Equipment Design: Mechanical Aspects

Prof. Shabina Khanam

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture 02
Stress–Strain Relationship

Welcome to the second lecture of week 1 and this lecture will be on stress-strain relationship. And
this particular lecture I have divided in two part where in both part I will discuss and stress and
strain relationship. In first part, we will discuss basic of stress and strain and derive the expression
of relation between stress and strain. And in next part we will discuss some of the examples with
few more stresses okay.

So let us start with definition of stress. So you all have the idea what is stress okay because I need
to use this stress in determining or in deriving the expression of stress and strain relation. We will
recall the stress-strain first okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:20)

So if you see the term stress is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain
cross-sectional area of an object. So what is a stress? that is basically the force when I am applying
a force on a particular object, but in a particular cross-sectional area of that object not in whole
object. Whatever would be the cross-sectional area and whatever force is applicable to that area
based on that we can define the stress okay. So from the perspective of loading stress is applied
force or system of forces that tends to deform a body okay.
So this stress is basically the force or system of forces applied to a particular object till it deform
okay. It gives the deformation and that is occurring due to the stress. So as I have already told
that it deforms the body, it deforms the object. So what happens, how it will deform? It will
deform because whatever force is applied to a particular cross-sectional area that force will be
distributed internally to that object.

And if force is applied to stretch it, for example if this is the bar here I am applying the force, so
what happens it will be pulled or stretched in this direction. So whatever force I am applying that
is distributed internally in this object and after sometime when force will increase that distance
between molecules available in that aparts or that distance increases and therefore the deformity
occur. So according to the stress distribution we can say the deformity will be uniform or it will
be non-uniform.

For example, if I am having this bar okay and if I apply force to this side to a given cross-sectional
area okay, so what happens here whatever force I am applying that would be uniformly distributed
in this object. So according to that uniformity whatever change will occur that will be uniform,
like if I pull in this way the whole section or whole object will have increment in length not in a
particular point okay.

And in the similar line if I tried to bend this or bend a wire so distribution will be non-uniform and
stress would be higher at centre and it will keep on decreasing as we move towards the bending
side okay. So according to the internal distribution we have uniform change in shape or that shape
may be non-uniform okay. And mathematically if you define the stress that is force acting on a
particular area, we call this as stress that almost all of us know this so that is mathematically it is
𝐹
represented as = 𝐴 .

Symbol to be used for stress, F is the force applied and A to a given cross-section. So this is the
basic expression for stress. There are many types of stresses, but primarily we have three types
which we will consider in this particular course.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:08)
The first one is the tensile stress okay. Tensile stress occurs when the material is subjected to
pulling or stretching. So if I need to pull the object, okay, from one side that will give the tensile
stress in this object okay. And next stress I am having is the compressive stress. So what happens
compressive stress basically works because I am compressing from here as well as well as from
here. If I can compress from both side may be one side is fixed from another side I am pushing it.

So what happen that stress collected at the center okay and it reduces the length of that object okay,
so whatever dimension either tensile or compressive stress will be applied. In tensile that
dimension will increase and in compressive stress that dimension will be decreased, and the third
stress I am having is the shear stress. So shear stress is the stress state at which shape of material
tends to change okay, like sliding force.

If I am having two objects like this or if I am having one object of this shape and here I have to
apply force in this direction and in this object I have to apply force in this direction so it will be
slide over each other. So in that case shape of the object will change. In tensile and compressive
shape will remain as it is and only that dimension where that force is applicable that will change.
If it is a bar it will remain bar at the end; however, if it is Shear stress that shape may be changed
okay.

So if you see this image here we have this, this is the original length that is Lo, this is the original
length when I am pushing that or when I am applying tensile load will have change in length that
is basically delta L, so through delta L whole length will be changed. And in the similar line when
I am applying compressive load or when I compress this overall length will be reduced by delta L.
And in sliding or in shear or in tangential stress we have to apply two opposite forces and then it
changes the shape of the object like this okay.

So in shear volume of the object will remain as it is; however, that volume vary when I am applying
tensile as well as compressive. So it is another example of tensile like here we have the broken
lines at the center, here again I have a broken line, but that lines are joining each other and in shear
we have the applied forces. And in shear the sliding occur in the object. So these are different
types of stresses.

Usually in our day today life we see example of such stresses, but I can give you very common
example of compressive stress which I think all of us use okay, and that can be given through shoes
which we are wearing. For example, if I am purchasing a shoe, and at that time when I have
purchased that at that time when we wear that shoe we have very cushioning effect, very
comfortable effect we observe in our feet.

But after continuous operation or after continuous use, use in what way, if I continuously use that
in exercising, walking, running, so what happens whatever material available in the sole that
compacts or what we say that the material will be compact. So after certain time when that
compactness will keep on increasing that cushioning effect will keep on destroying. So after
continuous operation that cushioning effect will not be as we have felt at the time of purchase of
that shoes.

So this is a very common example of compressive stress because continuously putting force to that
sole makes that sole more compact okay. Next we have to define the strain. It is basically
generated due to stress okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:18)
So strain is basically normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume, and tangential
stress produces change in shape. So this we have already discussed that when normal stress will
be applicable the shape of the object will remain as it is, only that particular dimension will change
where that stress is applicable. However, when I am using shear stress, the shape of the object
will change. So the ratio of change produced in the dimension of a body by a system of forces in
equilibrium to its original dimension is called strain.

So strain is basically change in dimension divided by original dimension, as you can see here,
okay. So when the material is stretched, change in length and strain are positive okay. So when
we are pulling any object or stretching any object we have change, whatever change I am expecting
that change is positive. How that change is computed that final length minus initial lengths so
obviously when we have the increment in length that delta L would be positive.

In the similar line when I am having compressive stress, final length would be lesser in comparison
to original, so in that case strain would be negative. So this confirms with the signs of stresses
which would accompany the strains. Tensile stress being positive and compressive stress being
negative. So when I am applying tensile stress then whatever change will occur in strain that
would be positive and therefore strain will be called as positive strain or tensile strain. I think you
are getting me.
And if I am applying compressive stress, it means that change in length would be negative, so
compressive stress will reduce the length and then strain would be negative and then that strain
will be called as compressive strain. And here I am having longitudinal strain. Longitudinal strain
means what. If I am having original length L, I stretch this and then increment in length would be
∆𝐿
delta L, so would be the longitudinal strain as can be seen from this particular expression.
𝐿

(Refer Slide Time: 12:51)

And now we have volume strain. Volume strain means how you can define that change in volume
divided by original volume okay. So when we have observed change in volume either I am using
∆𝑉
tensile stress or compressive stress. So volume strain would be , as ΔV is the change in volume
𝑉

which is observed through stress. So till now we have discussed what is stress, what is strain, and
what are the types of stress and strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:12)
And now we will focus on stress-strain relationship okay, and for this we will discuss induced
stresses. Induced stresses means the stresses which are made in the system which are induced,
which are formed in the system or object. For that case, elastic deformation is induced by a load
such that when the load is removed the part resumes its original shape. So here we have elastic
deformability where when we remove the load the object will come to its original shape okay, so
that is basically elastic deformation; however, when we have different operations or services in
different parts of the equipment.

There are different stresses which are available or which are made in the object, and these stresses
are found due to different loading conditions, and these stresses are tensile, compressive, shear,
bending, torsion, etc. So all these stresses are induced in the system when we apply the force, but
when we remove that force all that stress will go out and object will take its original shape. So
materials undergo strain when they are subjected to stress okay, so when we apply the stress strain
occurs in the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)
And in this slide if you see here I am having particular graph, where stress and strain relationship
are plotted for different material. On Y-axis we have stress and on X-axis we have strain, and that
X-axis is broken because we need to show large scale at X-axis okay. Now if you observe all these
graphs up to certain value we have straight line okay. If you see this is the straight line, this is a
straight line, and after that we have non-linearity in the curve okay.

So this linearity gives the elastic condition for each material and that elastic condition vary for
different material. For example, in first this curve only this section is linear, this curve we have
this much linearity, and similarly for you know Gray cast iron we have highest linearity okay. So
each object will have certain linearity and then the deformation, whatever happen that will be
permanent. Wherever it is linear it is basically fall in the region of elastic deformation okay. So
we will use this point to derive the mathematical expression of stress and strain relationship.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:37)
Suppose a material is subjected to a uniaxial tensile load okay, we have applied tensile load in one
direction only, it will deform in a manner characteristic to the material. So according to the
material uniformity takes place, when I am having uniaxial tensile load to a particular object and
that characteristic will depend on type of material okay. So examples of possible behavior is linear
when the material obeys the behavior linear elastic.

So in the last slide we have discussed that each material have certain linearity okay, that linearity
section may be small or larger that depend on type of material okay, but each material have this
linearity and which we call as linear elastic behavior. As shown in this particular figure where we
have the strain and stress and linear linearity occur. So this means that stresses and strain are
assumed to be related by Hooke’s law. In its simplest form, Hooke’s law can be stated as where
the constant is known as an elastic modulus or simply a modulus.

So till the material follows linearity that stress and strain can be represented by a particular constant
okay. So according to Hooke’s law, we have stress divided by strain and that should be equal to
constant because linearity occur okay, and that constant we basically call as modulus of elasticity
or simply the modulus. If in this case that is σ by ε, σ is the notation for stress, ε is the notation
for strain and that will be equal to E, where E is the modulus or modulus of elasticity okay.

If force is applicable in x direction, it means if normal stress is applicable in x direction we can

𝜎𝑥
have the expression and that would be equal to E okay.
𝜀𝑥
(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)

So next parameter which I need to define is the Poisson’s ratio okay. So let us focus on this
definition and then I will explain what exactly it is. So when I specified segment of metal is loaded
in one direction only with resulting induced stresses and corresponding strain, strain is also induced
in a direction or directions at the right angle to the induced stress okay. So what is the meaning of
this that we can understand through this object.

If you see this is the 3D object, where this is the X-axis, this is Y-axis and this is Z-axis. If I am
applying stress in x direction only, so what happens? If I am applying load in X-axis it means if I
am pulling it in X-axis it means tensile stress will be applicable in X-axis, what happens length
along the X-axis will increase okay. However, we can also observe change in y and z direction.
So in x direction we have the strain, along with this we have strain in y as well as z direction.
Okay.

So that basically when we stretch from one direction, another two direction will have the reduction
in their respective length okay. And that you could also understand through this particular image.
If you see this is that red section, this is basically the original shape okay. And when I apply tensile
stress in x direction length in y as well as z direction will also be decreased, however length in x
direction will increase.

So though stress is applicable only in one direction, but it affects another two directions also. And
here I am having another image where the original shape is this and from both side I am
compressing this okay. Stress is applicable in x direction but it compresses, so final length would
be decrement in x direction, however, increment we can observe in y as well as in z direction. This
is the direction okay. So that is the phenomena when stress is applicable in one direction only.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

So experiments have proved that such axial elongation is related to corresponding lateral
contraction. So when I am having 3D object and force is applicable only in one direction, so there
will be elongation in that particular direction, however, contraction will occur in other directions
also whether stress is applicable there or not. So ratio of these two deformation is a constant when
it is falling within the elastic limit and that constant is known as Poisson’s ratio okay.

So mathematically how we can define Poisson’s ratio is that lateral contraction by axial elongation
okay. Lateral contraction by axial elongation is nothing but the mu. So this mu is basically
Poisson’s ratio and that depends from material to material. When I am applying compressive stress
that mu how we can define is lateral expansion divided by axial compression okay. So in Poisson’s
ratio we need to consider lateral divided by axial whether it is contraction or elongation.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:48)
So here we have different Poisson’s ratio for different material. So you see for steel which we will
consider in manufacturing of pressure vessel, the mu value should be 0.3. So here this table
summarizes some of the values of Poisson’s ratio okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

And now we will discuss stress and strain relationship mathematically. So first of all, I am having
biaxial system and then we will focus on triaxial system. So for example if I am having this, I am
taking example of this box again what happens in biaxial system it means stress is applicable in x
direction as well as in y direction. So this is biaxial system we are considering, it means stress is
applicable in x direction as well as in y direction also okay. So what happen when I am applying
stress in x direction and that will be denoted as σx, I am applying stress in y direction and that will
be denoted as σy. So due to σx we can observe elongation in x direction okay, due to σy we can
observe elongation in y direction okay.

But at the same time, this y will give some contraction in x direction, and similarly when I am
applying force in x direction, and if I want to calculate the strain in y direction there will be
elongation in y direction due to σy and contraction due to σx. I hope you are getting this. So if one
refers to one direction as x another direction is y, the unit elongation in X-axis due to tensile stress
𝜎𝑥
σy will be 𝜀1 = okay. So that is due to σx only.
𝐸

And tensile stress is also applicable in y direction that would be σy and elongation due to this in y
direction we are representing as ε2 okay, that would be the elongation. And due to this σy, we have
contraction in x direction that is ε2 okay. So that we can define as elongation in y direction ε2 will
𝜎𝑦
be equal to .
𝐸

(Refer Slide Time: 25:27)

And along with this we have contraction in x direction so that we can define as εc that will be
contraction in x direction and that is equal to mu that is Poisson’s ratio into εe. εe is basically
elongation in y direction so that we can replace with ε2. So here we have εc equal to µ into ε2. ε2
𝜎𝑦
will have a particular expression and that expression we can put over here so that is 𝜇 .
𝐸

So resultant elongation or net unit elongation in x direction when both σx and σy are applicable
will be εx is equal to ε1 – εc okay that is axial elongation minus lateral contraction. We have
 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦
expression of ε1 and εc, so that we can put over here where εx will be equal to −𝜇 okay.
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥
And accordingly we can have resultant elongation in Y-direction as 𝜀𝑦 = −𝜇 okay.
𝐸 𝐸

(Refer Slide Time: 26:47)

Solving these two equations, we can have expression of σx as a function of εx and εy, and σy as a
function of εy as well as εx. So here we have σx and σy as a function of εx as well as εy. So this is
basically biaxial system. In the similar line I can derive expression for triaxial system, where σx,
σy and sigma Z all three are applicable. So in that case resultant elongation in X-direction would
be elongation due to σx minus contraction due to σy and σz okay. So mathematically we can
1
represent εx as (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜇(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )).
𝐸

(Refer Slide Time: 27:46)

And in the similar line, I can define resultant elongation in Y-direction as well as resultant
elongation in Z-direction okay. After solving these three equation we can have σx, σy and σz as a
function of εx, εy and εz. So in this way we derive the expression for triaxial system also and here
we have mainly focused on tensile stress.

However, all these equations are also valid for compressive effects. Compressive effect how we
need to consider, that in compressive stress we have negative strain okay, so that compressive
stress as well as that strain would be represented by negative sign. So it is only necessary to assign
positive signs to elongation and tensile stress and conversely negative signs to contraction as well
as compressive stress.

So these points we need to consider when we have compressive stress and when we have
combination of tensile as well as compressive stress. So where compressive stress is there take
negative sign for stress and strain, and similarly in opposite to that, take positive sign in tensile
stress as well as tensile strain okay. And here I am stopping lecture two of week one. We will
consider discussion on stress and strain relationship in next lecture. And that is all for now, thank
you.