MEMORANDUM 10 March, 2017

To: Prof. Y. Gan

From: Anissa Mota

Subject: Materials of Prosthetic Limbs

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Mechanical Engineering Department

Materials Engineering

Winter 2017

ABSTRACT

This paper will take a deeper look into prosthetic devices for limbs. A clear
definition  will be  provided  along  with  a brief  history  and  evolution  of prosthetic  
technology. Then, current materials and their properties will be examined. To
conclude,  this  paper will discuss the future  possibilities and areas of research in
terms of their significance in  the field of bioengineering  and to the world.  

INTRODUCTION

Prosthetics  devices are becoming more and more common in both the medical and
engineering fields, and now almost every body part can  be replaced by a prosthetic.
Prosthetics  are  part of the  field  of bio-­‐mechatronics which is the science of using
mechanical devices with human muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems to assist or
enhance motor control lost by trauma, disease, or defect. (1) The creation  of a
prosthetic  is tricky  business  as  each  piece is custom  made for its user to fit their
particular needs.  These devices can help the individual accomplish tasks that they
previously  could not  due to  their  disability, significantly improving their quality of
life.  No two prosthetics are the same as the users vary in size, weight, lifestyle, and
amputation. Thus there is not one material or design  that will fit all needs.

When  beginning  to create a new prosthetic,  the designer should strongly  consider
the material and the main load bearing  structure.  The prosthetic should  be  
lightweight  yet  strong  enough  for an active and heavyweight amputee (9). It should
definitely  be  aesthetically  pleasing and waterproof to some degree (10).  

There have been many developments over the years as prosthetics are becoming
more and more common. Major material properties to compare and analyze include
but are not limited to the following; compressive, torsional, tensile,  and shear
strength,  specific  density,  energy  storage  characteristics,  stiffness,  shock absorption  
(damping), fatigue resistance, fracture toughness, creep, yield stress, and
biocompatibility. All these properties and characteristics are being  continually
improved, and designs are increasingly beginning to reflect the real  functions of
human limbs (2).

BACKGOUND

Prosthetic research and development has been an area of interest to medics and
engineers for centuries.  When  beginning  to  develop  a new  product  it  is interesting  
to see its evolution and understand how the technology came to be where it is today.
In this section,  the history  of prosthetics will be studied.  

The first prosthetic  in the world dates back  to the 18th dynasty  in ancient Egypt  
during  the  15th century BC. It is currently housed in a museum  in  Cairo,  Egypt and is
known  as The Greville Chester Toe. It is a big toe prosthetic made of cartonnage and
is strapped onto the foot in a fashion similar to an Egyptian sandal. Cartonnage is a
material comparable to paper mache and is made of layers of linen or papyrus
covered in plaster (4). The purpose for prosthetics during this time period, were for
spiritual and religious reasons. It was necessary for the ancient Egyptian to maintain
physical  wholeness in order to have spiritual  wholeness in both their lives on Earth  
and in  the afterlife.  

Centuries  later, in the  ancient civilizations  of Greece and Rome the first true
rehabilitation aids were recognized. These prosthetics were made of wood and
leather. History text and artifacts can place a prosthetics in 484 BC made of copper
and wood.  There is also evidence of an  iron prosthetic in use by  a Roman general in
the year 218 BC.  

Serious  advancement was made during the During the Dark Ages when prostheses
were made for battle and hiding deformity. Such demand was heavy and technology
was crude; devices were made of available materials such as wood, metal and
leather. Such were the materials available to Ambroise Pare ́ who invented both
upper-­‐limb and lower-­‐limb prostheses. His ‘Le Petit Lorrain’, a mechanical hand
operated by catches and springs, was worn by a French Army captain in battle.
Subsequent refinements in medicine, surgery and prosthetic science greatly
improved amputation surgery and the function of prostheses. What began as a
modified crutch with a wooden or leather cup and progressed through many
metamorphoses has now developed into a highly  sophisticated  prosthetic  limb
made of space-­‐age materials (10).

War has always been  a catalyst  for technological  change,  initiating  and  enabling new
breakthroughs.  The start of the  twentieth  century  saw the  introduction  of
lightweight metals such as aluminum and magnesium  and of additional functions –
design, however, remained ancient and exoskeletal.  In  other words  ,weight  and
impact forces were carried by a hard outer shell suitable for much greater forces
(2).

MATERIALS

METALS

A variety of metals are used for prosthetics limbs; Aluminum, Titanium, Magnesium,
Copper, Steel, and many more. They are each used in a varied amount and for
various applications, either pure or alloyed. Copper, iron, aluminum  and nickel have
all been  used for the load  bearing  structure  in the  past,  but are  currently  used  
primarily as alloys or for plating.

This paper  will focus on analyzing  Titanium and the primary load bearing structure
and current favorite in the biomedical field. Titanium was discovered in  the late 18th
century.  It is a common metal used for medical and engineering applications
because of its many favorable properties.  It has good strength to weight  ratio,  goo
strength  to  density  ratio,  excellent corrosion resistance, low density and it  is
lightweight (3). It is commonly alloyed with other metals to improve certain
properties, most commonly aluminum  and vanadium. In its unalloyed condition,  
titanium  is as strong as some steels,  but less  dense. Being  lightweight,  strong,  
resistant to corrosion and biocompatibility are its most desirable properties for the
application of prosthetics. Its low modulus of elasticity makes it similar to that of
bone. This means that the skeletal load of its user will be distributed relatively  
evenly between the bone and the implant making for a more natural gait. When  its
characteristics are well  understood and designed properly,  this can  be a very
economical option for the lifetime of the product.

POLYMERS

Polymers are not often used for as the main load bearing structure for limbs. They
are more common with phalanges, joints, and other smaller body parts. When it
comes to limb prostheses, polymers are more common for the smaller components
or specialized  features.  

Common polymers used are polyoxymethylene (POM),  which is a hard polymer,

Polyethylene is a more flexible form  of plastic and it  ideally  used in larger  quantities  
when the prosthetic needs to be waterproof (7). N.S. Schreiber  and  R.T.T. Gettens  
write an interesting  article for the Department of Biomedical Engineering at
Western  New  England University regarding  prostheses for aquatic sport.  The
design, fit and material are all highly specialized because it need to be waterproof,  
capable of performing swim  motions, and comfortable while doing so. Everyday
prosthetics are not intended to be used in such an environment nor in such a
motion.

PVC first developed  in the  early  part of the  20th century  and by  50s it was  one of the  
most important plastics PVC is very durable but has limited color range. Silicone
resists  stains  but is  less  durable. PVC is unstable  when  exposed  to  heat and light so
it requires the  addition  of stabilizers   (9).

Ionometic polymer metal composites (IPMC) are attractive types of electro-­‐active

CARBON  FIBERS

The use of carbon fibers came about in the  20th century when medics and engineers
were in search of a lighter load bearing material. The properties of carbon fibers,
such as high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance,
high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion,  high specific strength  and
specific modulus. It was determined that it could be strong enough for even a heavy
weight amputee. Materials with high elastic modulus are usually not very ductile:
the specific modulus of wood is comparable to that of steel, magnesium, titanium, or
aluminum, whereas that of carbon fiber reinforced composites is about three times
as high. Carbon fiber reinforced composites also have very high specific tensile and
compressive strengths, as well as high responsive elastic deformation  (2).
The Northrup Aircraft Corporation was doing research after being contracted by the
Veteran’s Administration. It was determined that the material was brittle and
susceptible to impact damage that was great cause for concern (8). Carbon fiber can
also be costly compared to other material with similar properties.

SUPPORTING  MATERIALS

Biocompatibility refers to materials that are not harmful to living tissue. This is
most often considered when making surgical tools or other objects that interact
with the body internally. Another aspect of biocompatibility is how a material
interacts  with  the  surface  of the  skin or the  external body.  When prosthetics  are  
attached to the exterior of the limb, and constant movement is occurring, the skin
can be  subject  to a variety of painful and uncomfortable side effects. The
distribution of mechanical stress at body support interfaces can influence the risk of
tissue breakdown.  Excessive pressure and shear stress can  lead to skin  blisters,  
cysts,  or ulceration.  Interface materials influence the pressure and shear
distribution  on skin  and  underlying  tissues  principally  via their  elastic  property  and  
their frictional  characteristics with skin.  Supporting  materials used in prosthetics
are Spenco, Poron,  Nylon-­‐reinforced silicone,  Nickelplast,  to  name a few.  These are  
all commonly used and have been carefully tested and selected based on their
performance during compression testing. They have all been evaluated based on
their coefficients of friction with some exceptions. Nylon-­‐reinforced  silicone  was  not
tested because it  tended to crack  during  shear loading  and Spenco was not  tested
because it became extremely thin  after short  term  loading (6.)

IMPACT & FUTURE RESEARCH

The goal as a doctor is to improve the quality of life for your patients.  The goal  as an
engineer is to enhance a system  and improve the quality of life for the world. In
creating a prosthetic, those two goals come together and make a huge difference in
the life of the user.  Prosthetics are not  only becoming more functional and
comfortable but also lifelike and aesthetically pleasing. The more life like a piece is,
the less social stigma or pity a user will receive. Between the improvements in
design, fit, and appearance an amputee can walk with a more normal and confident
gait. This new technology and better material selection, an amputee can gain its
mobility, freedom, and life back.

The next step in this research is to find a suitable material to take to third world
countries. A metal alloy that is strong, lightweight, and affordable for amputees of
developing  nations should  be  next in this  line  of research.  In her article,  Mangera  
Taahirah discusses the importance of this material to be discovered. She calls for a
simplification in adult prosthetics so that they  can  be  designed as  children  and  
easily adaptable to their growing bodies, for example she suggests interchangeable
components. A key issue in this  discussion is the ability of this material to be
sourced locally.   South Africa and larger cities in Central and South American can
handle the manufacturing aspects; the concern is attaining the material.  Producin
the material locally has many socioeconomic advantages. It will create commerce
for the community and present a more affordable prosthetic  for the  user (5).  

CONCLUSION

In this paper, many materials were discussed as they pertained to prosthetic limbs.
Prosthetic are mechanical devices that replace or enhance the use of a body part.
The body parts in question are arms and legs. Doctors and engineers work  together
to find the best design and material to make the best piece for the patient. Pure
metals and metal alloys have replaced the wooded materials of the past for the main
load bearing  structure. Carbon fibers and polymers have replaced  leather  straps  and  
the supporting components. The material for each piece is carefully selected based
on the users environment and needs in conjunction with the material’s properties.
The next step in this research is to find a suitable material to use for prosthetic  
devices in the  developing  world.
REFERENCES  

(1) Aravinthan, P., & GopalaKrishnan,  N., & Srinivas, P.A., & Vigneswaran, N. (2010).
Design, Development and Implementation of Neurologically Controlled Prosthetic
Limb Capable  of Performing Rotational Movement, IEEE

(2) Gutfleisch, O. (2003). Peg legs and bionic limbs: the development of lower
extremity prosthetics, Maney  for the  Institute  of Materials, Minerals and Mining,
28(2)

(3) Hanson,  B.H.  (1986). Present and  Future uses of Titanium  in Engineering.
Materials & Design, 7(6), 301-­‐307

(4)Finch, J. (2011) The Ancient Origins of Prosthetic Medicine. The  Lancet,

(5)  Mangera,  T., & Govender, G., & Conning, M. (2015). Light metals for the
functional requirements of developing world lower extremity paediatric
prosthetics: A review of current material & technology trends. Materials
Science  Forum, 828-­‐829,  499-­‐505

(6)  Sanders,  J. E., & Greve, J. M.,  & Mitchell, S. B., & Zachariah,  S. G. (1998).
Material properties of commonly-­‐used interface materials and their static
coefficients  of friction  with  skin  and socks. Journal Of Rehabilitation Research &
Development, 35(2), 161

(7) Schreiber,  N.S., & Gettens, R.T.T. Aquatic Design for Individuals with Disabilities:
Upper Limb Prosthesis. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Western New
England University.

(8)  Shorter,  J.J.  (1986) Carbon Fibers-­‐ Uses and Prospects.  Proceedings of the  3rd PRI
International Conference. Carbon Fibres 3.

(9)  Smith, M. J., & Kirk, S., & Tate, J., & Cox, D., (2014). Material characterization and
preservation guidance for a collection of prosthetic limbs developed since 1960.
Studies in Conservation, 59(4)

(10)  Thurston, A.J., (2007) Pare and Prosthetics: The Early History Of Artificial
Limbs Proceeding of the 2006 Cowlishaw Symposium.