exploitation of Forest Resources

Over exploitation of forest resources can cause the following environmental problems;
1. Increase in soil erosion; as the rain drops /falls harshly in the exposed soil and remove the
fertile soil.
2. Excessive evaporation; this causes drought (problems of water because streams and
springs dry up).
3. Destruction of animal habitat.
4. Accelerated desertification. This caused by prolonged drought of an area since the
absence of forest affect rain formation.
5. Pollution of the atmosphere which can lead to greenhouse effect and global warming i.e.
when forests are cleared by burning adding carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
6. Disappearance of some species of trees (loss of biodiversity).
7. Unreliable rainfall due to the excessive evaporation.

The Measures of Forest Conservation

1. Planting trees where other trees have been cut (reforestation) and planting trees where
there never existed any tree before (Afforestation). Setting aside some areas and
declaring them as protected areas.

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2. Educating people on the importance of conserving the forest and persuading them to fully
participate in all activities involving forest conservation. Also there should be clear
policies giving directions on the proper use of the forest resources.
3. There should be alternative energy resources used instead of depending on the trees. For
example Solar energy, Geothermal power, bio-gas and HEP.
4. There should be careful land use planning in order to avoid destruction of trees.
Population control should be encouraged in the countries so as to reduce pressure on the
forest resources and the land in general.
5. Agricultural methods should be improved so as to encourage proper land use methods
like shifting cultivation should be discouraged.
6. Destocking (reducing the number of animals) should be encouraged among the
pastoralists, because having too many animal leads to the destruction of vegetation.
7. New and fast growing trees should be introduced. Agro-forestry means the practice of
inter cropping trees and crops in the same farm. Trees can be inter-cropped with crops
like beans, bananas etc.

Advantages of Inter Cropping the Trees with Crops (Agro-forestry)

1. Trees prevent soil erosion while the crops like beans add nutrients to the soil.
2. A farmer gets a variety of profits from the same farm. That is forest products and crop
products.
3. Family members get firewood from around homestead without traveling very far in
search for firewood.
4. Trees provide shades to other plants on farm land.
5. The rotten trees add nutrients to the soil hence soil fertility.

Disadvantages related to Agro-forestry

1. When large trees are inter-cropped the annual crops tend to suffer leading to decline in
production. This is so because the large trees tend to take up most of the moisture,
nutrients and block the light from reaching the annual crops.
2. Some trees are harmful to crops since they produce poisonous substances.
3. Mechanization cannot be easily done because of the trees.

Examples of areas with timber industry are: - Sweden, Canada and some parts of Japan
where coniferous trees provide most of the forest resources. 60% of Canada is covered by
forests and the major species are Oak, Chestnut, Spruce, and Pines.

Factors which have led the Development of the Timber Industry

1. Low temperature discourage settlement hence leave room for trees
2. Enough rainfall leads to the growth of the coniferous forests
3. Availability of capital
4. Cheap means of transport
5. Sound forest management strategies

Factors which have led to the Development of the Timber Industry in Gabon
1. Availability of many tree species.

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2. Availability of rivers like Ogowe facilitates the transportation of the timber products.
3. Large foreign companies which were given concession to exploit the forests have capital.
4. Constant market for timber products.
5. Government support for timber production.

Problems which face timber industry in Tanzania;

1. Shortage of labor
2. Problems of transport
3. Poor market
4. Poor science and technology
5. Forest fires
6. Inadequate education

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 CHAPTER 5

SUSTAINABLE MINING

TERMS;
 Mining is the activity that involves the extraction of minerals from the ground. Or, is the
extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials which form the package of
economic interest to the miners.
 Mines; Are places where Minerals are obtained or are the places where minerals are
extracted.
 Minerals; Substances with constant chemical composition which are formed naturally in
the earth’s crust or Is the chemical composition of two or more elements within the
earth's crust.

Major Classification of Minerals

1. Metallic minerals. Gold, iron, silver, copper, lead, nickel, cobalt, manganese, tin,
aluminum etc
2. Non – metallic minerals. Salt, potash, nitrate, Sulphur, diamond and graphite. Energy
mineral Coal, natural gas and petroleum.

Types of Mining Industry

1. Surface mining; Extraction of minerals found close to the earth’s surface, e.g. corals and
limestone.
2. Underground mining; Extraction of minerals found deep in the ground e.g. gold,
diamond etc

Methods of Mining
1. Open cast mining. It is used to extract minerals which usually occur close to the earth’s
surface. It involves removing the top layers of the earth and other overlying materials
above the mineral areas Earth moving machines and bulldozers are used. Electric
shovels-to dig up minerals and load it into the lorries or trucks It is the cheapest method
Example Quarrying of lime stone and corals at kunduchi in DSM and Barubuni in Kenya
2. Alluvial mining. Takes place where minerals occur in alluvial deposits (materials
deposited by water). It involves mixing of alluvial deposits with water. Then the mixture
is rotated until light particles like sand, mud and small stones are crashed off Then the
mineral particles like gold, platinum and diamonds are left behind
3. Underground (shaft mining). It is used in mining ore that lie deep below the surface of
the earth Vertical shaft is dug up to the layer containing the mineral, and then the tunnel
is dug up horizontally to reach the minerals. Hence, the minerals are transported from the
tunnels to the base of the shaft from where it is hoisted onto the surface.

MINERAL DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD

Distribution of mining industry regions in the world, minerals are unevenly distributed in the
world. Mining activities are concentrated where minerals deposits are in, some regions are rich in

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mineral resources e.g. South Africa while others are poor in minerals this is due to geological
factors which led to their occurrence.
1. COAL. It is found in USA in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and interior states like
Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Oklahoma and the gulf province in states like Texas, Alabama.
The former USSR in Moscow, Donetsk coal basin and kuanetstk coal basin. Other
countries include china, United Kingdom, South Africa, Zimbabwe at wonkie, Zambia,
Nigeria, Botswana, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Morocco, Malawi,
Sudan and Tanzania [from the Ruhuhu basin, ketewaka- Mchuchuma, Songwe and
Kiwira.
2. GOLD. It is found in South Africa, Ghana, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, DRC, Uganda and
Kenya.
3. SALT MINERALS. It is found in Tanzania along the coast, Uvinza in Kigoma and
China Copper. It is found in Zambia, DRC, Uganda–Kilembe, Mauritania, Botswana,
Chile, Canada, the former USSR and USA.
4. NATURAL GAS. It is found in Tanzania at Songosongo Island in Kilwa, Nigeria and
Middle East.
5. DIAMOND. This is found in Tanzania [Mwadui-Shinyanga], South Africa, DRC,
Namibia, Sierra Leone and Guinea.
6. PHOSPHATE. It is found in Tororo – Uganda and Morocco at khourigba, youssonta and
Ben gueri within the maseta
7. BAUXITE. It is the ore of aluminum. It is located in Guinea, Ghana and Cameroon.
8. IRON ORE. It is in German, Sweden, USA, and china, Brazil, Australia, France, UK,
Liberia, Mauritania, Zimbabwe, Gabon, Algeria, Angola and South Africa.

Contribution (Importance) of Mining Industry to the Economy of any Country

1. Mining leads to the development of industries in the country for example steel cutting
industry, coal has led to the development of heavy industries in china, USA and chemical
industries.
2. Mining contributes to the earning of foreign currency in the country for example
copper in Zambia, gold in South Africa, oil in Nigeria, Libya, Algeria and Middle East
and Kuwait.
3. Mining industry provides employment opportunities to the people i.e. in Zambia
copper mining employs a lot of people also many people are employed in the gold mining
areas in south Africa [in rand mining areas]
4. Mining stimulates the development of transport and communication of other
economic systems in any country for example in South Africa mining led to the
development of a dense network of roads and railway lines in the eastern part.
5. It encourages the development of other economic sectors since it generates capital for
the country, for example mining in china has led to heavy investment in agricultural
machinery.
6. Mining also leads to the improvement in the international relations through forming
international organizations for the countries which deals with mining and exporting
certain types of minerals for example Nigeria is the member of OPEC to the oil mining
industry.

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7. Mining leads to the development of towns and large cities like the industrial
conurbation of rand in South Africa. Conurbation is the large zone formed as a result of
the combination of many towns into one zone.
8. Also mining leads to the diversification of the economy of the country so that the
country cannot depend on one source of revenue or income.
9. Mining has stimulated the construction activity especially in the supply of corrugated
iron sheets for roofing the buildings etc
10. It also supplies some energy since some minerals are energy reserve like coal,
petroleum, uranium and natural gas.

Factors that Influence the Development of the Mining Sector include the following
1. Availability of capital to be invested in the mining industry like buying the
machinery. Lack of enough capital, the mining industry develops slowly.
2. Nature of transport system. If the transport system is efficient mining develops fast but
if the transport is poor then mining does not develop fast.
3. Availability of labor. Is another factor that contributes to the development of the mining
sector, for mining to develop fast there should be readily available labor but if labor is
unavailable then mining becomes poor.
4. Nature of market. If the market is good then the mining industry grows fast if it is poor
the mining industry develops slowly.
5. Water availability. This also leads to the fast development of the mining industry if the
supply of water is reliable. But the situation is different when the supply of water is poor.
Water is needed for cooling the engines of the machines and cleaning the minerals.
6. Nature of government policy. If the policy is supportive the mining industry develops
fast but if the government policy is non supportive then the mining industry develops
slowly.
7. The availability of deposits and their value. If the deposits are large and valuable
mining takes place fast. But if the deposits are small and poor valuable mining take place
slowly.

Problems Facing the Mining Industry in Africa and other Parts of the world
1. Decline or exhaustion of mineral deposits because of over exploitation like coal,
copper in Zambia and some parts of USA and south Africa.
2. Poor number of skilled labor in the developing countries like Tanzania this has led to
poor exploration and low yield. E.g. Low quality and quantity minerals.
3. Some countries lack important mineral deposits like Japan and Norway, in some
countries the available mineral deposits are of poor quality like coal in Tanzania.
4. Poor capital in the developing countries has led to the decline in the mining sector.
5. Poor transport system especially in the developing countries has led to the poor mining
activity some parts of central Tanzania have poor roads which are impassable during the
wet season.
6. Competition with other economic sectors for water supply is a problem for example in
South Africa water is scarce and the available is competed for by agricultural sector,
mining and manufacturing industry.
7. There is a severe problem of constant power supply. This affects the mining industry.
8. Poor conditions of workers in the mining areas lead to a problem in labor supply.

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9. Political problems especially civil wars lead to the poor mining development caused by
labor unrest.
10. There are problems of local market especially in the developing world. There is also a
problem of price fluctuation in the world market which affects the development of the
mining industry in many countries in the world.
11. There are problems of food supply in some countries like Zambia this leads to the poor
mining development.

Problems Caused by the Mining Industry

1. Mining leads to environmental problems. Like land degradation, soil pollution, water
pollution and deforestation.
2. It attracts people causing high population pressure in the mining centers which in
turn causes many social and economic problems like poor housing, unemployment,
shortage of land for other activities and sometimes food shortage.
3. Mining leads to the death of people due to accidents caused by the collapse of mines
4. Mining causes the decline of the economic sectors especially agriculture many people
rush to the mining centers to labor supply.
5. Mining industry has also led to the occurrence of conflicts like wars which are taking
place in the DRC and the Gulf war of 1990s was due to mineral resource that is oil
6. Spread of diseases due to high population pressure in mining centers.

Effects of Mining to the Environment

1. Mining leads to environmental pollution Like water pollution, air pollution, soil
pollution and noise pollution.
2. Mining causes land dereliction (abandoning of exhausted land). This destroys the nature
of the landscape and leads to mineral resource exhaustion.
3. It accelerates deforestation as a result of clearing of vegetation so as to establish the
mining centers and settlement
4. The size of the land is reduced and the soil structure together with texture is destroyed
because of the mixture with rock fragments and hence plant growth cannot take place
easily.
5. Mining leads to the disappearance of valuable plant species. E.g. loss of biodiversity.
6. Green house effect and global warming can occur as a result of the used energy
generating minerals like coal, uranium etc these produce gases like carbon dioxide which
pollute the atmosphere.
7. The pits which are flooded with water act as mosquito breeding places and hence
accelerate the spread of malaria.

Suggested Ways of Minimizing the Effects of Mining to the Environment

1. Improving the methods of extraction
2. Reducing the population pressure
3. Reclaiming the areas which have been affected by mining like planting the trees
4. Developing other sources of energy rather than depending on energy resources from
the ground.
5. Establishing other economic activities like fishing, tourism and market gardening
instead of depending on mining only.

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 COAL IN MINING IN USA
Is the leading producer of coal in the world and accounts for 24% of the world’s total production.
The major coal fields include: The eastern province which is the most productive in which there
are states like Kentucky, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio The interior that include the
states like L.Hunan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma and Kansas The gulf province that
includes the states like Texas, Alabama and Arkansas

Factors that have stimulated the Development of Coal Mining

1. Presence of large deposits in many parts of USA.
2. Advanced technology used in the mining activity. The use of machines.
3. Good market within and out of the USA due to the presence of iron and steel industries.
4. Well developed transport system.
5. Capital availability since the country is very rich.

Advantages of Coal Mining in the USA

1. It has stimulated the development of industries since it provides power.
2. It has led to the development of the transport system especially the railway lines.
3. It has created employment opportunities.
4. It has stimulated the development of the iron mining sector.

Disadvantages of Coal Mining

1. It has led to the creation of pits in the ground leading to the formation of ugly landscape.
2. Coal has contributed to the environmental pollution like air, water and noise pollution.
3. It is facing a great challenge from the environmentalists and other sources of energy.
4. It has led to the reduction in the size of the arable land.
5. Coal is a non-renewable resource hence it gets exhausted when exploited.

OIL PRODUCTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST

Middle Eastern countries together produce over of the world’s petroleum [oil]. The major
producers being Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait and U.A.E. Others are Oman, Iraq, Turkey, Syria,
Lebanon, Israel and Jordan.

Factors Leading to the Production of Oil in the Middle East

1. The deposits are very large. The Middle East has a very huge deposit of oil.
2. The oil is easily obtained in the Middle East. Most of the oil is obtained from
underground, only a small percentage obtained from under sea.
3. The oil can be easily exported (transported). Most of the Middle East fields are located
around Persian Gulf (easy to export).
4. Oil drilling is the only economic activity in the Middle East.

Advantages of oil production in the Middle East

1. Source of foreign currency: Most of the oil used in many parts of the world comes from
the Middle East. A large amount of oil is exported from this region, so the countries earn
the much needed foreign exchange which is, in turn, invested in others sectors such as
manufacturing industries, commerce and trade.
2. Creation of employment opportunities: Most of the Middle East countries lie entirely
in the heart of the desert. So it is hard to undertake other economic activities such as

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 agriculture. Most people are solely employed in the oil production industry, which
provides them with income that they spend on their basic needs. People are employed to
work in oil extraction, transportation, or sale of petroleum products.
3. Improvement of social services: The money earned from the oil industry is invested in
other sectors of economy. It is also used to established or improve social services and
other amenities. The governments spend huge sums of money to set up social services
such as schools, hospitals, games and sports, etc.
4. Improvement of transport and communication: the income generated by the oil
industry is used to develop roads railways, harbors, and airports. This has consequently
led to improvement of transportation and communication infrastructures in the region.
5. Generation of energy and power: The oil produced provides the Middle East countries
with energy and power that is used for various purposes, including running vehicles and
other machinery.

Problems that have been facing Oil Extraction in the Middle East
1. There has been technological backwardness in many countries combined with small
populations and lack of local capital. This forced the international companies to involve
themselves in the oil exploitation.
2. Labor unrest due to frequent conflicts that take place in the Middle East like the gulf war.
These conflicts have made the oil mining industry become insecure also there are
frequent disputes which complicates oil mining because of these issues/conflicts.
3. Poor transport system from production areas to refining ports.
4. Reduction of oil reserves as it is non-renewable resources i.e. it is decreasing day after
day.

DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is the third world producer of diamond, the first is DRC and the second is the
former USSR. Others are Botswana, Ghana, and Sierra Leone etc. Diamond is the hardest
mineral. In South Africa mining began in 1871 at Kimberly. The methods involved in the mining
process are placer method for alluvial diamond and shaft method for the diamond found in the
deep ground. Diamond is used for making jewels, manufacturing the drilling bits, making cutting
instruments like for cutting glass, diamond dust for polish. Places or areas where diamond is
produced in South Africa are;
 Kimberly cape province
 Transvaal
 Portmusburg
 Orange free states (Pretoria)

Importance of Diamond Mining in South Africa

1. Provision of employment opportunities not only in South Africa but also in other
countries.
2. Development of social services.
3. Development of towns and cities e.g. Pretoria.
4. Increases the national income from its sales.

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 Problems facing diamond mining in South Africa
1. Price fluctuation in the world market which causes low profit making.
2. Labor unrest, no peace, misunderstanding among blacks and whites.
3. Shortage of food among workers caused by overpopulation around mining centers.
4. Competition from other mining countries.

IRON MINING IN LIBERIA

Liberia is well endowed with large resources of Iron ore. Liberia is the leading producer of Iron
ore in Africa. Iron mining is very important to the economy of Liberia. The areas with mineral
deposits include Walogosi Mt. ranges in Western Liberia, Bomi hills, Bong Mountains, Nimber
Mountain ranges and Bio mountain ranges. Open cast method is widely used.

Factors for the Development of Iron Mining in Liberia

1. Availability of iron ore both high grade and low grade.
2. Development of the railway to Bomi hills from Monrovia.
3. Labor availability since West Africa has high population.
4. The government policy favors mining industries in Liberia.

Advantages of Iron Mining in Liberia

1. It has contributed to the export earning
2. It has encouraged the development of towns.
3. It has contributed to the development of industries especially steel industry and
Buchanan.
4. The mining industry has stimulated the development of social services like schools,
roads, hospitals, shops and police stations.
5. It has led to the improvement of the port facilities such as Buchanan.
6. Iron mines have provided market for the locally produced food stuffs.
7. It has stimulated the development of infrastructure like the railway system etc.
8. Employment opportunities.

Problems Facing Iron Mining in Liberia

1. Competition from other countries like South Africa which produce iron.
2. There is exhaustion of deposits in the mining areas.
3. Poor transport from other West African countries.
4. The deposits are scattered.
5. Civil war between the government and rebels.

IRON MINING IN SWEDEN

Sweden is endowed with iron minerals. It is among the Scandinavian countries. Areas where iron
mining takes place include places around koruna and other mining centers at Gullivane and
Suapavaara.

Factors for the Development of Iron Mining in Sweden

1. The development of the railway stimulates the iron mining industry.
2. High market in Europe due to the developed industry especially in Germany.
3. Power supply from the great hydroelectric power at Porjus etc.
4. The use of advanced technology.

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 5. The government supports industrial development.
6. Constant water supply needed in the cooling of engines and cleaning.
7. Availability of high grade iron deposits
8. High government stability has encouraged the mining industry; this is because labor is
under high security.

Importance of Iron Industry in Sweden

1. Creation of employment opportunities.
2. Has stimulated the development of transport and communication.
3. It has promoted agriculture, forestry and tourism.
4. International trade has expanded.
5. Towns have developed due to the contribution of iron ore mining.
6. Social services have improved to a great extent.
7. It has led to the development of heavy industries including steel and iron industry as
well as car and ship building industry Volvo and Scania cars are produced in Sweden.

Problems Facing Iron Industry in Sweden

1. Formation of ice in winter at the Luck port complicated the transportation. To solve this
problem another link was formed to ice free port at Narvik.
2. Exhaustion of some iron deposits due to excessive extraction.
3. Stiff challenge from the environmentalists who are against the current trend of fast
industrial development.

NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION IN TANZANIA

In Tanzania natural gas deposits have been discovered at Songosongo in Kilwa in 1975 but there
has been a delay in realizing full exploitation of gas due to the following reasons;
1. There is low technology among the Tanzanians that can be used in exploiting natural gas
at Songosongo Island along the coast of the Indian Ocean.
2. Low capital to be invested since Tanzania is one of the poor countries.
3. Poor transport [infrastructure] that can facilitate exploitation of natural gas.
4. The use of other available sources of energy like HEP and forest has delayed full
extraction of natural gas from Songosongo.

Advantages of the Extraction of the Gas from Songosongo

1. It will lead to the reduction of over dependence on gas from outside.
2. It will stimulate the development of some iron and steel industries by using the available
iron deposits in Tanzania as well as scope iron materials.
3. It contributes to the promotion of environmental conservation since natural gas is clean
and environmentally friendly.
4. It will lead to the creation of employment opportunities in the country so as to solve the
problem of unemployment for example some people are now employed to dig traces and
lay down the pipe lines and construction of other important structures.
5. The standard of living among the people will rise due to the provision of efficient sources
of energy.
6. It can stimulate exploitation of other resources like petroleum which is expected to be
present at Songosongo.

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7. It can stimulate the gain of foreign currency through selling it abroad.

Disadvantage of natural gas production in Tanzania

1. Even though people are compensated when they give their lands for construction and
expansion of gas projects, the compensation is very small. The houses and other
infrastructure. Belonging to poor people are demolished carelessly before they are
compensated or relocated, a fact that bothers these citizens a great deal.
2. The natural gas is a highly explosive substance. It can cause great loss of life and
property to the people living or undertaking their activities close to gas pipelines in case
the gas in the pipeline explodes and catches fire spontaneously.
3. Because the gas is a non-renewable resource, it can be exhausted or get used up. This
could destabilize the activities and sectors whose existence relies upon the availability of
natural gas.

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 CHAPTER 6

TOURISM

Meaning of tourism
Tourism refers to the movement of people away from home to other places for recreation,
leisure, religious, family, or business purposes, usually of a limited duration. Tourism involves
visiting places of interest like wildlife, beaches, museums etc,

Types of Tourism
1. Domestic tourism involves travel within the same country. For example, when people
move from Mbeya to Mikumi National Park to view wild animals, this kind of tourism is
called domestic tourism.
2. International tourism involves movement from one country to another for leisure,
business, education, etc. For example, many people travel from Europe and America to
Tanzania to climb Mount Kilimanjaro, or to view other attractive things.

Factors for the Development and Growth of the Tourism Industry in the World

Physical Factors
1. Pleasant climatic condition especially sunny conditions attract tourists from colder
countries during winter.
2. Attractive landscape (scenery) due to physical features like mountains, craters, lakes,
coastal beaches, canyons and deserts.

Socio-Cultural Factors
1. Presence of historical and architectural sites for example cities, churches, mosques,
temples, temples, palaces and pyramids.
2. Presence of recreational resorts like swimming places, hotels, beaches etc
3. Presence of national parks like Serengeti, Yellowstone, Yosemite etc
4. Good social services like medication, good food, water supply, shopping centers

Political Factors
1. Presence of peace in the country
2. Government policy that helps to develop tourism industry

Economic Factors
1. Availability of capital to be invested in the tourist industry
2. Advancement in transport and communication e.g. air transport, road, railway
and water. These facilitate accessibility of different places of interest in the
country

Religious Factors
1. People often travel to places of religious importance to seek inner peace, get blessing of
their favorite gods and spiritual leaders, attain salvation before death, etc. Examples of
places that are well known for their religious significance are Jerusalem in Israel, Mecca
and Medina in Saudi Arabia, Varanasi and Amritsar in India, etc.
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Importance of Tourism in the World
1. Source of foreign exchange
2. Source of employment in hotels, guiding section, game parks and travelling agents.
3. Improvement of infrastructure
4. Promotes international relations
5. Source of government revenue
6. Conservation of wildlife and environment and protection of historical sites
7. Economic use of marginal lands
8. Preservation of culture

IMPACTS OF TOURISM IN THE WORLD

Positive Impacts of Tourism

1. It helped in foreign exchange
2. It leads to job creation in rural areas, thereby reducing rural-urban migration.
3. Tourism has led to creation of job opportunities. Many people have been employed in the
tourist sector, a fact which has helped improve their quality of life.
4. It brings together people of different colors, cultures and religions.
5. It has led to diversification of economies of countries involved in the sector. For example,
tourism is now earring more revenue than agriculture and other sectors of the economy in
Tanzania.
6. Tourism has enabled sustainable conservation of wildlife and the environment and
preservation of cultural heritage and historical sites.
7. It influences development of infrastructure in host countries. In Tanzania, for example,
roads to national parks such as Serengeti National Park have been improved

Negative Impacts of Tourism

1. Bad behavior and overcrowding to the host community.
2. The tourists can lead to erosion of traditional cultures and values.
3. Tourism poses a threat to natural and cultural resources such as water supply, beaches,
coral reefs and pollution.
4. High expenditure towards improvement of social services.
5. Jobs created by tourism are often seasonal and poorly paid

Ways of Addressing the Negative Impact of Tourism

1. Diversification of revenue sources such that when the tourism industry collapses they do
not suffer economic difficulties.
2. Laws and policies should be put in place that ensures the revenue accrued from tourism
benefits the local community and the government in general.
3. Tourists should be directed to obey the culture and traditions of the host communities.
4. Promotion to conserve and preserve the environment
5. The laws, rules and regulations should be enacted and enforced to combat criminal
incidences, child labor, drug abuse, and prostitution.
6. New tourist attractions should be established and developed so as to reduce pressure
exerted to already established attractions.

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 7. The local people should be involved in tourism activities so that they benefit in
conserving the tourist attractions like wildlife conservation areas, etc.
8. There should be integration of tourist activities with the protection of the environmental
condition through the eco-tourism approach.

TOURISM IN NAMIBIA
Namibia is a newly independent country but the tourism sector has grown very fast within a short
period of time. Incidentally tourism is the 3rd largest contributor to the gross domestic product
after mining and agriculture. The number of visitors in Namibia has been increasing year after
year. For example in 1993 over 368,000 visitors came to Namibia, 560000 in 1996, 615000 in
1997 and over 800000 are projected for6. Tourism can cause events such as terrorism, natural
disasters and economic recession. The year 2007-The overall growth of the tourism sector is
targeted at 10-12 percent per year.

Factors that have contributed to the Tourism Growth in Namibia

1. Advertisement that has been done by the government and the private sectors
2. Strong policy on promoting the tourism industry
3. Namibia has a favorable investment potentials created by Namibia’s free market
economy and the government commitment to promote free enterprise.
4. Well developed infrastructure has facilitated easy accessibility of different places in
Namibia.
5. There are a lot of attractions which include:- Climate endowed with beautiful sunshine,
Abundant wild life in the game reserves like hardtop and mahango game reserves,
national parks like the Etosha and Malili national park, Caprivi Aaan and Viljoen game
parks.
6. The establishment of the Namibia stock exchange [NSX] that has attracted foreign
investors has been another contributing factor in the tourism development.
7. The hard work made by both the public and private sector. The private sector has
invested substantially in the development of infrastructure.
8. The influence of development of other activities has facilitated the development of
tourism in Namibia.
9. The aid from European countries has also enhanced the tourism development process in
the country.

Importance of Tourism to Namibia

1. It has led to the preservation and boosting of the country’s cultural values and norms.
2. It has stimulated the further development of infrastructure
3. It has promoted the move towards environmental conservation in the country with an
aim of maintaining the country’s beauty.
4. It has contributed to the employment creation in the country.
5. It has contributed to the gross domestic product. It is the third contributor to the GDP
after mining and Agriculture.
6. Social services have improved in the country especially with the introduction of the
community based tourism.
7. Tourism has earned Namibia an international repute. It has led to the formation of the
people’s lives in general Tourists resorts in Namibia The tourist resort in Namibia

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 includes Cape gross seal reserve, Caprivi Game Park, Daan Viljeon park, Duwisib castle,
Etosha national park, Fish river canyon, Gross barmen hot spring resort etc.

TOURISM IN SWITZERLAND
Switzerland is a famous country in the world due to its tourism development. It is also referred to
as the playground of Europe since tourism takes place all the year around and many tourists visit
Switzerland because of its attractions. There are also different games and sports that are of
interests to the tourists.

Factors Influencing the Development Tourism Industry in Switzerland

1. Beautiful scenery made by the Alps Mountains which have U-Shaped valleys pyramid
peaks and snow cover. Also presence of water bodies like Geneva which adds to the
beauty of the scenery.
2. Its central location in Europe has also led to high accessibility of the country from
different directions in Europe and other countries like America etc.
3. Ideal climate which allows the activities to take place both in winter and summer.
4. Good hotel management so as to meet tourists demand
5. Availability of skilled labor. This has led to the efficient running of the tourism industry
6. Hospitality of the Swiss people has been another attraction to the tourists
7. Its policy of stability has made peace dwell in the country and hence tourists have been
encouraged to visit the country
8. It has international institutions like banks and conference centers used by different
nations because of its peace.

Importance of Tourism in Switzerland

1. It is the major employer in the country. During the peak season it employs more than
120,000 people. This is six or seven times as many as Tanzanian tourism employments.
2. It has contributed to the earning of foreign exchange in the country hence capital is
accumulated from the tourism industry in a great amount.
3. It has stimulated the development of science and technology for example electrification
of the railway systems.
4. It has accelerated the foreign responsibility of the Swiss country. This has been followed
by the improvement in the international relations between Switzerland and the countries
where tourists come from.
5. It has contributed to the provision of employment to the people.

Problems Facing Tourism in Switzerland

1. Severe cold during winter which leads to the blocking of railway lines
2. Landslides and avalanches are dangerous to the tourists
3. There is competition between the tourism industry and transhumance in the use of the
Alps Mountains.
4. Steep slopes of the mountain have led to the problems of transport to different parts of
Switzerland.
5. Environmental pollution due to the coming visitors

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 TOURISM IN TANZANIA
Tanzania with its unique features is one of the famous countries in the World of tourism. The
number of tourists has been increasing year after year. And the increase was a result of efforts
made by the government and private tour operators to advertise Tanzania’s tourist potentials in
the recent past.

Tourist Attractions (Honey pots) in Tanzania

1. Attractive landscape made by the presence of Mountains like Kilimanjaro which is
snow capped, active volcanic mountain Oldonyo Lengai (the mountain of God), large
lakes like Tanganyika and Victoria, and the remarkable Rift Valley and the Indian
Ocean.
2. Large attractive network of National Parks and Game Reserves covering about 25%
of the land. There are National Parks like Serengeti, Lake Manyara, Tarangire, Arusha,
Kilimanjaro, Mikumi, Ruaha, Katavi, Gombe, Mahale, Rubondo Island and Udzungwa.
Also there Game Reserves like Selous, Rungwa/Kizigo, Moyowosi/Kigosi, Maswa,
Ibanda, Biharamulo, Bugiri, Gurumeti/Ikorongo, Usangu, Pande, Saadani, Ugalla and
Mkomazi.
3. There are Pre-Historic Sites like Olduvai Gorge in the Serengeti Plain where visitors
get important information of the past.
4. Shifting sand across the Ngorongoro plains, the sand shifts at 17 meters per year.
5. There are coastal attractions like Mangrove plants, fishing grounds, coral reefs,
beaches, hotels, Islands like Mafia Island and water for swimming.
6. Cool climate in the mountains, warm coastal climate good for swimming etc.
7. The national language Kiswahili and other languages like English, French and
German facilitate communication between the visitors and the local people.
8. Tanzania cultural aspects like Makonde carvings, Maasai dressing. And the paintings
at Kondoa Irangi.

The Importance of Tourism in Tanzania

1. Source of foreign exchange
2. Improvement in the standard of living
3. Source of employment.
4. Improvement of infrastructure
5. Market for locally produced goods and services
6. Environmental conservation
7. Strengthening of international relations
8. Source of foreign exchange

Problems Facing Tourism Industry in Tanzania

1. Poor transport and communication
2. Poor marketing of the tourist attractions
3. Shortage of capital to develop tourism industry
4. Poor coordination policies government and stakeholders in the industry
5. Crime that caused by tourists from visiting tourism areas.
6. Poaching has led to extinction of some animals
7. Stiff competition from other countries with the same attractions

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 8. Failure to master different languages creates a communication

Methods Used to Increase the Income of Tourism Industry in Tanzania

1. Marketing and publicity
2. Promotion of domestic tourism
3. Expanding tourist industry by opening and expanding new tourist attraction like
coastal area.
4. Training of tourism personnel
5. Improvement of infrastructures
6. Improvement of safety and security
7. Controlling poaching because it reduces numbers of wild animal

How to Promote Tourism in Tanzania

1. The ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, through Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB),
must promote Tanzania’s tourist attractions through conducting publicity campaigns,
preparation and publication of destination brochures and provision of tourist information.
2. Improvement and development of transport and communication infrastructures,
particularly in areas with tourist attractions, in order to make these attractions accessible
from the town centers.
3. Tourism resources such as national parks and game reserves should be protected from
human encroachment. Also the environment on which the animals thrive, such as natural
vegetation and water resources should be conserved.
4. There is need to identify and develop tourist attractions and improve the existing ones so
as to diversify the tourist activities. Special emphasis should be put on improvement of
pre-historical and archaeological sites, most of which are in very poor states.
5. The level of hospitality to tourists must be improved through training of the tourism
personnel so as to meet the world’s standards.
6. Attracting both local and foreign investors to put up facilities such as hotels, motels,
lodges, etc. for tourists.
7. The political stability, peace and tranquility should be maintained to ensure maximum
security to tourists.

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 CHAPTER 7

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Meaning of manufacturing industry

Manufacturing industry refers to the industry which involves processing and changing the
materials in order to make new products of greater value to man. Manufacturing industries are
also referred to as secondary industries.

Significance / Importance of Manufacturing Industry

1. It provides employment
2. Diversification of the economy; Industries reduce the reliance on one type of product
3. Earning of foreign currency example Germany earns foreign currency because of
exporting the manufactured products.
4. It leads to self-sufficiency. The country reduces its reliance on imported goods hence its
economy becomes stable.
5. Development of transport and communication like roads railway lines, ports etc
6. It encourages improvement of social services
7. It reduces expenses on imports.

Types of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries are divided into processing and fabrication industries.
1. Processing industries are the ones which deal with preparing the raw materials for
fabrication. For example coffee pulping, decorator and cashew nuts hullers.
2. Fabricating industries are the ones that deal with making new products from the
processed materials for example textile industry.

Manufacturing industries can also be classified as heavy industries or light industries:

1. Heavy industries are industries which involve the production of bulky and heavy
products like iron and steel industry, car assembling and shipping etc
2. Light industries are those which involve the production of light and complex products
for example the manufacture of plastics, textiles, cosmetics and paper

Factors Influencing the Location of Industries

1. Availability of raw material. Some industries are located near to the source of raw
materials, for example most of the processing industries and food manufacturing
industries.
2. Fuel and power availability. For example location of iron and steel industries in United
Kingdom and China.
3. Human resources. This helps to the labor supply both skilled and unskilled.
4. Availability of capital. This is needed for the investment in the machinery and
importation of raw materials.
5. Market availability. The entire process of manufacturing is useless until the finished
goods reach the market. Nearness to market is essential for quick transport of
manufactured goods. It helps in reducing the transport cost and enables the consumer to
get things at cheaper rates.

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6. Industrial inertia and historical factors; Industrial inertia is the tendency of old
industries to remain in the same area without shifting to the new area. Despite of
unfavorable conditions these industries continue being in the same area because of the
well-established transport system and assured supply of labor as well as social services
supply.
7. Availability of transport and communication systems. Transport by land or water is
necessary for the movement of raw materials and for the marketing of the finished
products. A good transport and communication infrastructure is important for carrying
raw materials to the industry and transporting finished goods from the industry to
consumers. It is also required for moving workers, machinery, chemicals and other
materials.
8. Government policies. This helps on balancing the economic development of a certain
area and provision of jobs.
9. Government stability. Is the ability of government in maintenance of peace of a
particular place.

Effects of the Manufacturing Industries on the Environment

1. Industry leads to environmental pollution that is water pollution, air pollution, soil
pollution and noise pollution.
 Air pollution which caused by the introduction of greenhouses gases like carbon
dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
 Water pollution caused by introduction of hot water and chemicals from the
industries.
 Soil pollution due to dumping radioactive materials on the soil
 Noise pollution due to loud voice from the industries which can disturb the
people.
2. Industry causes land dereliction (exhaustion), this destroys the nature of the landscape
and leads to mineral resources exhaustion.
3. It accelerates deforestation as a result of clearing of vegetation so as to establish the
mining centers and settlement.
4. The size of the land is reduced and the soil structure together with texture is destroyed
because of the mixture with fragments of rock and hence plant growth cannot take place
easily.
5. Industry leads to the disappearance of valuable plant species.
6. Greenhouse effect and global warming can occur as a result of energy generating
minerals like coal, uranium etc.
7. The pits which are flooded with water act as mosquito breeding places and hence
accelerate the spread of malaria.
8. Positive effects involve the use of virgin land which was once useless

Types of Pollutants
1. Gaseous pollutants; Are the pollutants which occur in gaseous form. These include
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide e.t.c which
pollute the air. These pollutants on polluting the air lead to the formation of acidic rainfall
and global warming. Acid rainfall leads to the addition of acid in the soil which in turn

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 causes the death of plants and microorganisms as well as destruction of buildings by
removing the paint on the walls.
2. Particulate dust matter and other solid matter; Are the pollutants which occur in
particle or solid which emirates from the industries get into the air or water bodies or soil
and cause contamination. These can lead to the increase in acid or toxicity in places
where they can be dumped.
3. Liquid matters; this includes all forms of molten or semi molten materials (liquid).
These involve hot water and chemicals from industries. Hot water leads to thermal
pollution of water bodies which can kill the aquatic animals/organisms because of the
sharp rise in temperature.

General Effects of Industrial Pollutants on the Health of an Individual Employee and

Communities living around
1. Water pollutants cause disease like Cancer, Typhoid, and diarrhea.
2. Air pollution can lead to respiratory diseases like bronchitis to employees and people
around.
3. Soil pollution can cause decline in agricultural production and hence lead to starvation to
take place.
4. People are also affected by noise and sometimes can lead to problems in the blood
circulation. For example Blood pressure and heart attack.

Ways of Reducing Pollutants

1. The combustion system in the engines should be filled with efficient facilities so that the
amount of greenhouse can be reduced if not solved totally.
2. The industries should be located far away from the residential areas.
3. Recycling the wastes for example the metal materials should be recycled so as to reduce
wastes.
4. There should be other activities developed so as to avoid over dependency on
manufacturing industries only especially in Japan etc. other materials.
5. To avoid noise pollution the parts of the engine should be lubricated and materials used
should be like bronze which does not make noise.
6. There should be concerted efforts by the government and non-governmental
organizations and some committed individuals in certain environmental pollution.
7. There should be strong policies governing the industrial operations and ensuring that
people who invest in industrial operations /development are given proper education on
how to handle the waste products properly i.e. recycling.
8. The industrial wastes should be treated to render them harmless to the health of people.
9. Alternative energy sources which are environmentally friendly like solar energy, natural
gas, wind power etc.

SHIP BUILDING IN JAPAN

Ship building in Japan expanded fast after the Second World War. Japan is a chain of islands
located in eastern Asia between North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan. Its major islands are
Hokkaido, Honshu (the largest and most populous), Kyushu and Shikoku. Japan is one of the
world’s industrialized countries. It is one of the leading countries in car manufacturing in the
world. The Japanese automobile industry is one of the most prominent and largest industries in

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the world. Japan has been in the top three among the most car manufacturing countries in the
world since 1960, surpassing Germany.

The country is the home to a number of companies that produce cars, construction vehicles,
motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), and engines. Japan automobile manufacturers include
Toyota, Honda, Daihatsu, Nissan, Suzuki, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Subaru, Isuzu, Kawasaki, Yamaha
and Mitsouka.

The Main Reasons for that Expansion have been outlined below;
1. Japan’s enormous increase in external trade which led to the increase in demand of
merchant ships.
2. Japan’s large engineering industry has stimulated the development of ship building.
3. Absence of old established ship building industry made it easy to introduce
modernization. Normally old industries tend to create problems in introducing new
technology.
4. A large skilled labor force Technology is well advanced and efficient hence has
stimulated the fast development of the industry.
5. Strong determination to become successful in industrial and trade activities in Japan
Introduction of prefabricated ship building.
6. The development of fishing industry in Japan and worldwide has stimulated the
development of the ship building industry.
7. Forestry industry in Japan has also contributed a lot since the forest materials are used as
one of the components in ship building.
8. Ready market worldwide especially in rich countries.
9. The government policy has supported the industrial development of the shipping industry
in Japan.
10. Reliable supply of power like HEP power and nuclear energy.
11. The need to import raw materials has stimulated the development of the Ship building
industry. This is because the country lacks raw materials so it imports most of its raw
materials and the ship building industry could help in cutting down some coasts of
transport.

Problems of the Ship Building Industry

1. Frequent earth quakes threaten the industry because the country lies within the weak zone
of the earth’s crust.
2. Stiff challenge from the other countries like China and South Korea which are also
developing their own shipping industries. This reduces the market.
3. The industry also faces opposition from the environmentalists and is believed to be one of
their sources of pollution in the world. Coastal areas have been polluted and this affects
people and animals. Location of the shipping industries Most of Japanese ship yards are
located along the coast these include: Kobe Osaka, Chiba, Yokohama, Kawasaki, Tokyo
and Hiroshima

CAR ASSEMBLY IN USA

The motor cars and Lorries are now produced in the USA on assembly line. Assembly needs
considerable engineering Skills. USA is the largest producer of road vehicles and the industry is

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located along the shores of the great lakes in regions such as Detroit, Cleveland and buffalo.
Another important center is Los Angeles in California. Early modern car manufacturing in the
USA began in the early 1900 and half of the world cars are produced at Detroit and the southern
shores of the great lakes.

Car assembly needs a large area of flat land and there must be good communication with the
other industries which supply component parts. The large units of the car are chassis or frame,
engine, body, wheels, springs and column. Materials needed for manufacturing the car parts are:
 Iron and steel for making the body and engine frame
 Lather and cloth for making the seat covers,
 Rubber for making the tires Electric wire coverings
 Glass for windows and the wind screen Lead for the accumulator e.t.c

Factors that have Influenced Production of Cars in the USA

1. The use of advanced technology in the making of the car components
2. Availability of labor used in the car assembly.
3. High industrial and agricultural production which need car transport for ferrying the
goods produced.
4. Availability of iron and steel for making the car parts.
5. Capital availability for the cars produced in the USA.
6. The USA has the market both within the country and out of the country.
7. The influence of the government policy that has been encouraging heavy industrialization
in order to obtain advanced economic development.
8. Good road network has also encouraged the manufacturing of cars.

Challenges Facing the Car Industry in the USA

1. A great challenge is from other countries like Japan centering at Tokyo and Yokohama.
German centering on Nuremberg, Dusseldorf and the Stuttgart. UK centering on
Coventry, Birmingham, Derby, oxford and Dagenham.
2. Terrorism has been threatening the country, keeping people uncomfortable. Much of the
financial resources are directed to the fight against terrorism
3. Environmentalists also discourage the manufacture of many cars

AIR CRAFT IN RUSSIA

Aircraft cannot be mass-produced. They are like ship buildings which have to be built very much
by individual schedules. The Airplanes are usually assembled in the areas where road vehicles
are made. But the Russian aircraft industry is highly challenged by the USA which is the largest
producer in the world with industries near Los Angeles at Seattle (on the pacific coast).

Advantages of the Car and Aircraft Industries

1. Have stimulated the development of international trade
2. Transport has become efficient with planes urgent problems can be attended to.
3. Have stimulated the spread of technology and information. The world has become a
global village.
4. It has strengthened unity among the different countries in the world.

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 Car and Air Craft Industries have contributed to following Problems
1. Air pollution because of the introduction of gases in the atmosphere.
2. Acceleration of accidents in the air and on the road claiming the lives of the people
3. Drug trafficking from country to country
4. Spread of diseases like AIDS due to the global contacts among the people
5. Acceleration of terrorism and civil wars in many parts of the world. The weapons are
transported from one continent or country to another.
6. Acceleration of climate change due to the destruction of ozone layer caused by smoke
produced by cars and airplanes.

HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES IN GERMANY

Germany is one of the world’s leading countries after the USA in terms of production of heavy
duty vehicles. The heavy duty vehicles are the ones that carry heavy goods (bulky) or do heavy
works like earth moving. Examples of heavy duty vehicles include:
 Transport vehicles such as containers carries [trucks]
 Earth moving machines like bulldozers, caterpillars, drilling vehicles, tractors used for
ploughing etc.

Factors that have influenced the Development of the Heavy Duty Vehicles in Germany
1. Availability of raw materials like iron and steel from the Ruhr region
2. Availability of energy especially from coal mined in the Ruhr region
3. Hard working attitude of the people in Germany has contributed to the fast development
of this industry.
4. Good transport and communication network has stimulated the manufacturing of heavy
duty vehicles. Germany is having well advanced high ways.
5. Advanced science and technology among the people of Germany because of high
education
6. Availability of market both in the country and outside the country due to the good quality
of goods
7. Availability of enough capital which enable them to implement their objectives.

Problems that Germany has been facing in this Industry

1. Tariffs [taxes] charged to the industry tend to be high
2. The WWII which was under the influence of Hitler caused deceleration of the industry.
3. Other countries wanted Germany to limit its industrial sector because it became a threat
to them.
4. Germany is currently facing challenges from other countries that are producing the same
goods like Japan and the USA.
5. Exhaustion of some raw materials like coal and iron is another problem.

Positive Effects of Heavy Duty Vehicles

1. They facilitate road construction in the country for example they are being used in
Tanzania for road construction such as the Morogoro road.
2. They help in the distribution of goods and services in the country.
3. They also promote the development of industries in the country since they facilitate the
supply of raw materials.

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 4. They create employment opportunities for the people in the country like drivers or
operators.
5. It has contributed greatly to the development of International trade.

Problems Caused by Heavy Duty Vehicles

1. The heavy trucks that carry bulky and heavy goods contribute to the destruction of the
roads especially where the roads are of low quality like the largest part of Tanzania.
2. They cause delays on the way during road construction.
3. They accelerate the rate of accidents on the way as some other vehicles happen to slam
into them when no signs are put on the road during the road construction.

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT PRODUCTION IN SOUTH KOREA

South Korea is among the newly industrialized countries whose economy has been growing very
fast due to heavy investment in the industrial development. Other NICs are: Taiwan, Hong Kong
and Singapore etc. The economies of these countries are referred to as Tiger economies because
they have been growing very fast.

Electronic equipment production industry is classified as high technology industry since it

produces light articles like Television, Electronic watches, Desk tops, Calculators, Radios,
Sophisticated materials like, Microphones, Magnetic disks, Computer terminals, Software etc In
South Korea the major center for electronic production is around Tango in the south where there
are more than 150 electronic factories.

Factors for the Development of Electronic Equipment Production in South Korea

1. Labor supply in the initial stages of industrial development has been reliable and people
are hardworking and efficient.
2. High technology because of the advanced education among the people.
3. The industry is flexible [foot loose] in location. - It can be located in a small space like
the city center it does not need a large area.
4. Ready market for the articles produced in South Korea since they are of high quality and
of the current demand in the world.
5. There has been strong government support on the industrial development.
6. Agricultural development supports this industry especially in creating capital for
investment.
7. Efficient transport system in the country.

Advantages of the Electronic Industry in South Korea

1. It has led to the creation of employment to the population of the country.
2. It has stimulated fast information flow especially through the internet services which use
computers.
3. The use of computers has stimulated efficiency and accuracy in processing bulky data in
the different enterprise or companies etc. Hectic/laborious work has been avoided
through automatic use of machines. In some areas there is a use of robots which can work
more than a human being
4. The economy of the country has risen fast as a result of exporting electronic facilities
5. It has stimulated the growth of other industries like heavy industries.

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 6. The export trade has expanded leading to the increased international relation between
South Korea and other countries.
7. It has contributed to the diversification of the economy of the country.

Problems of the Electronic Industry

1. The spread of viruses in the computers leads to error in data processing.
2. It does not have high market in the developing countries where technology is very low
and many people do not know how to use electronic facilities.
3. It has led to the rapid growth of urban population due to the rural-urban migration. This
has led to the rise of squatters and congestion as well as the decline of rural areas.
4. It has contributed to the retrenchment of employees (trimming down employees) since
few computers can do most of the work more efficiently than human beings for example
the use of robots in the ship building and car assembly.
5. There has been worldwide competition especially from America in the manufacturing of
electronic devices.
6. They are expensive.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN TANZANIA

Among the East African countries Tanzania has a brighter future as far as iron and steel industry
is concerned. The bright future is due to the following factors;
1. About 500 million tons of iron deposits have discovered to exist in Liganga area.
2. There are large deposits of power resources.
3. The existence of high demand for construction materials like iron bars.
4. The existence of the present steel rolling industry in Tanga has led to the inspiration for
establishing iron and steel rolling industry.
5. There also exist other sources of power like HEP especially at Stiegleis Gorge. These will
provide power for the iron and steel industry.
6. The need of cutting down costs which incurred in the importing the iron from other
countries.

Advantages Expected from the Iron and Steel Industry in Tanzania

1. It will create employment opportunities for the populations especially in the southern
parts of Tanzania.
2. It will lead to the local supply of steel material to steel rolling industry in Tanga
3. This will cut down costs of importing steel from other countries and hence it will save a
lot of government revenue that could be used in importing steel.
4. It will facilitate the construction sector such that stronger buildings and bridges will be
set up.
5. It will also facilitate the development of transport and communication within the country
6. Agriculture will also improve since farm implements will be produced in a greater
quantity and will be cheaper compared to the imported iron and steel materials.

Factors Limiting the Development of Iron and Steel Industry in Tanzania

1. Shortage of fund since Tanzania’s economy is very low

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2. Low technology among many Tanzanians. This has led to the existence of poor skilled
manpower.
3. There are poor transport and communication systems such that the transportation of iron
and steel materials will be problematic.
4. Shortage of internal market is another hindering factor delaying the development of iron
and steel industry in Tanzania.
5. Traditionally Tanzania has poor industrial base since it has been depending on agriculture
as its economic back bone [economic mainstay].
6. Poor Government support.

Factors that Hinder the Development of the Manufacturing Industries in East Africa
1. Low levels of science and technology
2. Low levels of capital to be invested in the industries
3. People are so migratory (they keep moving from place to place and hence they cannot
concentrate on production)
4. Civil wars also hinder industrial development in Tanzania and East Africa in general
5. Low government support on industrial development
6. Poor availability of raw materials
7. Poor transport and communication, hence the transportation of manufactured goods and
raw materials is very costly.
8. Poor labor supply to the industrial places.
9. Limited or poor marketing system.
10. Limited mineral sources and sources of energy.

Ways of improving the industrial base in East Africa

1. There should be improvement in transport and communication system.
2. There should be improvement in science and technology so as to facilitate industrial
growth.
3. The government should formulate policies which support industrial development in the
country.
4. The local resources should be explored and exploited for industrial use.
5. There should be control of population growth so that the capital can be invested in
industrial development rather than supporting the rapid growth of population rather than
wasting time moving from one place to another.
6. Competition should be encouraged among the Industrial producers.
7. The development of Internal and external trade should be encouraged

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 CHAPTER 8

SUSTAINABLE USE OF POWER AND ENERGY RESOURCES

TERMS;
 Energy is the capacity for doing work. Or is the power required on carrying out activity.
 Power Is the rate of doing work. Or the rate of using energy. You must have energy to
accomplish work. Therefore, you need energy to produce power. Without energy there is
no power that can be produced.

The Major Sources of Power and Energy

Energy sources can be sub-divided into two broad categories. These are renewable and non-
renewable energy sources.
1. Renewable sources are those that do not get finished or used up since they are naturally
replenished. These include sunlight, water, geothermal steam, wind and biomass.
2. Non-renewable sources are those that can get finished or used up through use, that is,
they cannot be replaced once used up. They include coal, petroleum, natural gas,
groundwater aquifers, and nuclear energy sources such as uranium and plutonium.

The Origin of Different Types of Energy and Power Sources

1. Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel that forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat,
which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous
coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes that take
place over a long period of time. Coal is black or brown in color.
2. Sunlight: The sun is a source of sunlight and all forms of energy on earth. Sunlight can
be harnessed to generate electricity (solar power). This is achieved by using solar panels
which absorbs the solar energy, converts it into electrical energy and stores it for later or
immediate use.
3. Waves and tides: Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea,
ocean or lake. As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed (just above the
waves), there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves.
4. Wind: Wind is air in motion from low to high pressure region. Wind possesses energy
which can be converted by appropriate devices, into mechanical energy, which in turn
can be used to generate electricity or do any useful work.
5. Water: Water in motion, such as waterfall or cataract, can be harnessed to generate
hydroelectricity. First, the kinetic energy in running water is converted into mechanical
and then electrical power.
6. Biomass: The term “biomass” refers to organic matter that has stored energy through the
process of photosynthesis. This can be transferred through the food chain to the animal’s
bodies and their wastes, all of which can be converted into energy for everyday human
use through processes such as combustion.
7. Petroleum (crude oil): Petroleum is a fossil fuel formed from fossilized remains of
plants and animals. When refined, it produces various petroleum fractions, which are put
to various uses of energy generation. It can be used to power cars and many machines,
and burned to produce heat and light or generate electricity.

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 8. Natural gas: Natural gas occurs alongside petroleum. The gas can be burned to generate
light and heat and harnessed to generate electricity. For example, the natural gas from
Songosongo Island in Kilwa is expected to be piped to Dar es Salaam where it will be
used to generate electricity and supplied to homes as liquefied gas to be used for heating
and lighting.
9. Uranium: This is a radioactive element which produces tremendous amounts of energy
upon disintegration (fission) or combination (fusion) of the nuclei of its atoms. This
energy (nuclear energy) can be used and is being used by many countries in the world to
generate electricity.

Methods of Acquiring / Extracting Power and Energy

The following are different energy and power resources and the methods used to extract energy
and power from these resources:
1. Coal: Coal is a combustive black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, usually occurring
in rock strata in layers or veins called beds or coal seams. Coal is considered as a non-
renewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human timeframe. The
activities involved in generating electricity from coal include mining, transport to power
plants, and burning the coal in power plants. At the power plant, coal is commonly
burned in a boiler to produce steam. The resulting steam is run through a turbine to
generate electricity.
2. Petroleum: Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock deep in the ground.
This liquid consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights,
plus other organic compounds. The energy from petroleum products is tapped mainly by
burning. The burning produces heat energy that is used for heating, lighting or doing
some mechanical work (such as powering machinery, vehicles, etc). Fuel is burned in a
furnace or boiler for generation of heat that is used in an engine for generation of power.
Petroleum products can also be burned to generate electricity.
3. Natural gas: Natural gas is fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases and
animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. Natural gas is
mined from deposits deep underground and brought to the surface. Before the gas can be
used as a fuel, it must be processed to remove impurities, including water, to meet the
standard of a marketable natural gas. Energy from the natural gas is extracted through
burning of the gas. This burning produces heat energy which is used for heating, cooking
and electricity generation. The gas is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a raw material
in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.
4. Water: The potential energy of dammed or flowing water can be converted into storable
electrical energy. Harnessing the flowing water to power machines and mechanical
processes is one of the oldest methods of power generation that is used until today. The
energy in water may be tapped naturally or artificially. Naturally, flowing water at
waterfalls runs through turbines, which generate electricity. River water may also be used
to run milling machines. Artificially, water may be lifted to higher points such as tanks or
dams where it drops in mass, turning the turbines to generate electricity.
5. Biomass: Biomass is biological material derived from living things, or recently living
organisms. It mostly refers to plants or plant-based materials. As an energy source,
biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat or indirectly after
converting it to various forms of bio-fuel. The bio-fuel can then be burned to release heat

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 energy that is used to power machines or for heating purposes. Wood is burned directly to
produce heat and/or light. Wood remains the best biomass energy source to date.
Examples of wood include forest residues (such as braches, dead trees and stumps), yard
clippings, wood chips, and even municipal solid wastes. Biomass also includes plant or
animal matter that can be converted into other industrial chemicals, including bio-fuels.
For example, gasohol is a bio-fuel derived from a mixture of alcohol (from sugar cane)
and petrol. This is used as a fuel to run cars and machines. Rotten garbage and
agricultural and human waste under controlled conditions can release biogas that can be
used for heating, cooking and lighting.
6. Uranium: Uranium is a radioactive element. The energy from uranium is extracted
through nuclear fission or fusion. Nuclear fission involves splitting of an atom while
nuclear fusion involves combining two light atoms. The most commercially exploited
process is nuclear fission, when the atoms and nuclei of this radioactive element split in
nuclear reactors. The process releases a large amount of energy in the form of heat. The
heat released is used to boil water into steam, which is, in turn used to turn turbines to
generate electricity.
7. Solar energy: Solar energy refers to energy from the sun. This energy can be tapped and
used for different purposes. Solar energy is tapped by devices called solar panels. The
energy is absorbed by the panels and converted into electrical energy that can be used
immediately or stored for later use. The trapped energy can be used to light homes and
power gadgets such as phones and calculators. The heat from the sun can also be tapped
directly like when it is used to dry crops or clothes.
8. Geothermal steam: The geothermal power from geothermal steam is extracted by
directing it to run machines that produce electricity. Its heat can also be tapped by placing
the material to be heated over the hot steam.
9. Wind energy: The kinetic energy of wind is harnessed by turning windmills, which
generate electricity. Each of the several wind mills is supplied with a cable which is used
to supply electricity to the main cable which then directs electricity to homes, industries
etc. The electricity generated can be used for cooking, lighting and running machines.
Wind energy may also be tapped by putting up sails to propel water vessels such as
dhows.

The Use and Importance of these types of Power Resources

Power and energy resources are important in two ways. First, it is through the energy and power
they produce and secondly, due to their own economic value.
1. The power and energy resources used in industrial development activities.
2. It used to run agricultural machinery such as tractors and harvesters such as petroleum.
3. Petroleum used by machines in agriculture increases agricultural production.
4. Environmental conservation: The use of solar, wind, biogas and energy helps to conserve
the environment.
5. Improvement of Transportation sector because of the use of motor vehicles, ships,
aircrafts, etc, all of which are powered by petroleum products.
6. Used in Mining: Most forms and kinds of machinery that are used in mineral prospection,
extraction, and processing use power and energy generated from fossil fuel. Therefore,
the fuel energy helps in the development of the mining industry.

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 7. Social services and amenities: Most social services and amenities are facilitated by
energy and power. For example, sports, games, schools, healthcare, and homes depend on
power and energy in different ways.

The Economic and Social Importance Energy and Power Sources

1. Source of employment
2. Source of foreign exchange
3. Source of government revenue
4. Improvement of transport and communication infrastructure
5. Promotion of trade and other industries.

The Problems Facing the Process of Power and Energy Harnessing

Power and energy production endeavor is faced by a number of problems which include the
following:
1. Changing of climatic conditions: Drought leads to rainfall scarcity and hence a drop in
the volume of water, in rivers. This problem affects the production of hydroelectric
power and is one of the factors leading to low energy production in most parts of the
world, especially in the least developed countries.
2. Lack of capital: Energy and power production needs heavy investments in infrastructure,
manpower and technology. All these investments require a great deal of capital.
3. Lack of diverse energy sources in respective countries: Most counties have very few
energy resources from which to extract power and energy. Worse still, some do not have
a single energy resource, so they have to import the resources or power. For instance,
uranium and geothermal steam are not found in many countries. Such countries extract
power from only a few available resources such as water, wind or solar energy.
4. Poor technology and lack of skilled personnel: Many developing countries lack the
technology required to establish energy extraction infrastructures and the skilled
personnel needed to perform that function. Most of the power and energy exploitation
technology used in developing countries is very old and less efficient and productive.
There are also very few people with the necessary skills for setting up and operating
equipment as well as conducting research on power and energy production methods,
facilities and technologies.
5. High prices: High prices for energy resources hinder energy and power output in most
countries that have to import these resources from other countries. Oil is used for energy
production. We have recently seen escalating oil prices worldwide. This leads to low
purchase and hence low energy and power production. Also the equipment needed for
production of energy and power is very expensive and can thus not be afforded by many
poor countries. As a result, they resort to inefficient and less productive obsolete
technology which cannot produce sufficient power and energy to meet the ever-
increasing demand for energy and power.
6. Environmental pollution: Energy and power exploitation is sometimes accompanied
with the emission of harmful gases that pollute the environment. Coal burning, for
example, releases tremendous quantities of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere. As
such, many countries are either phasing out such energy generation technologies or
spending a lot of capital to clean the coal so as to prevent environmental pollution. The
power and energy production sector is, therefore, in great pressure to adopt technologies
that minimize or cause no environmental pollution.
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 7. Siltation: Accumulation of silt in dams used for generation of hydroelectric power
reduces the volume of water in dams, hence resulting to low power generation. On the
other hand, removal of the silt from dams adds to the cost of energy and power
production and these costs are pushed on to consumers of energy and power.
8. Scramble for resources: River water is also used for irrigation of crops, domestic and
industrial uses, fishing or preservation of flora or fauna. For example, river Nile is used
for irrigation in Ethiopia (Gezira Irrigation Scheme) and, at the same time, required for
production of hydroelectric power at Aswan High Dam, in Egypt. If too much water is
used for irrigation, little will be available for hydropower generation. This competition on
the same resource can lead to international conflicts and even wars. Another example is
coal which is used for domestic heating as well as for generation of electricity. This can
curtail the generation of power and energy from coal if too much of it is used for
domestic heating. In Tanzania, peculiar species of toads are found at Kihansi power
generation station in Kihansi River. Use of water for generation of hydroelectricity
affects the lives of these organisms. This has caused a big concern from
environmentalists and wildlife conservation groups.

Ways of Addressing Power and Energy Harnessing

1. The silt accumulating in dams should be dredged regularly in order to keep the volume of
water constant. This will maintain the capacity of energy and power generation.
2. Any form of environmental pollution likely to cause global warming and reduction in
amount of rainfall should be avoided. People should not cut down trees indiscriminately
as this can lead to drought and hence reduction in volumes of rivers needed for
generation of hydroelectricity.
3. Countries should diversify their energy generation sources in order to escape the effects
caused by such problems as escalating oil prices and climate change.
4. Developing countries should phase out the old energy and power generation technologies
and instead of adopting the new ones so as to cope with technological advancements to
ensure that their energy generation is efficient and highly productive.
5. Research should be carried out often in order to improve energy and power production, as
well as come up with new production methods. Research will also help in finding power
and energy production methods that cause less or no environmental pollution.
6. The governments should train their people the courses related to energy and power
generation at schools, colleges, and universities so as to make them professionally
competent in the field of energy and power generation.
7. Countries should set aside enough funds to be used for energy and power generation
because success in this sector can boost the growth and development of other sectors.
Dormancy in energy and power sector can hinder industrial development and cause the
country’s economy to drop down.

SOLAR AND WIND POWER IN USA

The USA is a technologically advanced country with a huge and very stable economy. It is a
developed and heavily industrialized country with a great demand for power and energy required
by its industries and its large population. These and other factors have contributed to
development of various power production resources.

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Solar and wind are among the diverse power resources in the USA. Solar Power The U.S. is
among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the sun and several of the world's
largest small-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest. Solar power includes small-
scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation, mostly from rooftop solar panels.
The United States conducted much early research in solar devices and concentrated solar power.
There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set
individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Solar
power accounts for about 1% of the total national generation capacity. It is mainly exploited in
the sunny areas of the country which include Nevada and California states.

Wind power is a branch of the energy industry expanding quickly over the last several years.
U.S. Wind Generation (KW) by Year Wind power accounts for 4% the total energy produced in
the USA. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by Iowa
and California. Wind power is used to run farms, industries and for generating electricity that is
fed to the national grid.

The Importance of Solar and Wind power in USA

1. Source of employment: Solar and wind energy industry is more labor-intensive. The
industry supports thousands of people in the USA. The wind energy industry employs
many Americans in a variety of capacities, including manufacturing, project
development, construction and wind mill installation, operations and maintenance,
transportation and logistics; and financial, legal and consulting services. The solar energy
industry employs people in jobs including solar panel installation, manufacturing and
sales.
2. Industrial development: The energy and power generated from resources such as coal,
uranium, petroleum and water are very expensive compared to wind and solar energy.
The abundance and availability of cheap energy from wind and sunlight promotes
industrial development.
3. Agricultural development: Wind and solar power is commonly used in large farms to
supply electricity required for such activities as pumping water, lighting and heating. This
has, in turn, promoted large-scale agriculture in the country.
4. Conservation of non-renewable energy resources: Depending on renewable energy
sources such as wind, solar and hydroelectricity for power and energy generation helps to
conserve the nonrenewable energy sources such as gas, coal and petroleum. This ensures
that these non-renewable energy resources do not run out or become exhausted soon.
They are conserved for future uses instead.
5. Reduced environmental pollution: Exploitation of non-renewable energy resources,
such as petroleum, coal, and wood, releases harmful gases to the atmosphere which
pollutes the environment. Harnessing and use of wind and solar energy do not pollute the
environment. Thus, generating sufficient power and energy from these resources will
help reduce environmental pollution that could otherwise result due to dependence on
non-renewable resources.
6. Improved standard of living: People employed directly and indirectly in the wind and
energy industry earn cash which they spend on their daily needs as well as other
amenities. Solar and wind energy is cheap and hence affordable to many Americans. So,

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 people who had no access to the costly hydroelectricity and thermal electricity are now
able to use this cheap power and energy. This has helped improve their living standards.
7. Development of other sectors of economy: Growth in power and solar industry creates
positive multiplier effects. For example, industries in the renewable energy supply chain,
such as those manufacturing windmills and solar panels, will benefit. The growth of
industries involved in the manufacture of wind and solar energy equipment depends on
the growth and existence of the solar and wind generation industry. Also local businesses
will benefit from increased household and business incomes.
8. Generation of revenue: Local governments collect property and income taxes and other
payments from energy project owners. These revenues can help support public services,
especially in rural communities, where projects are often located. Owners of the land on
which wind projects are built also receive lease payments as well as payments for the
rights to transmit electricity through their land. Also they may earn loyalties based on
projects’ annual revenues.
9. Stabilization of energy prices in future: Wind and solar energy is providing affordable
electricity across the country right now, and can help stabilize energy prices in future.
The costs of solar and wind energy technologies have declined steadily, and are projected
to drop even more. For example, the average price of a solar panel has dropped
significantly. The cost of generating electricity from wind is also declining gradually. The
wind and solar energy projects require initial investments to build but once established
they operate at very low costs and to most technologies the fuel is free. As a result
renewable energy prices are relatively stable over time.
10. Diversification of energy supplies: Using more wind and solar energy can lower the
prices and demand for natural gas and coal by increasing competition and diversification
of energy supplies. Generation of energy from different resources ensure that the supply
is not interrupted in case one resource is finished or exhausted. This ensures constant
availability of power and energy. Therefore, wind and solar energy helps to diversify the
energy supply in the country.
11. Reliability and flexibility: Wind and solar energy supplies are less prone to large-scale
failure because they are distributed and modular. Distributed systems are spread out over
a large geographical area, so a severe weather event in one location will not cut off power
to an entire region. Modular systems are composed of numerous wind mills or solar
panels. Even if one of the equipment is damaged the rest can typically continue to
operate.
12. Sustainability: For as long as the sun shines and the wind blows, the energy produced
can be harnessed to send power across the grid.

Problems facing solar and wind power in USA

1. Generation of wind and solar power depends on prevailing weather conditions. In
case of little or no sunshine due to prolonged cloud cover or if there is very low wind
speed, then very little power will be generated. This, in turn, leads to generation of little
amount of electricity which cannot meet the demand of all consumers.
2. People are still reluctant to change from dependency on the traditional energy
sources, such as hydroelectricity. They are, therefore, slow in adopting the use of solar
and wind power, thus hindering fast development and growth of the industry.

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 3. The cost of installation of equipment for generating wind and solar power on a large-
scale is very high. This has led to limited investment in the industry.
4. The cost of leasing land for building wing energy projects is very high. The problem
has made many companies reluctant to establish wind power projects.
5. The industry is facing stiff competition from other sectors of energy and power, such
as coal power, hydroelectric power, and geothermal power.
6. Unequal government subsidies and taxes. Nuclear and fossil fuel technologies enjoy a
considerable advantage in government subsidies for research and development, compared
with wind and solar energy counterpart which do not get any government subsidies. In
addition to receiving subsides, conventional generation technologies have a lower tax
burden.
7. Wind and solar power developers may have difficulty obtaining financing at rates as
low as may be available for conventional energy facilities.
8. Good wind sites are often located in remote areas, far from the cities where electricity
is needed most. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind
farm to the city. This increases the cost of generating and providing electricity.
9. Wind resource development may not be the most profitable use of the land. Land
suitable for wind mill installation must compete with alternative uses for land, which may
be more highly valued than electricity generation.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER (HEP) AND BIOGAS IN TANZANIA

Hydroelectric Power (HEP)

Hydroelectric power contributes about 57% of the total power generated in Tanzania. The
electricity supply industry is dominated by Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO).
The company operates hydropower generation stations which include Kidatu, Kihansi, Mtera,
Pangani, Hale, Nyumba ya Mungu and Uwemba, totaling 561 MW of electricity. TANESCO
also generates thermal electricity using gas and diesel by plants located in various parts of the
country. There are also independent power plants (IPPs) which produce thermal electricity from
gas and diesel and then sell the generated power to TANESCO who feeds it to the national grid.

Biogas
Due to increasing demand for power and dwindling energy resources, there is need to develop
alternative energy sources in Tanzania. One of such sources is biogas, which is used for heating,
lighting, and cooking at homes, schools, hospitals, etc. Biogas is produced by anaerobic
digestion with anaerobic bacteria or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as manure,
sewage, municipal waste, plant material, and crops. Biogas technology in Tanzania was
introduced in 1975. But it was not until late 2000s when a study of the biogas sector and how to
improve it was conducted.

Then the sector saw improved progress in domestic biogas uptake. The government is
collaborating with different development partners to improve on existing technologies and to
construct new biogas plants for particularly rural communities. It is estimated that about 700
biogas plants have been constructed in Tanzania. Most of these are in rural areas where raw
materials such as livestock and poultry wastes and crop residues are easily and abundantly
available.

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 Importance of HEP and Biogas Production in Tanzania
Hydroelectricity and biogas are very important power resources in Tanzania. Outlined below are
some of the importances of producing these resources:
1. Hydroelectricity and biogas industry employs people who carry out energy
production activities. The sector, therefore, serves as the source of employment
opportunities to some Tanzanians. This helps to improve their income and hence the
standard of living.
2. The hydroelectricity generated in Tanzania is used to power other industries and
sectors of economy. It, therefore, leads to industrial development as well as other
economic sectors in the country.
3. Biogas generation in rural areas has greatly helped to improve the living standard
of the rural people. Studies have revealed that now women and girls with access to
biogas do not spend much time looking for firewood and hence they can instead direct
their efforts towards participating in other economic activities to improve family income.
It thus saves women and children from drudgery of collection and carrying of fireweed,
exposure to smoke in the kitchen, and time spent for cooking and cleaning of utensils.
4. The use of biogas and hydroelectricity has greatly reduced the problem of cutting
down trees for firewood. This has consequently helped to prevent deforestation, hence
ensuring environmental conservation. Conversely, biogas combustion has no effect to
environmental pollution since it produces negligibly very little pollutants into the
atmosphere compared to wood, coal and petroleum. The use of municipal waste to
generate biogas directly assists in cleaning of the environment and prevention of
pollution that could result by dumping of these wastes on land or into water bodies.
5. Most of the biogas projects are undertaken by development partners from abroad.
This has helped to improve the relationship between Tanzania and the partners’ mother
countries.
6. The residue of the organic matter left back after biogas has been generated is used
as enriched organic manure, which can supplement or even replace chemical fertilizers.

Problems Facing HEP and Biogas Production in Tanzania

1. Unreliable climatic conditions: Hydroelectric power generation relies on rain-fed rivers
and dams. There has recently been occurring long dry spells which lower the volumes of
rivers and dams, thus curtailing hydroelectricity generation. This leads to power rationing
and hence interruption in economic production.
2. Lack of adequate capital: Generation of HEP and biogas requires investment in
installation of hydropower and biogas plants, respectively, all of which are hampered by
availability of capital. Due to the country’s sluggish economy, investment in the power
and energy sector has not been successfully implemented. There is lack of enough funds
to finance the establishment of more biogas plants in rural areas. The country relies
heavily on donors and foreign investors to finance the projects.
3. Siltation: The continuous accumulation of silt in the dams leads to reduction in water
volume and hence low hydroelectricity generation. The problem also leads to increased
operation costs because the silt has to be dredged periodically.
4. Lack of skilled personnel: The establishment and operation of hydroelectric and biogas
plants require skilled personnel. There are very few locals with the required expertise and

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 professional skills to operate the projects. This has hindered the construction of
hydroelectric and biogas plants in the country. The production of energy and power from
these two sources is thus minimal.
5. Reluctance by the people: People are still reluctant in adopting the biogas technology.
Many people depend on use of wood as their major source of fuel. This has led to low
investment in the industry and hence low production of the biogas.

Solutions to Problems Facing Power Production

1. The silt in dams should be removed frequently so as to prevent reduction in water volume
and the consequent drop in production.
2. The government should invest in other forms of energy generation such as geothermal
and coal power in order to reduce overdependence on hydroelectricity.
3. Establishment of training institutions to train manpower on energy production
technology. This will help produce skilled manpower to manage the power sector.
4. Power generation must be liberalized in order to attract investors with sufficient capital to
invest in the industry.
5. Conducting mass education to educate people to adopt the production and use of biogas.
These can be done through seminars, trade shows and mass media, among other means.
People benefiting from the use of biogas may be invited to convey the message to those
individuals reluctant in adopting the technology.
6. To develop and use alternative sources of energy like solar and wind power.

Solutions to Problems Facing Power and Energy

The following are some of the lessons that can be adopted and implemented:
1. In USA, the energy sector is liberalized, so many private companies are allowed to
generate and sell energy and power. Tanzania should also copy USA’s example by
allowing more private investors to participate in energy and power generation rather than
allowing TANESCO to monopolize the energy production.
2. The USA has diversified its energy and power industry very well. The country generates
power from different sources, ranging from nuclear to biogas plants. Tanzania can do the
same by using natural gas, coal and uranium discovered in various parts of the country to
produce the highly demanded power to boost her economy.
3. The government should form agencies to address the generation of solar and wind
energy. There is great potential of wind and solar energy in Tanzania because of the
presence of suitable conditions for harnessing these power recourses. There is plenty of
wind and sunlight in the country to allow sustainable production of wind and solar
energy, which can then be fed to the national grid to help solve the problem of energy in
the country.
4. The government should support the development of various energy sources by providing
funds to local companies as well as creating favorable investment conditions to multi-
million energy production companies to invest in the energy generation sector.
5. The USA uses her own experts to develop the energy industry. Tanzania should also
train her own people so that they can take active part in building energy generation
projects rather than depending on skilled personnel from outside the country.

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 CHAPTER 9

TRANSPORT

Meaning of transport
Transport can be defined as the movement of people, animals, goods or services from one place
to another. It provides a link between different parts of the country, region or world. People
move from one place to another, either permanently or temporarily for various reasons.

Types of Transport
Types or modes of transport refer to the means by which people, goods, animals or services are
moved from one location to another. There are three broad modes of transport. These include:
 Land Transport
 Air Transport
 Water Transport

1) LAND TRANSPORT; Land transport is a kind of transport that takes place on land
surface. Categories of land transport include the following:

a) HUMAN TRANSPORT; Human transport or human Portage is the transport of

people and or goods using human muscle power, in the form of walking and
running from one place to another.

Advantages of human transport

 It is readily available all the time.
 It is cheap and affordable than any other form of transport.
 It is Safe than other means of transport
 It is not affected by congestion.
 Human transport does not pollute the environment

Disadvantages of Human Transport

 It depends on the physical fitness of the person.
 It is extremely slow and laborious.
 This transport is only suitable for carrying light goods over short distances.

b) ANIMAL TRANSPORT; Refers to the means of transport where by animals are

used for movement of people and goods. This form of transport is commonly
used in areas where other means of transport are hard or difficult to use like
camel is the animal used in desert for transport.

Advantages of Animal Transport

 Animals are quicker than human beings
 They carry heavier and larger loads than human beings
 Animals are capable of being used in adverse (hard or hostile) conditions like
deserts and waterlogged regions.
 It is relatively cheap and more development than human portage.

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 c) ROAD TRANSPORT; Road transport is most common on land and reaches
even the most remote areas. It involved the use of various vehicles such as motor
cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles, carts etc. It is one of the most
important means of transport and is crucial to the development of commerce and
industry. All the movement of goods begins and ultimately ends by making use
of roads.

Advantages of Road Transport

 Road transport requires much less capital investment as compared to other modes of
transport such as railways and air transport.
 It involves different types of vehicles and hence gives the person a wide freedom to
choose the kind of transport to use.
 Road transport is most suited for carrying goods and people to and from rural areas which
are not served by rail, water or air transport.
 It is more economic and quicker for carrying goods and people over short distances.
 As compared to other modes of transport, the process of packing in motor transport is less
complicated. Goods transported by motor transport require less packing or no packing in
several cases.
 If the goods are to be sent immediately or quickly, motor transport is more suited than the
railways or water transport. Water transport is very slow. Also much time is wasted in
booking the goods and taking delivery of the goods in case of railway and water
transport.
 Road transport is a feeder to other modes of transport. The railways, ships and airways.
Goods are normally transported to and from airports, ports, or railway stations by road.
 Roads can be constructed, developed or maintained while they continue to be used.

Disadvantages of road transport

 Motor transport is not as reliable as railway transport during rainy season
 There are more chances of accidents.
 It is unsuitable and costly for transporting heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
 The speed of motor transport is comparatively slow and limited compared to air transport.
 Goods transported by road face the risk of being stolen by robbers while on transit.
 Motor vehicles emit gases which contribute to air pollution and noise pollution.
 Road transport face the problem of congestion (traffic jam)
 The road transport is comparatively less organized. More often, it is irregular and
unreliable. The rates charged for transportation are also variable and unequal.

d) RAILWAY TRANSPORT; This is a means of transport that helps people,

goods or services to move from one place to another via rails and trains. In
Tanzania we have the central line, formerly known as Tanganyika Railway, is the
most important railway line in Tanzania. It runs west from Dar es Salaam to
Kigoma on Lake Tanganyika via Dodoma. The TAZARA Railway, also known
as the Uhuru Railway. Railway links the port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania with
the town of Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia’s Central Province.

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 Advantages of Railway Transport
 It is least affected by weather conditions such as rain, fog, etc.
 The railway transport is better organized than any other form of transport. It has
fixed routes and schedules.
 Its speed over long distances is more than any other mode of transport, except
airways.
 Railway transport is economical, quicker and best suited for carrying heavy and
bulky goods over long distances.
 It is a cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes of transport.
 Railway is the safety form of transport, there is low occurrence of accident.
 The carrying capacity of the railways is extremely large.
 It is not affected by the problem of congestion as is the case with road transport.
 Trains making long distance travel quite comfortable as it have such facilities as
cafes, bathrooms and sleeping space.
 Modern passenger trains called bullet trains are very fast and efficient. Travelling
over 200 km/h, they cover long distances in a very short time.

Disadvantages of Railway Transport

 The railway requires a large investment of capital and it takes a long time to construct.
 Railway transport is inflexibility. Its routes and timings cannot be adjusted to individual
requirements.
 It involves much time and labor in booking and delivery of goods through railways as
compared to road transport.
 It is not suitable for transportation of perishable goods like milk, vegetables and meat as
they can easily go bad while on transit.
 Railway transport is not economical for transporting people or few light goods over short
distances.
 Railway transport cannot benefit the rural people as there are very few or no railway
stations to serve these areas.

2) PIPELINE TRANSPORT; Pipeline transport is the transportation of Liquid and gases

goods through a pipe. Example The Tanzania Zambia Mafuta (TAZAMA) pipeline which
runs from the port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania to Ndola in Zambia, covering 1710 km,
and the local Songas pipeline from Songosongo to Dar es Salaam.

Advantages of Pipeline Transport

 It is not associated with environmental pollution.
 Its flexible transport as it can pass through difficult terrains as well as under water.
 It is not affected by congestion as is the case with road transport.
 It needs very little maintenance.
 Is not affected by adverse weather events such as floods, heavy rains, fog, etc.
 Accidents and theft are greatly reduced compared to other form of transport.

Disadvantages of Pipelines Transport

 Environmental pollution can occur if the pipeline leakage is not well maintained and
repaired timely.

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 Pipelines are mainly convenient for transporting fluids.
 Underground pipelines cannot be easily repaired and detection of leakage is also difficult.
 Pipelines are expensive and they take a long time and intensive labor to build.
 They have fixed carrying capacities which cannot be exceeded
 Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose
special safety concerns and there have been various accidents.

3) AIR TRANSPORT; This is the movement of people, goods or services from one place
to another through the air. It is the fastest mode of transport and involves the use of
aircraft such as aero-planes, helicopters and hot air balloons. Aviation is able to quickly
transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs
and energy use. For short distances or in inaccessible places, helicopters can be used.
There are two broad categories of air transport, namely, domestic and international.
 Domestic air transport involves movement of people and goods within the
country.
 International air transport involves movement of people and goods from one
country to another.

Advantages of Air Transport

 It is the fastest mode of transport and most suitable mean where time is an important
factor.
 Travelling by air is comfortable especially over long distances.
 Air transport is not affected by physical barriers such as mountains, forests, rivers, etc.
 It is flexible since the routes and planes can be swapped when need arises.
 The transport is scheduled, so there is no time wasting.
 It does not require huge capital investment in the construction and maintenance of surface
track.
 Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are not accessible
by other means of transport.
 Air transport plays a very important role in the defense of a country. Modern wars have
been fought mainly by aero-planes.

Disadvantages of Air Transport

 Air transport is controlled to a great extent by weather conditions. When storms, fog,
mist, snow, heavy rain or any signs of unfavorable weather conditions are detected, take
off of planes is delayed, routes changed or flights cancelled.
 In case of accidents there is very little chance of survival.
 Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap, bulky and heavy goods.
 It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and maintenance of
aero-planes.
 Training of the personnel in the aviation sector is a very expensive.
 It is relatively inflexible as it only serves places that have airports and airstrips. Except
helicopter which can land in various areas.
 Insecurity problems are also experienced in air transport. There are cases of hijacking and
terrorist attacks.

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 4) WATER TRANSPORT; Water transport is the movement of goods and people by
means of a watercraft, such as a boat, ship or sailboat, over a body of water, such as a sea,
ocean etc. Water transport consists of: Inland water transport, Ocean and sea transport.
i. Inland Water Transport; Most inland water transport takes place in lakes,
navigable rivers and canals. Lakes that are major waterways in East Africa
include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Albert.
ii. Sea and Ocean Transport; Sea transport enables countries and continents to
connect with sea ports in all parts of the world. Ocean transport is crucial for
foreign trade. It has brought the different parts of the world closer and has knitted
together all the nations of the world into one big world market. It is, obviously,
the cheapest mode of transport. Ocean transport includes: Coastal shipping and
overseas shipping.
 Coastal shipping. This is one of the most important means of transport
for carrying goods from one part to another in a country. It is a cheaper
and quicker mode of transport and is most suitable for carrying heavy,
bulky and cheap cargo like coal, iron ore, etc. to distant places. However,
it can serve only limited areas.
 Overseas shipping. This involves movement of goods and people from
one country or continent to another country or continent.

Advantages of Water transport

 Water is a natural route which does not require any cost of construction and maintenance.
 It is the most suitable means of transporting larger quantities of heavy and bulky goods
such as coal, machinery, hardware and timber over long distances.
 There is minimal congestion in water transport compared to road transport
 There are minimal risks of accidents and breakdowns
 It is suitable for transportation of fragile or breakable goods, such as glass, since there is
very limited shaking and jolting on the waterways.
 Water navigation facilities do not need frequent repairs and maintenance

Disadvantages of Water Transport

 Water transport is very slow mode of transport
 Rivers and canals cannot be operated for transportation throughout the year because of
climatic change.
 Modern shipping vessels are very expensive. Port construction, as well as purchase of
loading and unloading machinery is also expensive.
 Water transport system cannot be constructed anywhere. It can only be done in a limited
area which is served by water bodies.
 There is sometimes a problem of strong winds and storms, which greatly interfere with
the shipping schedule.
 Some water bodies are infested with dangerous animals such as hippopotamuses.

The Importance of Transport in Tanzania and East Africa

1. It is Source of employment
2. Promotes trade and commerce:
3. Promotes unity and understanding
4. Facilitates exploitation of natural resources
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 5. Encourages the development of industries
6. Encourages development of settlements
7. Source of government revenue

Problems Facing Transportation in East Africa

1. Lack of capital
2. Lack of skilled labor
3. High fuel costs
4. Political problems
5. Land lockedness
6. Impassable waterways
7. Thick vegetation
8. Rough terrain
9. Differences in railway gauges
10. Corruption and embezzlement:

Measures Taken to Address the Problems of Transport Industry in Tanzania

1. Formulation of policies and laws that promote the development of the transport industry.
2. Punishment to government officials involved in corruption scandals pertaining to
embezzlement of funds allocated for construction of transport.
3. The East African countries should build railway lines with the same gauges and trucks so
as to ensure connectivity with all countries in the region.
4. The country should put more efforts on collection of revenue and seek assistance from
donors to assist in infrastructure construction.
5. Training of manpower in various fields of transportation sector like pilots, cabin crew,
mechanics, civil engineers etc
6. Keeping sufficient oil reserves in order to stay self with the effect of oil fluctuation
7. The advancement of science and technology.

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 REFERENCES;

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Buckle, C. (1978). Landforms in Africa: Longman: London.

Collin & Longman. (1980). General Geography in Diagrams, Longman: London.

Faniran, A & Ojo, O. (1980). Man’s Physical Environment, London: H.E.B.

Monkhouse, F.J. (1975). Principles of Physical Geography, 90 Tottenham Court Road. London: Wip
9HE.

Ojany, F.A & Ogendo, R.B: (1973). A Study of Physical and Human Geography, Nairobi Longman:
Kenya Ltd.

Pritchard, J.M. (1979). Landform and Landscape in Africa, London: Edward Arnold.

Pritchard, J.M. (1979). Africa: A Study in Physical Geography for Advanced Students. London:
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Young & Lowry (1977). A Course in World Geography, East Africa: Edward Arnold Physical,
Regional and Human Geography.

White, R. (1984). Physical Geography, London: Macmillan Publishers.

Kimei, M& Khabongo, L (2004). School Certificate Geography Form 2

Nairobi: East African Education Publishers

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