Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

TAKE OFF & LANDING

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Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4

Phase of Take off Approach & Wind shear
flight Landing

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1. Phases of flight

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1. Phases of flight

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1. Phases of flight
❑Flight profile
Step 1- Preflight: Pilot files the flight plan & send to the Tower controller.
Tower inform pilot the weather information, runway/ taxiway condition... Flight
checks, push-back from the gate & taxi to the runway.

Step 2- Take-off: Tower controller gives pilot clearance for take-off, aircraft
powers up & take-off.

Step 3- Climb: Aircraft climbs to a define altitude Tower controller pass their
communication with pilot to the Departure Controller. Pilot receives clearance
for routing.

Step 4- En-route/ Cruise: Communication with the pilot then pass to the
Area Control Centre. The pilot receives instructions as to what altitude and
heading to maintain, as well as to which radio frequency to tune during the
flight from air controller.
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1. Phases of flight
❑Flight profile
Step 5- Descent: Near airport Approach Controller, instructing pilot to
descent & change heading.

Step 6- Approach: Pilot receives approach clearance & the then

communication with pilot is passed to the Tower Controller.

Step 7- Landing: Controller at tower gives clearance for landing.

Ground/Tower controller directs the pilot across the taxiways to its
destination gate at the terminal.

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1. Phases of flight
❑Tower

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1. Phases of flight
❑Approach & Area Control Centre

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1. Phases of flight
❑Radar display system

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2. Take off

Screen height is an imaginary screen that the aircraft would just clear when taking off
(end of the declared take off distance) or landing (commencement of the declared
landing distance) at which the calculated aircraft has climbed to a specified height -
35ft (heavy aircraft), 50ft (light aircraft).

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2. Take off

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1. Take off
The Take-off path extends from a standing start to a point in the
take-off at which the aeroplane is 457 m (1500 ft) above the take-off
surface, or at which the transition from the take-off to the en-route
configuration is completed and VFTO is reached, whichever point is
higher. (…)”.
The Take-off flight path must be considered to begin 11 m (35 ft)
above the Take-off surface at the end of the take-off distance.(…)”

The Take-off path and Take-off flight path regulatory definitions assume that
the aircraft is accelerated on the ground to VEF, at which point the critical
engine is made inoperative and remains inoperative for the rest of the take-
off. Moreover, the V2 speed must be reached before the aircraft is 35 feet
above the Take-off surface, and the aircraft must continue at a speed not
less than V2, until it is 400 feet above the Take-off surface.

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1. Take off

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2. Take off
1500 Ft
Flap retraction or
Lift-Off Gear Retracted 400 Ft Min Clean Clear of Obstacles

V2 V2 Acceleration Clean

TO Thrust MCT

35 ft Max 5 min

1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th Segment

TWIN >0 2.4% acceleration 1.2%

or 1.2% avail.
(min)

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2. Take off

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
One g - Stall speed (Vs1g) : which corresponds to the maximum lift
coefficient (i.e. just before the lift starts decreasing); at that moment,
the load factor is still equal to one.

Stall speed (Vs) : which corresponds to the conventional stall (i.e.

when the lift suddenly collapses); at that moment, the load factor is
always less than one.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
The reference stall speed (VSR): is a calibrated airspeed defined by
the applicant. VSR may not be less than a One-g stall speed. VSR is
expressed as:

VCL
VSR  max

nw
Where:

𝑉𝐶𝐿max = speed of maximum lift coefficient, VS1g;

nw = load factor normal to the flight path at 𝑉𝐶𝐿max …”

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

In JAR 25 (October 2010): introduced this notion of reference stall

speed VSR, which is the same as VS1g.

VS = 0.94 x Vs1g

IMPORTANT: In Airbus operational documentation, as well as in

this brochure, VSR is referred to as VS1g.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
“CS 25.207 Stall warning
(c) When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding 0.5 m/s2 (one
knot per second), stall warning must begin, in each normal
configuration, at a speed, VSW, exceeding the speed at which the stall
is identified (…) by not less than 9.3 km/h (five knots) or five percent
CAS, whichever is greater. Once initiated, stall warning must continue
until the angle of attack is reduced to approximately that at which stall
warning began.
(d) In addition to the requirement of subparagraph (c) of this
paragraph, when the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding 0.5
m/s2 (one knot per second), in straight flight with engines idling (…),
VSW, in each normal configuration, must exceed VSR by not less than
5.6 km/h (three knots) or three percent CAS, whichever is greater.”

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Minimum Control Speed on the Ground (Vmcg) : when the critical
engine is suddenly made inoperative, Vmcg is the minimum speed
during take off at which it is possible to maintain directional control
with only the use of primary aerodynamic controls (using the rudder
control alone without the use of nose-wheel steering) to enable the
take off to be safely continued.

Assuming that the path of the aeroplane accelerating with all engines
operating is along the centreline of the runway, its path from the point
at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which
recovery to a direction parallel to the centreline is completed, may not
deviate more than 9.1 m (30 ft) laterally from the centreline at any
point. Maximum rudder force is restricted to 68 Kg (150 lbs).

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED ON THE GROUND (Vmcg)

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Minimum Control Speed Airbone (Vmca) or Minimum Control
Speed (Vmc): this is the speed, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane
and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5
degrees.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Engine Failure Speed (VEF): is the calibrated airspeed at which the
critical engine is assumed to fail. VEF must be selected by the
applicant, but may not be less than Vmcg.

All take off performance figures after critical engine failure are
calculated from this speed.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu): Vmu is the calibrated airspeed at and
above which the aeroplane can safely lift off the ground, and continue
the take-off. VMU speeds must be selected by the applicant
throughout the range of thrust-to-weight ratios to be certificated

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu)

Minimum unstick take off test (A380)

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu)
Two minimum unstick speeds must be
determined and validated by flight
tests:
- with all engines operatives : VMU
(N)
- with one engine inoperative : VMU
(N-1)
In the one-engine inoperative case,
VMU (N-1) must ensure a safe lateral
control to prevent the engine from
striking the ground.
It appears that: VMU (N) ≤ VMU (N-1)
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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Take off “action” speed (V1) : the calibrated airspeed on the
ground at which, as a result of engine failure or other reasons, the
pilot assumed to have made a decision to continue or discontinue
the take off. V1 must be established in relation to VEF as follows:

VEF  V1
VEF V1

VEF V1

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

V1 is the maximum
speed at which the crew
can decide to reject the
takeoff, and is ensured
to stop the aircraft
within the limits of the
runway.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Rotation speed (VR) : is the speed at which the pilot initiates the
rotation, at the appropriate rate of about 3° per second.

Regulations prohibit a rejected take - off after rotation has been

initiated, thus VR must be greater than V1.

VR is entered in the MCDU by the crew during the flight preparation.

VR > 1.05 Vmca

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Lift off speed (VLOF) : is the airspeed at which the aeroplane first
becomes airborne. Therefore, it is the speed at which the lift
overcomes the weight.

It depends on the MTOW, flap setting and angle of attack.

Geometric limitation: 4 Vmu < VLOF (1 ENG OUT)

1.08 Vmu < VLOF (all engines)

Aerodynamic limitation: 1.05 Vmu < VLOF (1 ENG OUT)

1.10 Vmu < VLOF (all engines)

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Take off “safety” speed (V2) : This speed will be reached at 35 feet
above the runway surface with one engine inoperative.
V2  V2min where V2min = greater of [1.10 Vmca; 1.13 VSR (= 1.2 Vs)]

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed
Take off final speed (VFTO or VFS) : Final take off speed means the
speed of the airplane that exists at the end of the take off path in the
en route configuration with one engine inoperative.

VFTO may not less than:

(1) 1.18 VSR; and
(2) A speed that provides the manoeuvring capability specified in
CS25.143(g).

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off speed

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Runway (RWY): A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome
prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft.
Clearway (CWY): A defined rectangular area on the ground or water
under the control of the appropriate authority, 152 m (500 ft) minimum
width, with upward slope not exceeding 1.25%. Any obstacles
penetrating the 1.25% plane will limit the Clearway. Area selected or
prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a
portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
Stopway (SWY): A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end
of take-off run available prepared as a suitable area in which an
aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take off. Its width
must be greater than or equal to that of the runway. It may not be
used for landings.
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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take Off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway which is
declared available by the appropriate Authority and suitable for the
ground run of an airplane taking off.

TORA is either equal to the runway length, or to the distance from the
runway entry point (intersecting taxiway) to the end of the runway.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take Off Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take-off run
available plus the length of the clearway, if provided.

The maximum length of the clearway is half the TORA.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the take-
off run available plus the length of the stopway, if provided.

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

Contaminant Wet runway or Contaminated runway

equivalent

Water (fluid) < 3 mm (0.12 in) 3 to 13 mm (0.5 in)

Slush (fluid) < 2 mm (0.08 in) 2 to 13 mm (0.5 in)
Wet snow (fluid) < 4 mm (0.16 in) 4 to 25 mm (1 in)
Dry snow (fluid) < 15 mm (0.59 in) 15 to 51 mm (2 in)
Compacted snow (hard) any thickness
Ice (hard) any thickness

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Run (TOR) – dry runway (with clearway)
• TORN-1 dry = Distance covered from brake release to a point
equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and the
point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the take off surface (½
the Air Distance), assuming that the critical engine is made
inoperative at VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of the take
off
• 1.15 TORN dry = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release
to a point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached
and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the take off
surface, with all engines operating.

TORdry = greater of {TORN-1 dry, 1.15 TORN dry}

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Run (TOR) – wet runway (with clearway)
• TORN-1 wet = Distance covered from the brake release to a point
at which the aircraft is 15ft above the take off surface, ensuring the
V2 speed to be achieved before the airplane is 35 feet above the
take off surface, assuming that the critical engine is made
inoperative at VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of the take
off. It is equal to TOD N-1 wet .
• 1.15 TORN wet = 115 % of the distance covered from brake
release to a point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is
reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the take
off surface, with all engines operating.

TORwet = greater of {TORN-1 wet, 1.15 TORN wet}

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Run (TOR) – wet runway (with clearway)

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Run (TOR) – without clearway
The take off run is equal to the take off distance, whatever the take
off surface (dry or wet).
The Take-off run must not exceed the take-off run available
TOR  TORA

❑Clearway Influence on a Wet Runway

With a wet runway, the take off run with one engine-out is always
equal to the take off distance with one engine-out (i.e. from brake
release to 15 feet). Therefore, a clearway does not give any
performance benefit on a wet runway, as the TOR is always more
limiting (TORA less than TODA).
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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Distance (TOD) – dry runway
• TODN-1 dry = Distance covered from the start of the take off to a
point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the take off surface,
assuming that the critical engine is made inoperative at VEF and
remains inoperative for the rest of the take off,

• 1.15 TODN dry = 115% of the distance covered from the start of
the take off to a point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the take
off surface, with all engines operating.

TODdry = greater of {TODN-1 dry, 1.15 TODN dry}

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off Distance (TOD) – wet runway
• TODdry = take off distance on a dry runway (see above),

• TODN-1 wet = Distance covered from the start of the take off to a
point at which the aircraft is 15 feet above the take off surface,
ensuring the V2 speed to be achieved before the airplane is 35
feet above the take off surface, assuming that the critical engine is
made inoperative at VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of
the take off.
TODwet = greater of {TODdry, TODN-1 wet}

The Take-off distance must not exceed the take-off distance available
TOD  TODA
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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Take off
Distance (TOD)

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Accelerate-stop distance (ASD) – dry runway
• ASDN-1 dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:
- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,
- Accelerate from VEF to V1 assuming the critical engine fails at VEF
and the pilot takes the first action to reject the take off at V1
- Come to a full stop,
- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
• ASDN dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:
- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1, assuming
the pilot takes the first action to reject the take off at V1
- With all engines still operating come to a full stop
- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
ASDdry = greater of {ASDN-1 dry, ASDN dry}
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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Accelerate-stop
distance (ASD) – dry
runway

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
Accelerate-stop distance (ASD) – wet runway
• ASDdry
• ASDN-1 wet = same definition as ASDN-1 dry except the runway
is wet
• ASDN wet = same definition as ASDN dry except the runway is
wet

ASDwet = greater of {ASDdry, ASDN-1 wet, ASDN wet}

The accelerate-stop distances must be determined with all the

aeroplane wheel brake assemblies at the fully worn limit of their
allowable wear range.
ASD  ASDA
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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Influence of V1 on Accelerate-Go/Stop Distances

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2. Take off
❑Influence of V1 on MTOW

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance
The take off distance / take off run (TOD / TOR) adjustment is made,
based on the initial distance from the beginning of the runway to the
main gear, since the screen height is measured from the main gear,
as indicated by distance "A”.
The accelerate-stop distance (ASD) adjustment is based on the initial
distance from the beginning of the runway to the nose gear, as
indicated by distance "B"

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Take – off distance

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2. Take off
❑Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length
When neither clearway, nor stopway exist at the end of the runway (for
a given QFU), the runway length is called “balanced field length”. In
this case: TORA = TODA = ASDA.

Therefore, you must check the two conditions: TOD  Balanced field length
ASD  Balanced field length

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2. Take off
❑Field Length Criteria
Actual All-Engine take off Distance x 1.15

The take off

Actual All-Engine take off Distance (As Demonstrated in Tests)
distance required V > V2

for a given V1 35 ft
15% Safety
weight and given Margin
V1 is the greater
of three different One Engine Inoperative take off Distance V2
distances: VEF V1 35 ft

VEF V1

One Engine Inoperative Accelerate-Stop Distance

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2. Take off
❑Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length
The greater of the 3 distances is the Field Length required.
If V1 is chosen such as the 1-Engine-Inoperative Accelerate-Go and
Accelerate-Stop distances are equal, the necessary field length is
called Balanced and the corresponding V1 is known as a Balanced V1

Balanced V1

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2. Take off
❑Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length
If you want to Take-off at this given Take-off weight, the balanced field
length must be at least equal to the balanced distance:

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2. Take off
❑Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length
An unbalanced field length exists when there is a clearway, either a
stopway, or both of them at the end of the runway (for a given QFU).
In this case TORA, TODA and ASDA have different values.

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2. Take off
❑Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length
Considering the same
aeroplane, at the same
take off weight, for each
value of V1 it is possible
to build minimum
runway, stopway and
clearway lengths in
order to comply with
these conditions, as
shown in the figure
below:

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2. Take off
❑Take off turn procedure
Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point at which the net
take-off flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the
wingspan but not less than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the
take-off run available.

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2. Take off
❑Take off turn procedure
Thereafter, up to a height of 400 ft it is assumed that the aeroplane is
banked by no more than 15°. Above 400 ft height bank angles greater
than 15°, but not more than 25° may be scheduled.
An operator must use special procedures, subject to the approval of
the Authority, to apply increased bank angles of not more than 20º
between 200 ft and 400 ft, or not more than 30º above 400 ft

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2. Take off
❑Obstacle Clearance

Gross Flight Path = Takeoff flight path actually flown by the

aeroplane from 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the end of the
takeoff distance (determined as appropriate for the runway surface
condition).
'Gross' performance is what has been observed and measured during
flight testing/certification.
Net Flight Path = Gross takeoff flight path minus a mandatory
reduction.
'Net' performance is that 'gross' performance degraded by a small
percentage, to take into account 'real-world' variables (handling skill,
wear and tear of engine and airframe, accuracy of data, e.g.
meteorolgical, runway).

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2. Take off
❑Obstacle Clearance
The net Take-off flight path data must be determined so that they
represent the actual [Gross] Take-off flight path (…) reduced at each
point by a gradient of climb equal to:
- 0.8% for two-engined airplanes
- 1.0% for four-engine airplanes”

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2. Take off
❑Obstacle Clearance
The obstacle clearance requirements establish that the margin
between the net take-off flight path and the obstacles within the
departure sector must be 35 ft.
1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th Segment

Gross Flight Path

V2

Net Flight Path

35 ft
35 ft
35 ft
35 ft

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2. Take off
❑Obstacle Clearance
Any part of the net take-off flight path in which the aircraft is banked
by more than 15° must clear all obstacles […] by a vertical distance of
at least 50 ft (JAR-OPS 1.495).

An operator must use special procedures, subject to the approval of

the Authority, to apply increased bank angles of not more than 20°
between 200 ft and 400 ft, or not more than 30° above 400 ft (JAR-
OPS 1.495).
Obstacle clearance
margin
Bank angle  15° 35 ft
Bank angle > 15° 50 ft

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2. Take off
❑Takeoff Performance on Wet and Contaminated Runways
The ASD definition on a contaminated runway is the same as on a
wet runway. Reversers’ effect may be taken into account in the ASD
calculation, as soon as the surface is not dry. The distances can
either be established by calculation or testing.

The TOD and TOR definitions on a contaminated runway are similar

to the ones on a wet runway. They can either be established by
calculation or testing.

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2. Take off
❑Takeoff Performance on Wet and Contaminated Runways
On a wet or contaminated runway, the screen height (height at the
end of the TOD) is 15 feet. The net takeoff flight path starts at 35 feet
at the end of the TOD.
When taking off on a wet or a contaminated runway and an engine
failure occurs at V1, this implies that the aeroplane can initially be as
much as 20 ft below the net takeoff flight path, and therefore may
clear close-in obstacles by only 15 ft.

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2. Take off
❑Departure Sector
The Take-off funnel, also called departure sector, represents an area
surrounding the Take-off flight path, within which all obstacles must be
cleared, assuming they are all projected on the intended track.

The departure sector begins at the end of the TODA (or at the end of
TOD if a turn starts before the end of TODA), with a width of 300 ft (for
airplanes with a wingspan of less than 60 m a horizontal obstacle
clearance of half the airplane wingspan plus 60 m) with on each
side of the runway. This width increases with an angle of 7,1º.

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2. Take off
❑Departure Sector
For those cases where the intended flight path does not require track
changes of more than 15º. The lateral distance up to a maximum width:
• 1000 ft (300 m) if the pilot is able to maintain the required navigational
accuracy through the obstacle accountability area, or
• 2000 ft (600 m) for flights under all other conditions

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2. Take off
❑Departure Sector
For those cases where the intended flight path does require track
changes of more than 15º, the width of the departure sector increases:
• 2000 ft (600 m) if the pilot is able to maintain the required
navigational accuracy through the obstacle accountability area
• 3000 ft (900 m) for flights under all other conditions

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1. Take off
❑Departure Sector

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1. Take off
❑Departure Sector

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off

1. Aircraft’s Weight
2. Air Density/
Temperature
3. Wind
Factors Affecting
Take-off 4. Runway
Performance Conditions

5. Aircraft Configurations
a) Flap Setting
b)Airframe Contamination

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Aircraft’s weight

↑ Weight = ↑ Take-Off Distance (or speed)

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Aircraft’s weight

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off

The 3 Deadly H’s

What effect to they have on air density?

! HEIGHT What effect does low air density have on climb performance?
! HEAT
! HUMIDITY
low altitude,
cold dry day

high altitude,
hot humid day

Where can we find out the effect

of density altitude/ teaperature
on take-off performance?
Ex. 16 - Take-off 91
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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Air Temperature
Effect on aerodynamics:
When the Outside Air Temperature increases, the air density
decreases => for a given weight, the airspeed must be increased to
compensate for the air density reduction => Take-off distance is
increased.
Effect on engine:
The efficiency of the jet engine depends on the temperature of the air
surrounding it. The higher the air temperature, the less thrust can be
produced by the engine. Therefore the rate of acceleration is smaller
and the aircraft will need a longer take off distance and smaller take
off climb grandient.
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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Air Temperature

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Air Density

Effect on aerodynamics:
As air density is reduced (for example, with increasing altitude), take-
off distance begins to increase quickly. (because velocity increase).

Effect on engine:
As air density is reduced, the available Take-off thrust is reduced.
Therefore, Take-off distances are longer and Take-off climb gradients
are reduced.

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Air Density

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 2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Wind
Headwind Tailwind
Ground Speed higher (strain on
before Take-off lower landing gear)
Where can we find out the
Ground Run shorter longer effect of head/tail wind on
take-off performance?
Climb Angle steeper shallower
Directional
better worse
Control (weathercocking)

TAILWIND HEADWIND

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân Ex. 16 - Take-off 96

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Wind
↑ Headwind = ↓ Distance

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Wind

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
CrossWind

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Runway condition – Slope
If an aircraft is taking-off up-hill it will take longer to accelerate to the take-off safety speed

35 ft

Up-slope
If an aircraft is taking-off down-hill it will take less time to accelerate to the take-off safety
speed

35 ft

Down-slope

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Runway condition – Slope

Upward slope  Take-off distances 

Accelerate stop distance 
Downward slope  Take-off distances 
Accelerate stop distance 

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Runway Surface condition
During the take-off, the largest contributor to drag is friction on the
wheels, If this friction is increased take-off distance will increase.

35 ft

Hard Surface, level and dry

35 ft

Long, Wet Grass

35 ft

Mud, Sand
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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Runway Surface condition

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Aircraft Configurations – Flap/Slat
For a given aeroplane mass, an increase of flap angle:
• increases the lift coefficient CL, which reduces take-off speed;
thus, the Take-off distance decreases;
• increases the drag and decreases the lift to drag ratio, thus the
climb gradient after Take-off decreases.
35 ft

Clean configuration
50ft

Flaps extended

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Aircraft Configurations – Flap/Slat

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Aircraft Contamination

In addition if the airframe is contaminated by frost, ice or snow during

take off the aircraft performance will be reduced, and the take off
distance will be increased.

Bleed Air

Bleed air is used for anti-icing and air conditioning. The use of bleeds
during take off decreases engine thrust. As a consequence:

Bleeds ON  take off distances 

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Influence of V1: Final take off speed means the speed of the airplane
that exists at the end of the take off path in the en route configuration
with one engine inoperative.

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
In case of higher V1, the opposite occurs, ASD is longer than TOD.

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Influence of V2: For a given aeroplane mass, when V2 increases, all
the Take-off speeds increase too, and
− a longer Take-off distance is necessary in order to achieve a higher
V2 at 35ft

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Avoid wake turbulence

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Avoid wake turbulence

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2. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Avoid wake turbulence

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1. Take off
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During take off
Avoid wake turbulence

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2. Take off

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3. Approach & Landing

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3. Approach & Landing

The landing consists of four phases:
1. Approach descent 2. Flare/ Round-out 3. Hold-off 4. Touchdown

• 65-70 KIAS At 15’-30’ above ground: At 2’-3’ above ground:

• 1500-1900 rpm • power idle • slightly nose-up • main wheels touch
(gradually reduce attitude down first
• gentle back pressure
to idle by the time to start raising the • try to hold the plane • smoothly pull the
you reach the nose to the cruise off the ground control column all the
threshold) attitude way back as the
wheels touch down

5. Roll-out
• maintain directional control with rudder

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3. Approach & Landing

Changing angle of attack during roundout.

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3. Approach & Landing

To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a
shallow angle.
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Traffic pattern

FAA Ailplane
Flying Handbook

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Traffic pattern

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Traffic pattern

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Traffic pattern

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Minimum Control Speed during approach and landing (VMCL): is
the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane
with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an
angle of bank of not more than 5º.

For aeroplanes with three or more engines, VMCL-2, the minimum

control speed during approach and landing with one critical engine
inoperative, is the calibrated airspeed at which, when a second
critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain
control of the aeroplane with both engines still inoperative, and
maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5º.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Reference Speed (VREF): is the steady landing approach speed at the
50 feet point for a defined landing configuration. It is used as a
reference (hence its name) for calculating the final approach speed
and the landing distance.

VREF = 1.23  VSR0 = 1.3VS0

Where VSR0 is VSR0 in normal landing configuration

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Instrument Approach Typical Aircraft in
Category VREF Aircraft
Speeds this Category

A less than 90 90 - 150 C182 - TB20 - C208 - BE35 small single engine

B190 - E120 - AT42 - SF34

B 90 - 120 120 - 170 small multi engine
AT72- B350 - M20T - DHC8

A320 - B717 - B737 - FA50

airline jet
C 121 - 140 160 - 220
B757 - CRJ7 - C130 - LR45

A225 - A340 - B777 - DC10

D 141 - 165 185 - 220 large jet/military jet
MD11 - A330 - L101 - IL86

E 166 - 210 185 - 220 CON Special military

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Lowest Selectable Speed (VLS)
In during flight phases, pilots should not select a speed below VLS
(Lowest Selectable Speed), defined as 1.23 VS1g of the actual
configuration (VSR1).

VLS = 1.23  VSR1

(where VSR1 corresponds to the reference stall speed at maximum landing weight
with flaps in the approach position and the landing gear retracted).

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Lowest Selectable Speed (VLS)
During landing, pilots have to maintain a stabilized approach, with a
calibrated airspeed of no less than VLS down to a height of 50 feet
above the destination airport.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing speed
Final Approach Speed (VAPP): is the actual aircraft speed during
landing, 50 feet above the runway surface.

VAPP VLS
To calculate VAPP, we will increase VREF in 5 kts, plus a value
depending on the wind. This value is calculated in a different way for
each aircraft. An additional correction may be made with some
systems inoperative:
VAPP = VREF + 5 kts + ΔVwind and/or gusts + ΔVsystems inoperative
It is very common to retain a margin on VLS to define VAPP. For
Airbus aircraft, in normal operations, the VAPP is defined by:
VAPP = VLS + ΔVwind
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
Actual/Calculated Landing distance (ALD): is the horizontal
distance traversed by the aeroplane from a point on the approach path
at a selected height (15m = 50 ft) above the landing surface to the
point on the landing surface at which the aeroplane comes to a
complete stop.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
Automatic Landing: the landing distance must be established and
scheduled in the airplane Flight Manual, if it exceeds the scheduled
manual landing distance.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
Landing distance available (LDA): The length of runway which is
declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane
landing (Stopways are not included in the LDA).

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
Landing distance available (LDA)

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
Landing distance available (LDA): may be shortened due to the
presence of obstacles under the landing path, noise abatement...
When there is no obstacle within the approach funnel, as defined
below, it is possible to use the runway length to land

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing distance
However, if there is an obstacle within the approach funnel, a
displaced threshold is defined considering a 2% plane tangential to the
most penalizing obstacle plus a 60 m margin

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required (LDR): is the measured horizontal
distance between that point on the landing surface at which the
aeroplane is brought to a complete stop or, for seaplanes, to a
speed of approximately 9 km/h (5 kt) and that point on the
landing surface which the aeroplane cleared by 15.2 m (50 ft)
multiplied by a safety factor (commonly 1/0.7). – (ICAO annex 6)

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required (LDR)

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required (LDR)

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required

A turbojet aircraft must be able to land within 60% of the LDA.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required

A turboprop aircraft must be able to land within 70% of the LDA.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Wet Runways

If the runway is wet, then the landing distance required is 115% of the
corresponding LDR for a dry runway.

LDA ≥ RLD DRY x 1,15

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Wet Runways

A landing distance on a wet runway, shorter than that above but no

less than that required on a dry runway, may be used if the Airplane
Flight Manual includes specific additional information about landing
distances on wet runways. This does generally not apply to Airbus
aircraft.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Contaminated Runways

LDR DRY x 1,15

LDA ≥ Highest of
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Contaminated Runways
✓ A landing distance on a specially prepared contaminated runway,
shorter than that above but no less than that required on a dry
runway, may be used if the Airplane Flight Manual includes specific
additional information about landing distances on contaminated
runways. This does generally not apply to Airbus aircraft.
✓ For contaminated runways, the manufacturer must provide landing
performance for speed V at 50 feet above the airport, such that:
1.23 VSR  V  1.23 VSR + 10 kt
✓ In some specific contaminated runway cases, the manufacturer can
provide detailed instructions such as antiskid, reverse, airbrakes, or
spoilers. And, in the most critical cases, landing can be prohibited.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing distance Required – Automatic landing
Regulations define the required landing distance for automatic landing
as the actual landing distance in automatic landing multiplied by 1.15.
This distance must be retained for automatic landing, whenever it is
greater than the required landing distance in manual mode.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Operator Pilots

Prior
Dispatch In flight
Dispatch
Forecasted LAW, Actual LAW,
Pre Study Ambient conditions Ambient conditions
Assumed LAW,
Ambient conditions FAILURES FAILURES

EU-OPS EU-OPS Safety Factor

CAT POL A 230 CAT POL A 230
CAT POL A 235 CAT POL A 235

LDR ≤ LDA LDR ≤ LDA ALD ≤ LDA

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Example

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Landing Distance Required – Example

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Short Landing Operations

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Short Landing Operations
The declared safe area has to meet the following requirements:
̶ its useable length must not exceed 90 metres;
̶ its width shall not be less than twice the runway width or twice the
wing span, whichever is the greater, centred on the extended runway
centre line;
̶ it must be clear of obstructions or depressions which would endanger
an aeroplane undershooting the runway and no mobile object shall be
permitted on the declared safety area while the runway is being used
for short landing operations;
̶ its slope must not exceed 5% upward nor 2% downward in the
direction of landing;
̶ it is not necessary that its bearing strength is able to support a ground
run of an aeroplane landing.
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Landing Distance
Short Landing Operations

For short landing operations:

LDdry  60% (LDA + safe area) (turbo-jet)
LDdry  70% (LDA+ safe area) (turbo-propeller)
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around

FAA – Airplane Flying Handbook

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Approach Climb – JAR 25
This corresponds to an aircraft’s climb capability, assuming that one
engine is inoperative. The “approach climb” wording comes from the
fact that go-around performance is based on approach configuration,
rather than landing configuration. The steady gradient may not be less
than:

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Approach Climb

2.1%

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Approach Climb
The approach climb is demonstrated
with:
[1] The critical engine inoperative, the
remaining engines at the go-around
power or thrust setting
[2] maximum landing weight
[3] a climb speed not exceeding 1.4 VSR
(EASA) or 1.5 VSR (FAR).
[4] the landing gear retracted.
[5] approach flaps selected

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Landing Climb - JAR 25
The objective of this constraint is to ensure aircraft climb capability in
case of a missed approach with all engines operating. The “Landing
climb” wording comes from the fact that go-around performance is
based on landing configuration. Both FAR and EASA require the
steady climb gradient to be not less than 3.2%.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Landing Climb

3.2%

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Landing Climb
The landing climb is demonstrated with:
[1] The engines at the power or thrust that is available 8 seconds after
initiation of movement of the power or thrust controls from the
minimum flight idle to the go-around power or thrust setting
[2] landing gear and flap extended
[3] a climb speed which is:
̶ Not less than:
(i) 1·08 VSR for aeroplanes with four engines on which the application
of power results in a significant reduction in stall speed; or
(ii) 1·13 VSR for all other aeroplanes;
̶ Not less than VMCL; and
̶ Not greater than VREF.
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Landing Climb

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
For instrument approaches with decision heights below 200 ft, an
operator must verify that the approach mass of the aeroplane, taking
into account the take-off mass and the fuel expected to be consumed
in flight, allows a missed approach gradient of climb, with the critical
engine failed and with the speed and configuration used for go around
of at least 2.5%, or the published gradient, whichever is the greater.
The use of an alternative method must be approved by the Authority.
In case of a CAT II/III approach, the gradient is 2.5% (all aeroplane
types) or more if the approach charts require a higher value for
obstacle consideration.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around
Some specific procedures require a Net gradient of more than 2.5%.
This will be indicated on the Chart

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Go around

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Steep Approach Procedure
For Steep Approach procedures
the Authority may approve the
use of landing distance (…)
based on a screen height of less
than 50 ft, but not less than 35 ft.

Typical approach operations

include glidepath angles
between 2.5 and 3.5 degrees.
Application for approval to
conduct operations on glidepath
angles of greater than 3.5
degrees requires additional
evaluation.
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Langding
Aircraft performance during landing depends on a number of factors,
principally:

Landing Runway
Wind
Speed Condition

Aircraft Air Aircraft

Weight Density Configuration

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Landing speed

↑ Landing speed = ↑ Landing Distance Required

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Weight
If weight is increased, VREF will be higher, giving as a result a longer
landing distance.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Air Density
When increase of pressure attitude (density decrease) will increase
TAS, so the landing distance will be increased and go-around air climb
gradients .

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
The 3 Deadly H’s

! HEIGHT
! HEAT
! HUMIDITY

FAA – Airplane
Flying Handbook

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3. Approach & Landing
❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Wind
Headwind Tailwind
Ground Speed
lower higher (strain
on Touch-Down on landing gear)
Where can we find out the
Ground Run shorter longer effect of head/tail wind on
landing performance?
Descent Angle steeper shallower
Directional
better worse
Control (weathercocking)

TAILWIND HEADWIND

X X
Ex. 18 - Approach and Landing
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Wind

A headwind reduces our landing distance required due to the reduced

groundspeed at touchdown (increases the braking efficiency).

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Wind
A tailwind increases our landing distance required due to the increased
groundspeed at touchdown. (decreases the braking efficiency).

**Strong cross-winds, turbulence and wind shear make handling

difficult and are likely to result in an increased landing distance.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Runway condition – Slope
If an aircraft is landing up hill it will take less time to slow down
therefore the landing distance will reduce

Up slope
If an aircraft is landing down hill it will take more time to slow
down therefore the landing distance will increase

Down slope
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Runway Surface Condition
Landing performance depends on the runway braking conditions. A hard
dry surface gives the good braking condition & reduce landing distance.

If the runway is wet or contaminated the landing distance achieved will be

increased.
Friction coefficient   Landing distance 

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Runway Surface Condition

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Aircraft Configurations – Flap/Slat
High flap/slat setting  landing distance 

Clean configuration

Flaps extended
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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Aircraft Configurations – Flap/Slat

FAA – Airplane Flying Handbook

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Aircraft Configurations – Flap/Slat

FAA – Airplane Flying Handbook

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Aircraft Configurations – Engine air bleed
Engine air bleed for de-icing or air conditioning, implies a decrease in
engine thrust =>
As a result, go-around air climb gradients will decrease.
Engine air bleed ON  LDR 
Air climb gradients 
Aircraft Configurations – Other system
If some of the braking systems is inoperative (spoilers, one of the
brakes, anti-skid, engine…), the landing distance will also be
increased. It is important to check LDA in such cases.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Flying Technique
One of the factors that most affect landing distance in a real flight is
the flying technique. If landing speed is not properly maintained, glide
path is too steep or the height above threshold is higher than usual,
the landing distance may be increased dramatically.
Therefore it is essential to fly a good approach in order to have a
good landing.

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3. Approach & Landing

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3. Approach & Landing

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Avoid Wake Turbulence

Avoidance of wake turbulence in the traffic pattern area.

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Avoid Wake Turbulence - Approach

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Avoid Wake Turbulence - Landing

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Avoid Wake Turbulence – Landing at Crossing Runway

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3. Approach & Landing

❑Factors Affecting Aircraft Performance During Landing
Avoid Wake Turbulence – Landing with Cross wind

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3. Approach & Landing

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4. Wind shear
Appears as a change in wind direction and/or speed within a
very short distance in the atmosphere,

Wind shear thường do 4 nguyên nhân:

• Frontal activity
• Thunderstorms.
• Temperature inversions.
• Surface obstructions.

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4. Wind shear
❑Wind shear

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4. Wind shear

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4. Wind shear

Six common
windshear situations

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4. Wind shear

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4. Wind shear

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4. Wind shear

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