CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Discussion

Concentration of Solution
The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution. Because reactions are often conducted in solution, it’s important to understand
the methods of expressing concentration and to know how to prepare solutions of particular
concentrations. The concentration of a solution may be expressed qualitatively or quantitatively.
Let’s begin with a look at the qualitative methods of expressing concentration.

Dilute and Concentrated Solutions

When we say that a solution is dilute or concentrated, we are expressing, in a relative way, the
amount of solute present. One gram of a compound and 2 g of a compound in solution are both
dilute solutions when compared with the same volume of a solution containing 20 g of a
compound. Ordinary concentrated hydrochloric acid contains 12 mol of HCl per liter of solution.
In some laboratories, the dilute acid is made by mixing equal volumes of water and the
concentrated acid. In other laboratories, the concentrated acid is diluted with two or three volumes
of water, depending on its use. The term dilute solution, then, describes a solution that contains
a relatively small amount of dissolved solute. Conversely, a concentrated solution contains a
relatively large amount of dissolved solute.

1. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION AND

SOLUTE-SOLVENT RATIO
The concentration of a solution tells us how much solute is present per given amount of solution
or given amount of solvent. Amount of solute appears in the numerator and may be in grams,
moles, mL, etc. Quantity of solvent or solution is in the denominator and may be in mass, mole,
or volume units. In general, concentration is

quantity of solute quantity of solute

quantity of solution or quantity of solvent

Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio

Mass Mass Solute Mass Solute Mass Solute
∗ 100%
Mass Solution Mass Solution Mass Solvent
Mole Mole Solute Mole Solute Mole Solute
∗ 100%
Mole Solution Mole Solution Mole Solvent

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Solute Vol. Solute

∗ 100%
Vol. Solution Vol. Solution Vol. Solvent

For two-component systems:

Mass Solution = Mass Solute + Mass Solvent

Mole Solution = Mole Solute + Mole Solvent
Volume Solution = Volume Solute + Volume Solvent *See Note

*For this topic, contraction/expansion due to mixing of different substances are considered
negligible.

Alternate forms concentration:

Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Frac. * 100% Mass Solute
Mass Solute + Mass Solvent Mass Solution − Mass Solute
Mole Mol Solute Mol Frac. * 100% Mol Solute
Mol Solute + Mol Solvent Mol Solution − Mol Solute
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Frac. * 100% Vol. Solute
Vol. Solute + Vol. Solvent Vol. Solution − Vol. Solute

 Percentage Concentration
When 111 g of a solution was evaporated to dryness, 20.1 g of solute was recovered. What was
the percentage concentration of the solution by mass?
Explanation: You are given both mass of solution and mass of solute, so this is a direct
application of the definition of percentage concentration by mass.
% concentration by mass = mass solute x 100%
mass solution
= 20.1 g x 100% = 18.1%
111 g

Answer: % concentration by mass = 18.1%

SAQ 1
1. What is the mass percent of sodium chloride in a solution that is made by dissolving 5.00 g
salt in 70.0 g H2O?

2. Calculate the percentage concentration if 15 g of potassium hydroxide are contained in a 750

mL solution.

3. Calculate the solute-solvent ratio of 3 g glucose in 90 g of water.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

 Preparation of a Solution of a Specified Percentage Concentration by Mass

You are to prepare 2.50 x 102 g of 7.00% by mass Na2CO3 solution. What mass in grams of
sodium carbonate and what volume in mL of water do you use? (The density of water is 1.00
g/mL.)
Explanation: You are going to use the percentage concentration by mass as a conversion
factor to convert from g solution to g Na2CO3.

Calculate just that quantity.

g solution → g Na2CO3
7.00 g Na2CO3
100 g solution
2.50 x 102 g solution x 7.00 g Na2CO3 = 17.5 g Na2CO3
100 g solution

Volume of Water:

Mass of Solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent

2.50 x 102 g = 17.5 g + Vol. Water * Density Water
Volume of Water = 232 mL

SAQ 2
1. What masses of potassium chromate and water are needed to make 360 g of 2.00%
solution?

2. How many grams of fructose are needed to prepare 480 g of a 2.5% solution?

2. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLARITY

A solution concentration based on volume is usually more convenient to use than one based on
mass. Molarity (M) is the moles of solute per liter of solution. The defining equation is:

M = moles solute = mol

liter solution L

The amount of solute is an equivalency that can be expressed as two conversion factors. The
amount of solute in a sample of solution is proportional to the volume of the sample, and the
molarity is the proportionality constant. If both sides of the defining equation for molarity are
multiplied by volume in L, the result is:

Volume x Molarity = V x M = L x mol = mol

L

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

If the volume is given in milliliters, you must convert it to liters as part of the solution setup.

Also notice that molarity includes one unit that is particulate (number of particles grouped in
moles) and one unit that is macroscopic (volume, which can be measured). To be practical – to
actually work with molarity in the laboratory – you must convert moles to a macroscopic unit,
typically grams. The conversion factor, as you probably know from many uses by now, is molar
mass in grams per mole.

 Calculation of Molarity
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 15 g of NaOH in water and diluting to 1.0
x 102 mL.
Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by writing
the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the problem.

1 mol NaOH = 40.00 g NaOH

Construct the solution setup and calculate the number of moles of NaOH. Also calculate the
volume of solution in liters.
15 g NaOH x 1 mol NaOH = 0.38 mol NaOH
40.00 g NaOH
2
1.0 x 10 mL x 1L = 0.10 L
1000 mL
You now have both moles and volume, the numerator and the denominator in the defining
equation for molarity. Plug them into the definition and then calculate the answer.

M = mol = 0.38 mol of NaOH = 3.8 M NaOH

L 0.10 L

Answer: 3.8 M NaOH

SAQ 3
1. What is the molarity of a solution containing 1.4 mol of acetic acid (HC2H3O2) in 250 mL
of solution?

2. Calculate the molar concentration of a solution that contains 15 g of potassium hydroxide

in 225 ml of solution.

 Calculation of Mass of Solute from Molarity and Solution Volume

What mass in grams of silver nitrate must be dissolved to prepare 5.00 x 102 mL of 0.150 M
AgNO3?

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Explanation: analyze the problem statement by listing the given and water and then
identify the equivalent by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for
each unit conversion. Don’t change the equivalency to conversion factors until the next
step.
mL soln → L soln → mol AgNO3 → g AgNO3
1 L soln = 1000mL soln
0.150 mol AgNO3 = 1 L solution
169.9 g AgNO3 = 1 mol AgNO3

Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in the
setup.
5.00 x 102 mL x 1L x 0.150 mol AgNO3 x 169.9 g AgNO3
1000 mL L mol AgNO3

Answer: 12.7 g AgNO3

SAQ 4
1. How many grams of potassium hydroxide are required to prepare 600 mL of 0.450 M KOH
solution?

2. Calculate the number of grams of calcium nitrate necessary to prepare 450 ml of 2.25 M
solution.

 Calculation of Solution Volume from Molarity and Mass of Solute

Find the volume of a 1.40- M solution that contains 4.89 g of ammonia. Answer in both liters and
milliliters.
Explanation: Analyze the problem statement by listing the given and wanted and then
equivalencies by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for each unit
conversion. Don’t change the equivalencies to conversion factors until the next step.

g NH3 → mol NH3 → L soln → mL soln

1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g NH3
1 L soln = 1.40 mol NH3
1000 ml soln = 1 L soln

Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in the
setup.
4.89 g NH3 x 1 mol NH3_ x 1L = 0.205 L
17.03 g NH3 1.40 mol NH3

0.205 L x 1000 mL_ = 205 mL Answer: 0.205 L, 205 mL

L

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

SAQ 5
1. What volume of concentrated sulfuric acid, which is 18 molar, is required to obtain 5.19
mole of the acid?

2. Calculate the number of milliliters of 3.50 M ammonium carbonate solution necessary to

provide 12.5 g of ammonium carbonate.

3. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLALITY

Many physical properties are related to solution concentration expressed as molality (m), the
number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent. The defining equation is:
m = mol solute_
kg solvent

Like molarity, molality is defined as a ratio that leads to an equivalency and two conversion factors.
Notice that the units in the denominator are kilograms, but the mass of solvent is usually given in
grams. To be used in the defining equation, the solvent mass must be changed to kilograms.

 Calculation of Molality
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 15.0 g of sugar, C12H22O11,
in 3.50 x 102 mL of water. (the density of water is 1.00 g/mL)

Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by writing
the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the problem.
Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalency directly to the conversion factor in the
setup.
g C12H22O11 → mol C12H22O11
1 mol C12H22O11 = 342.30 g C12H22O11

15.0 g C12H22O11 x _1mol C12H22O11 = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11

342.30 g C12H22O11
Complete all of the steps needed to complete the conversion of volume in milliliters of water
to mass in kilograms of water.
mL H2O → g H2O → kg H2O
1.0 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
1 kg H2O = 1000 g H2O
3.50 x 102 mL H2O x 1.00 g H2O_ x 1 kg H2O_ = 0.350 kg H2O
mL H2O 1000 g H2O

You now have both moles of solute and mass of solvent in kilograms, the numerate and the
denominator in the defining equation for molality. Plug them into definition and then calculate
the answer.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

m = mol solute_ = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11_ = 0.125 m C12H22O11

kg solvent 0.350 kg H2O

Answer: 0.125 m C12H22O11

SAQ 6
1. A solution contains 68.4 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in 250 g of water. What is the
molality of the solution?

2. What is the molal concentration of 30 % ethanol solution (C2H5OH)?

DILUTION OF CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS

Some common acids and bases are available in concentrated solutions that are diluted to a lower
concentration for use. To dilute a solution, you simply add more solvent. The number of solute
remains the same, but it is distributed over a larger volume. The number of moles is V x M
(volume x molarity). Using c for the concentrated solution and subscript d for the dilute solution,
we obtain:
Vc x Mc = Vd x Md

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions I

How many milliliters of commercial hydrochloric acid, which is 11.6 molar, should you use to
prepare 5.50 L of 0.500 molar hydrochloric acid?

Explanation: You are given the volume and concentration of the dilute solution (5.50 L of
0.500 M HCl) and the concentration of the concentrated solution (11.6 M). thus, you have
three of the four variables in Vc x Mc = Vd x Md.

The value of Vc is unknown.

Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Vc = Vd x Md_
divide both sides by Mc

Mc
You can now construct the solution setup. Substitute and solve. Keep in mind that the
question states, “How many milliliters…?”

Vc = Vd x Md_ = 5.50 L x 0.500 M_ x 1000 mL = 237 mL

Mc 11.6 M L

Solution of the equation yields the answer 0.237 L, but the question asks for milliliters. The
final conversion changes the answer to the wanted units.

Answer: 237 mL

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

SAQ 7
1. Acetic acid is commonly sold commercially in a 17 M concentration. What volume (mL) of
the concentrated acid is needed to make 0.800 L of 0.10 M acetic acid?

2. What is the molarity of the acetic acid solution if 45.0 mL of 17 M HC2H3O2 is diluted to
1.5 L?

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions II

A student adds 50.0 mL of water to 25.0 mL of 0.881 M solution hydroxide solution. What is the
concentration of the diluted solution?

Explanation: You can recognize this as a solution dilution problem because you are adding
a given amount of water to a given volume of a solution of specified concentration.

Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Md = Vc x Mc_
divide both sides by Vd

Vd
The tricky part of this Example is the volume of the diluted solution. The problem states that
50.0 m is added to 25.0 mL, giving the total volume of 75.0 mL. Construct the solution setup.

Md = Vc x Mc_ = 25.0 mL x 0.881 M = 0.294 M

Vd 75.0 mL

Answer: 0.294 M

SAQ 8
1. 10.0 mL of 1.15 M chlorous acid is added to 1.00 L of water. Determine the new
concentration of chlorous acid.

2. How many milliliters of concentrated nitric acid, 16 M HNO3, will you use to prepare 7.50
x 102 mL of 0.60 M HNO3?

Summary
Concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution.

A dilute solution, describes a solution that contains a relatively small amount of dissolved solute

A concentrated solution contains a relatively large amount of dissolved solute

The concentration of a solution can be expresses in numerous ways

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Summary of Equations:
Percentage and Ratio Concentrations:
Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Solute Mass Solute
∗ 100%
Mass Solution Mass Solution Mass Solvent
Mole Mole Solute Mole Solute Mole Solute
∗ 100%
Mole Solution Mole Solution Mole Solvent
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Solute Vol. Solute
∗ 100%
Vol. Solution Vol. Solution Vol. Solvent

Alternate Formula:
Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Frac. * 100% Mass Solute
Mass Solute + Mass Solvent Mass Solution − Mass Solute
Mole Mol Solute Mol Frac. * 100% Mol Solute
Mol Solute + Mol Solvent Mol Solution − Mol Solute
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Frac. * 100% Vol. Solute
Vol. Solute + Vol. Solvent Vol. Solution − Vol. Solute

Molarity M = nsolute / Vsol’n

Vsol’n is in L
Molality m = nsolute / msolvent
msolvent is in kg
Dilution/Mixing of Solutions C1Q1 = C2Q2
The concentration (Cn) should be multiplied with its
corresponding quantity (Qn) such that when
multiplied, unit of mole or mass shall be the result. If
one side results to mole, the other side should also
result to mole.

Example:
If the concentration (Cn) is in molarity (mol/L),
corresponding quantity (Qn) should be Volume of
solution in L such that the result is mol.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

References

Brown, Le May and Bursten, Burdge, 2004, Chemistry The Central Science (9th edition),
Pearson Education (Asia) Pte Ltd.

Cengage Learning Asia Ltd., 2019, General Chemistry 2 (Philippine edition),

Rex Book Store Inc.

Malone, Leo J., Dolter, Theodore D., 2010, Basic Concepts of Chemistry (8th edition),
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Masterton, William L., Hurley, Cecile H., Peterson, James F., Sack, Dorothy. Gabler,
Robert E., 2018, Chemistry for Engineering Students (Philippine edition),
C & E Publishing, Inc.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Answer of Self-Assessment Questions (ASAQ)

SAQ 1 SAQ 8
1) 13.8 % NaOH solution 1) 0.0114 M
2) 4 % NaOH solution 2) 28.12 mL
3) 2 % sucrose solution

SAQ 2
1) 12.5 g KCl ; 238 g H2O
2) 20 g glucose

SAQ 3
1) 5.6 M
2) 1.2 M

SAQ 4
1) 15.1 g KOH
2) 166 g Ca(NO3)2

SAQ 5
1) 0.288 L
2) 37.2 mL

SAQ 6
1) 0.80 molal
2) 9.3 molal

SAQ 7
1) 4.71 mL
2) 0.51 M

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Discussion

Concentration of Solution
The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution. Because reactions are often conducted in solution, it’s important to understand
the methods of expressing concentration and to know how to prepare solutions of particular
concentrations. The concentration of a solution may be expressed qualitatively or quantitatively.
Let’s begin with a look at the qualitative methods of expressing concentration.

Dilute and Concentrated Solutions

When we say that a solution is dilute or concentrated, we are expressing, in a relative way, the
amount of solute present. One gram of a compound and 2 g of a compound in solution are both
dilute solutions when compared with the same volume of a solution containing 20 g of a
compound. Ordinary concentrated hydrochloric acid contains 12 mol of HCl per liter of solution.
In some laboratories, the dilute acid is made by mixing equal volumes of water and the
concentrated acid. In other laboratories, the concentrated acid is diluted with two or three volumes
of water, depending on its use. The term dilute solution, then, describes a solution that contains
a relatively small amount of dissolved solute. Conversely, a concentrated solution contains a
relatively large amount of dissolved solute.

1. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION AND

SOLUTE-SOLVENT RATIO
The concentration of a solution tells us how much solute is present per given amount of solution
or given amount of solvent. Amount of solute appears in the numerator and may be in grams,
moles, mL, etc. Quantity of solvent or solution is in the denominator and may be in mass, mole,
or volume units. In general, concentration is

quantity of solute quantity of solute

quantity of solution or quantity of solvent

Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio

Mass Mass Solute Mass Solute Mass Solute
∗ 100%
Mass Solution Mass Solution Mass Solvent
Mole Mole Solute Mole Solute Mole Solute
∗ 100%
Mole Solution Mole Solution Mole Solvent

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Solute Vol. Solute

∗ 100%
Vol. Solution Vol. Solution Vol. Solvent

For two-component systems:

Mass Solution = Mass Solute + Mass Solvent

Mole Solution = Mole Solute + Mole Solvent
Volume Solution = Volume Solute + Volume Solvent *See Note

*For this topic, contraction/expansion due to mixing of different substances are considered
negligible.

Alternate forms concentration:

Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Frac. * 100% Mass Solute
Mass Solute + Mass Solvent Mass Solution − Mass Solute
Mole Mol Solute Mol Frac. * 100% Mol Solute
Mol Solute + Mol Solvent Mol Solution − Mol Solute
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Frac. * 100% Vol. Solute
Vol. Solute + Vol. Solvent Vol. Solution − Vol. Solute

 Percentage Concentration
When 111 g of a solution was evaporated to dryness, 20.1 g of solute was recovered. What was
the percentage concentration of the solution by mass?
Explanation: You are given both mass of solution and mass of solute, so this is a direct
application of the definition of percentage concentration by mass.
% concentration by mass = mass solute x 100%
mass solution
= 20.1 g x 100% = 18.1%
111 g

Answer: % concentration by mass = 18.1%

SAQ 1
1. What is the mass percent of sodium chloride in a solution that is made by dissolving 5.00 g
salt in 70.0 g H2O?

2. Calculate the percentage concentration if 15 g of potassium hydroxide are contained in a 750

mL solution.

3. Calculate the solute-solvent ratio of 3 g glucose in 90 g of water.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

 Preparation of a Solution of a Specified Percentage Concentration by Mass

You are to prepare 2.50 x 102 g of 7.00% by mass Na2CO3 solution. What mass in grams of
sodium carbonate and what volume in mL of water do you use? (The density of water is 1.00
g/mL.)
Explanation: You are going to use the percentage concentration by mass as a conversion
factor to convert from g solution to g Na2CO3.

Calculate just that quantity.

g solution → g Na2CO3
7.00 g Na2CO3
100 g solution
2.50 x 102 g solution x 7.00 g Na2CO3 = 17.5 g Na2CO3
100 g solution

Volume of Water:

Mass of Solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent

2.50 x 102 g = 17.5 g + Vol. Water * Density Water
Volume of Water = 232 mL

SAQ 2
1. What masses of potassium chromate and water are needed to make 360 g of 2.00%
solution?

2. How many grams of fructose are needed to prepare 480 g of a 2.5% solution?

2. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLARITY

A solution concentration based on volume is usually more convenient to use than one based on
mass. Molarity (M) is the moles of solute per liter of solution. The defining equation is:

M = moles solute = mol

liter solution L

The amount of solute is an equivalency that can be expressed as two conversion factors. The
amount of solute in a sample of solution is proportional to the volume of the sample, and the
molarity is the proportionality constant. If both sides of the defining equation for molarity are
multiplied by volume in L, the result is:

Volume x Molarity = V x M = L x mol = mol

L

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

If the volume is given in milliliters, you must convert it to liters as part of the solution setup.

Also notice that molarity includes one unit that is particulate (number of particles grouped in
moles) and one unit that is macroscopic (volume, which can be measured). To be practical – to
actually work with molarity in the laboratory – you must convert moles to a macroscopic unit,
typically grams. The conversion factor, as you probably know from many uses by now, is molar
mass in grams per mole.

 Calculation of Molarity
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 15 g of NaOH in water and diluting to 1.0
x 102 mL.
Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by writing
the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the problem.

1 mol NaOH = 40.00 g NaOH

Construct the solution setup and calculate the number of moles of NaOH. Also calculate the
volume of solution in liters.
15 g NaOH x 1 mol NaOH = 0.38 mol NaOH
40.00 g NaOH
2
1.0 x 10 mL x 1L = 0.10 L
1000 mL
You now have both moles and volume, the numerator and the denominator in the defining
equation for molarity. Plug them into the definition and then calculate the answer.

M = mol = 0.38 mol of NaOH = 3.8 M NaOH

L 0.10 L

Answer: 3.8 M NaOH

SAQ 3
1. What is the molarity of a solution containing 1.4 mol of acetic acid (HC2H3O2) in 250 mL
of solution?

2. Calculate the molar concentration of a solution that contains 15 g of potassium hydroxide

in 225 ml of solution.

 Calculation of Mass of Solute from Molarity and Solution Volume

What mass in grams of silver nitrate must be dissolved to prepare 5.00 x 102 mL of 0.150 M
AgNO3?

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Explanation: analyze the problem statement by listing the given and water and then
identify the equivalent by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for
each unit conversion. Don’t change the equivalency to conversion factors until the next
step.
mL soln → L soln → mol AgNO3 → g AgNO3
1 L soln = 1000mL soln
0.150 mol AgNO3 = 1 L solution
169.9 g AgNO3 = 1 mol AgNO3

Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in the
setup.
5.00 x 102 mL x 1L x 0.150 mol AgNO3 x 169.9 g AgNO3
1000 mL L mol AgNO3

Answer: 12.7 g AgNO3

SAQ 4
1. How many grams of potassium hydroxide are required to prepare 600 mL of 0.450 M KOH
solution?

2. Calculate the number of grams of calcium nitrate necessary to prepare 450 ml of 2.25 M
solution.

 Calculation of Solution Volume from Molarity and Mass of Solute

Find the volume of a 1.40- M solution that contains 4.89 g of ammonia. Answer in both liters and
milliliters.
Explanation: Analyze the problem statement by listing the given and wanted and then
equivalencies by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for each unit
conversion. Don’t change the equivalencies to conversion factors until the next step.

g NH3 → mol NH3 → L soln → mL soln

1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g NH3
1 L soln = 1.40 mol NH3
1000 ml soln = 1 L soln

Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in the
setup.
4.89 g NH3 x 1 mol NH3_ x 1L = 0.205 L
17.03 g NH3 1.40 mol NH3

0.205 L x 1000 mL_ = 205 mL Answer: 0.205 L, 205 mL

L

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

SAQ 5
1. What volume of concentrated sulfuric acid, which is 18 molar, is required to obtain 5.19
mole of the acid?

2. Calculate the number of milliliters of 3.50 M ammonium carbonate solution necessary to

provide 12.5 g of ammonium carbonate.

3. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLALITY

Many physical properties are related to solution concentration expressed as molality (m), the
number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent. The defining equation is:
m = mol solute_
kg solvent

Like molarity, molality is defined as a ratio that leads to an equivalency and two conversion factors.
Notice that the units in the denominator are kilograms, but the mass of solvent is usually given in
grams. To be used in the defining equation, the solvent mass must be changed to kilograms.

 Calculation of Molality
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 15.0 g of sugar, C12H22O11,
in 3.50 x 102 mL of water. (the density of water is 1.00 g/mL)

Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by writing
the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the problem.
Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalency directly to the conversion factor in the
setup.
g C12H22O11 → mol C12H22O11
1 mol C12H22O11 = 342.30 g C12H22O11

15.0 g C12H22O11 x _1mol C12H22O11 = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11

342.30 g C12H22O11
Complete all of the steps needed to complete the conversion of volume in milliliters of water
to mass in kilograms of water.
mL H2O → g H2O → kg H2O
1.0 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
1 kg H2O = 1000 g H2O
3.50 x 102 mL H2O x 1.00 g H2O_ x 1 kg H2O_ = 0.350 kg H2O
mL H2O 1000 g H2O

You now have both moles of solute and mass of solvent in kilograms, the numerate and the
denominator in the defining equation for molality. Plug them into definition and then calculate
the answer.

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CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

m = mol solute_ = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11_ = 0.125 m C12H22O11

kg solvent 0.350 kg H2O

Answer: 0.125 m C12H22O11

SAQ 6
1. A solution contains 68.4 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in 250 g of water. What is the
molality of the solution?

2. What is the molal concentration of 30 % ethanol solution (C2H5OH)?

DILUTION OF CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS

Some common acids and bases are available in concentrated solutions that are diluted to a lower
concentration for use. To dilute a solution, you simply add more solvent. The number of solute
remains the same, but it is distributed over a larger volume. The number of moles is V x M
(volume x molarity). Using c for the concentrated solution and subscript d for the dilute solution,
we obtain:
Vc x Mc = Vd x Md

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions I

How many milliliters of commercial hydrochloric acid, which is 11.6 molar, should you use to
prepare 5.50 L of 0.500 molar hydrochloric acid?

Explanation: You are given the volume and concentration of the dilute solution (5.50 L of
0.500 M HCl) and the concentration of the concentrated solution (11.6 M). thus, you have
three of the four variables in Vc x Mc = Vd x Md.

The value of Vc is unknown.

Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Vc = Vd x Md_
divide both sides by Mc

Mc
You can now construct the solution setup. Substitute and solve. Keep in mind that the
question states, “How many milliliters…?”

Vc = Vd x Md_ = 5.50 L x 0.500 M_ x 1000 mL = 237 mL

Mc 11.6 M L

Solution of the equation yields the answer 0.237 L, but the question asks for milliliters. The
final conversion changes the answer to the wanted units.

Answer: 237 mL

Page 7 of 11
CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

SAQ 7
1. Acetic acid is commonly sold commercially in a 17 M concentration. What volume (mL) of
the concentrated acid is needed to make 0.800 L of 0.10 M acetic acid?

2. What is the molarity of the acetic acid solution if 45.0 mL of 17 M HC2H3O2 is diluted to
1.5 L?

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions II

A student adds 50.0 mL of water to 25.0 mL of 0.881 M solution hydroxide solution. What is the
concentration of the diluted solution?

Explanation: You can recognize this as a solution dilution problem because you are adding
a given amount of water to a given volume of a solution of specified concentration.

Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Md = Vc x Mc_
divide both sides by Vd

Vd
The tricky part of this Example is the volume of the diluted solution. The problem states that
50.0 m is added to 25.0 mL, giving the total volume of 75.0 mL. Construct the solution setup.

Md = Vc x Mc_ = 25.0 mL x 0.881 M = 0.294 M

Vd 75.0 mL

Answer: 0.294 M

SAQ 8
1. 10.0 mL of 1.15 M chlorous acid is added to 1.00 L of water. Determine the new
concentration of chlorous acid.

2. How many milliliters of concentrated nitric acid, 16 M HNO3, will you use to prepare 7.50
x 102 mL of 0.60 M HNO3?

Summary
Concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution.

A dilute solution, describes a solution that contains a relatively small amount of dissolved solute

A concentrated solution contains a relatively large amount of dissolved solute

The concentration of a solution can be expresses in numerous ways

Page 8 of 11
CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Summary of Equations:
Percentage and Ratio Concentrations:
Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Solute Mass Solute
∗ 100%
Mass Solution Mass Solution Mass Solvent
Mole Mole Solute Mole Solute Mole Solute
∗ 100%
Mole Solution Mole Solution Mole Solvent
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Solute Vol. Solute
∗ 100%
Vol. Solution Vol. Solution Vol. Solvent

Alternate Formula:
Quantity Fraction % Concentration Solute-Solvent Ratio
Mass Mass Solute Mass Frac. * 100% Mass Solute
Mass Solute + Mass Solvent Mass Solution − Mass Solute
Mole Mol Solute Mol Frac. * 100% Mol Solute
Mol Solute + Mol Solvent Mol Solution − Mol Solute
Volume Vol. Solute Vol. Frac. * 100% Vol. Solute
Vol. Solute + Vol. Solvent Vol. Solution − Vol. Solute

Molarity M = nsolute / Vsol’n

Vsol’n is in L
Molality m = nsolute / msolvent
msolvent is in kg
Dilution/Mixing of Solutions C1Q1 = C2Q2
The concentration (Cn) should be multiplied with its
corresponding quantity (Qn) such that when
multiplied, unit of mole or mass shall be the result. If
one side results to mole, the other side should also
result to mole.

Example:
If the concentration (Cn) is in molarity (mol/L),
corresponding quantity (Qn) should be Volume of
solution in L such that the result is mol.

Page 9 of 11
CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

References

Brown, Le May and Bursten, Burdge, 2004, Chemistry The Central Science (9th edition),
Pearson Education (Asia) Pte Ltd.

Cengage Learning Asia Ltd., 2019, General Chemistry 2 (Philippine edition),

Rex Book Store Inc.

Malone, Leo J., Dolter, Theodore D., 2010, Basic Concepts of Chemistry (8th edition),
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Masterton, William L., Hurley, Cecile H., Peterson, James F., Sack, Dorothy. Gabler,
Robert E., 2018, Chemistry for Engineering Students (Philippine edition),
C & E Publishing, Inc.

Page 10 of 11
CHM01a: Chemistry for Engineers Topic 1: Solutions (Part 1)

Answer of Self-Assessment Questions (ASAQ)

SAQ 1 SAQ 8
1) 13.8 % NaOH solution 1) 0.0114 M
2) 4 % NaOH solution 2) 28.12 mL
3) 2 % sucrose solution

SAQ 2
1) 12.5 g KCl ; 238 g H2O
2) 20 g glucose

SAQ 3
1) 5.6 M
2) 1.2 M

SAQ 4
1) 15.1 g KOH
2) 166 g Ca(NO3)2

SAQ 5
1) 0.288 L
2) 37.2 mL

SAQ 6
1) 0.80 molal
2) 9.3 molal

SAQ 7
1) 4.71 mL
2) 0.51 M

Page 11 of 11
Discussion

Saturation of Solution
When a solid is dissolved in a solvent, there comes a time that the solid is not dissolved after
adding more of it.
When a hot coffee is prepared in the morning, it is dissolved faster in a hot water than a cold
water.
Saturated Solution - A solution becomes saturated when the solute is unable to dissolve anymore.
The concentration at saturation point is called the solubility. If more solute is added, these will not
dissolve and will go down if it has higher density than the solution. Common unit of solubility is
mg/L or g/L.
Commonly, solubility increases with temperature. That is why when a hot drink is prepared, the
powder dissolves faster and more powder can be dissolved than the colder drink. Solubility data
can be in different forms, table, curve, equation, etc.

Figure 1. Example of Solubility vs Temperature. https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-solubility-curves

Temperature, oC Solubility (g/100 g of water)

LiOH CuSO4 KBr SrBr2
100 17.5 75.4 104.0 222.5
90 - - 99.2 -
80 15.3 55.0 95.0 181.8
70 - - 90.0 -
60 13.8 40.0 85.5 150.0
50 13.3 33.3 80.2 135.8
 40 13.0 28.5 75.5 123.2
30 12.9 25.0 70.6 111.9
20 12.8 20.7 65.2 102.4
10 12.7 17.4 59.5 93.0
0 12.7 14.3 53.5 85.2
Table 1. Solubility Table

Unsaturated Solution – A solution is unsaturated when its concentration is lower than the
solubility. It can dissolve additional solute.

Figure 2. Illustration between Unsaturated Solution and Saturated Solution. Image source:
https://web.nmsu.edu/~snsm/classes/chem116/notes/solutions.html

Supersaturated Solution – Is it possible to a solid to be dissolved more than its solubility at a given
amount of solvent and temperature? A solution that has more dissolved solute than its solubility
is called supersaturated solution.
Normally, it cannot be prepared at a constant temperature. One way to prepare supersaturated
solution is to heat the solution and have the solids dissolve more than the solubility at a lower
temperature then dissolve it to that lower temperature.
Another method by heating is that solvent is evaporated and the solution becomes
supersaturated. When additional salt is added, this causes to nucleation in which crystallization
occurs.
Example:
1) Find the solubility of table salt at 90 oC in solute/solvent ratio and in mass percent.
Solution:
Looking at the graph, NaCl solubility at 90 oC is 40g/100g of water. (See Figure 3 below)
Simplifying, it is 0.04 g NaCl/ g water.
In mass percent, it is 28.6%. Note that Quantity of Solution = Quantity of Solute + Quantity of
Solvent.
Per 100 g of water, there is 40 g NaCl:
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
∗ 100
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
40 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
∗ 100 = 28.6% 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
40 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 100 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Figure 3. NaCl solubility at 90 oC. Notice the red vertical line in 90 oC then the red horizontal line
once it hit the NaCl curve.

2) A Potassium Bromide solution is saturated at 30 oC. If the solution is heated to 50 oC, how
much is the unsaturation per 100g water?

Solution:
By using the Solubility Table, concentration is 70.6 g KBr/100 g Water. Note that concentration is
equal to solubility at saturation point.
Solubility or saturation concentration at 50 oC is 80.2 g KBr/100g Water.
Since both data have the same denominators, they can be subtracted straightforwardly.
80.2 𝑔 𝐾𝐵𝑟 70.6 𝑔 𝐾𝐵𝑟 9.6 𝑔 𝐾𝐵𝑟
− =
100 𝑔 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 100 𝑔 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 100 𝑔 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The solution is unsaturated by 9.6 g KBr/100g Water at 50 oC. It means that for every 100 g of
water, it can still dissolve additional 9.6 g KBr at 50 oC.

Activities:
1) The solubility of potassium nitrate at 20 oC is 250 g/L. How many grams of potassium
nitrate is needed to be dissolved in 150 mL of water?

2) A certain compound has a solubility of 169 g/L in a solvent. If the mixture contains 50 g of
solute in a 300 cm 3 of solution, is the solution unsaturated? If yes, how many grams of
solute should be added to make a saturated solution?

3) An unknown salt is added continuously to water until salt is no longer dissolved. Initially,
the water weighs 50 g. When the mixture reached 65 g, salt can no longer be dissolved.
What is the saturation concentration of the salt in g/L?

4) Several amount of unknown salt was added to a solvent. Initial amount of the solvent is
30 mL. When the mixture weighed 0.2202 lb, undissolved salts were observed. Upon
separation of the salts, it was found to be around 5 g. What is the solubility of the unknown
salt? Before separating the undissolved solute from the mixture, was the solution
supersaturated and why? (Density of the solvent = 1.02 g/mL)

For numbers 5-8, use the following data:

Temperature, oC Solubility (g/100 g of water)

LiOH CuSO4 KBr SrBr2
100 17.5 75.4 104.0 222.5
90 - - 99.2 -
80 15.3 55.0 95.0 181.8
70 - - 90.0 -
60 13.8 40.0 85.5 150.0
50 13.3 33.3 80.2 135.8
40 13.0 28.5 75.5 123.2
30 12.9 25.0 70.6 111.9
20 12.8 20.7 65.2 102.4
10 12.7 17.4 59.5 93.0
0 12.7 14.3 53.5 85.2

5) For a 250 g of water at 80 oC, how many of the following solute can be dissolved:
a) Strontium Bromide c) Lithium Hydroxide
b) Copper (II) Sulfate d) Potassium Bromide
 6) A 50 g of Cupric Sulfate has been added to a 300g of 2% Cupric Sulfate solution at 10 oC.
How many Cupric Sulfate will not be dissolved? What kind of solution will be formed? If
unsaturated, how many more can be dissolved?

7) Strontium Bromide solution was added to with more solute but can no longer be dissolved.
It was found that its concentration is 50.6%. What is the temperature of the solution?

8) Two pounds of 44.4% Potassium Bromide solution at 70 oC has been cooled to 10 oC.
Estimate the amount of crystals to be recovered.

Answer Key:
1) 37.5 g KNO3
2) Unsaturated; 0.7 g
3) 300 g/L
4) 2.11 w salt/w solvent or 0.678 w/w
5) a) 454 g; b) 138 g; c) 38.2 g; d) 238 g
6) 4.8 g; saturated solution and undissolved salt
7) 20 oC
8) 103 g
 1

Discussion

Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the energy or heat involved in
chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. In energy industry, chemical reactions that
gives off energy are involved in power generation which is used in most of the world. This also
includes changes in physical state of water, condensation and vaporization.

System and Surroundings

The system is the part of the universe which is being studied and focused.

There are three types of system:

Open System – Mass and Energy can pass through the boundary of the System.
Closed System – Mass cannot pass through the boundary of the System but Energy can.
Isolated System – Neither Mass nor Energy can pass through the boundary of the System.

The surrounding is the rest of the universe.

Matter Matter Matter

X X
Energy Energy Energy
X
Open Closed Isolated

1
 2

Temperature and Energy Exchange

As Thermochemistry involves heat, it is important to measure the temperature or the hotness or

coldness of an object. It is measured in a bulk of matter. There are different units of temperature:

Unit Absolute Zero Water Freezing Point Water Boiling Point

o
Degree Celsius ( C) -273.15 0 100
Kelvin (K) 0 273.15 373.15
Degree Fahrenheit (oF) -459.67 32 212
Degree Rankine (oR) 0 491.67 671.67

Kelvin and Rankine are absolute temperatures.

For convenience, Kelvin is calculated by using: K = oC + 273

While Degree Rankine is calculated by using: oR = oF + 460

Degree Celsius and Degree Fahrenheit:

As indicated on table above, Freezing Point of water is defined at 0 oC or 32 oF while Boiling Point
is 100 oC or 212 oF.

Celsius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

Boiling Pt. By ratio and proportion:
100 212 𝑜
100 − 0 𝐶−0
= 𝑜
212 − 32 𝐹 − 32
o
C o
F
Rearranging:
o
Freezing Pt. F = 1.8 oC + 32
0 32
This equation is the relation between oC
and oF.

2
 3

The following are some units of heat, work, or energy:

Unit Description
Joule (J) SI unit for energy which is a derived unit. Equivalent to N*m
(Newton*Meter)
British Thermal Unit (BTU) 1 BTU = 1055 J
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
Calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.184 J
It is the amount of heat necessary to increase one gram of
water by one degree Celsius.

Example:
By burning a fuel, 2100 J of heat is transferred to 100 g of water, initially at 30oC. What is the
resulting temperature?

As defined, 1 cal = heat necessary to increase one gram of water by one degree Celsius
Which gives the specific heat of water, Cp, equal to 1 cal/(g* oC) or 4.184 J/(g* oC).

To calculate the final temperature:

q = m Cp ∆T (q = heat, m = mass, ∆T = Change in Temperature, Tf-Ti)
+ 2100 J = (100 g) [4.184 J/(g* oC)] (Tf-30)oC (+2100 J as heat is goes to the system)
o
Tf = 35 C

Example:
Water at 50 oC, after adding 500 J of heat, its temperature become 60 oC. How much water was
present?
Solution:
mCp∆T = q
m (4.184 J/(g*oC)) (60-50)oC = 500 J
m = 12.0 g of water

Note: Specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the substance’s
temperature by one unit. Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure.

3
 4

In chemical reactions or processes that involves heat:

Exothermic Process - The system releases heat to the surrounding. In this case, the surrounding
temperature increases.
Endothermic Process – The system absorbs heat from the surrounding. The surrounding
temperature decreases.

Keep in mind that for heat to have a net flow, temperature difference between two bodies is
necessary, the driving force of heat transfer. Heat travels spontaneously from higher to lower
temperature but never the reverse as expressed in the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Example:
An 80 g of water at 80 oC is brought to a room with a temperature of 15 oC. After 10 minutes, its
temperature dropped by 20 oC. How much heat is lost/gained by the water?

Solution:
q = mCp∆T
q = 80 g [4.184 J/(g* oC)] * (-20)oC
q = - 6694 J

The negative sign from the calculation indicates that the system lost heat to the
surrounding. This process is exothermic.

The water lost 6694 J of heat to the surrounding.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The law states that energy can neither be destroyed nor created but only transferred to another
location and/or converted to other forms of energy.

The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of all the energy inputs and outputs. This
can be written in the form of equation:
∆U = q + w

4
 5

Where:
Sign Convention
∆U Change in (+) Increase in U (-) Decrease in U
Internal Energy
q Heat (+) Absorbed by the System (-)Released from the System
w Work (+) Done to the System (-) Done by the System

Aside from heat, which are the previous examples, energy in the form of work can also go in/out
to/from the system.

Work can be calculated via:

w = - P ∆V
Where:
P = Pressure against the System
∆V = Change in volume of the System

The negative sign reflects that the internal energy of the system decreases when it does work to
the surroundings.

However, work can be delivered/done via other mechanisms such as mechanical work (e.g.
rotation of motors).

Internal Energy (U)

All matter has an energy within and it is called internal energy but this excludes kinetic energy
due to its motion as a whole and its potential energy due to gravitational field. This comes from
the energy from the motion of the molecules. Imagine it on a molecular scale.

In thermodynamics, absolute internal energy is not the usual subject of interest but the change in
internal energy. The changes are the ones that are being studied. Changes in internal energy are
affected by heat absorbed or evolved and/or work done to the system or by the system.

5
 6

It is mathematically written as:

∆U = q + w
As seen in the equation, change in internal energy involves heat and work which are
subjects of interest.

If the system undergoes a process at constant volume (isochoric process), it means that
the ∆V is 0.
If ∆V = 0, then w = 0 as w = -P∆V

Then, at constant volume process (isochoric process):

∆U = q
With ∆U = m Cv ∆T
q = m Cv ∆T (at constant volume)

For Solids and Liquids, Cp = Cv. Then,

q = m Cp ∆T

Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is defined as the sum of the system’s internal energy and the product of its pressure and
volume. It is used for convenience in thermodynamic calculations.

H = U + PV
Obtaining the difference in enthalpy, the equation will result to:

∆H = ∆U + ∆(PV)
Substituting ∆U = q + w
∆H = q + w + ∆(PV)

Under a constant pressure process (isobaric process):

∆H = q + w + P∆(V)

Substituting w = -P∆(V)
∆H = q + [-P∆(V)] + P∆(V)

6
 7

At constant pressure (isobaric process),

∆H = q
With ∆H = m Cp ∆T
q = m Cp ∆T (at constant pressure)

With solids and liquids undergoing various pressure, the change in volume is so small which is
often considered negligible. Unlike for gases, their change in volume is very significant when
pressure is varied.

More about Specific Heat at Constant Pressure, C p:

Change in enthalpy (∆H) is the amount of heat given off or absorbed under a constant pressure
process (isobaric process). Hence, the equation:
∆H = m Cp ∆T

Example:
Water is enclosed in an insulated One Liter tank with a stirrer and a thermometer readable outside.
The stirrer delivers work to the system. One time, it was stirred resulting a 2 kJ work done to the
system. What is the increase/decrease in temperature?

Solution:

The First Law equation, ∆U = q + w

With the tank being insulated, q=0
2000 J of work is delivered to the system via stirrer

∆U = (0) + (+2 kJ)

∆U = m Cv ∆T Cv = Specific heat at constant volume

For Liquids, Cp = Cv.

m Cp ∆T = 2 kJ
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
(1 𝐿 ∗ ) ∗ (4.184 ) ∆T = 2 kJ
1𝐿 𝑘𝑔∗ 𝑜𝐶

∆T = 0.47 oC
With the ∆T being positive, water temperature increased by 0.47oC.

7
 8

Question:
If the stirrer is stirred backwards with the same amount of work, will the temperature revert?

The example above is known as the Joule Experiment by James Prescott Joule, an English
Physicist. The experiment showed that temperature can be increased by another means aside
from heat.

Example:
A 90 g of water at 30oC is mixed with 30 g of water at 50 oC. Assume that the mixing is done in a
perfectly insulated container. What is the resulting temperature?

Solution:
With the container being perfectly insulated, no heat is lost to the surroundings. There is also
no expansion or contraction in which there is no work done.
The overall change in internal energy is zero. However, there are change in internal energies
of the two substances that are mixed as they initially have different temperatures.

To calculate the resulting temperature, the equation could be set-up:

(∆U)Overall = (∆U)90g + (∆U)30g = q + w
q and w are zero

Substituting:
(m Cp ∆T)90g + (m Cp ∆T)30g = 0
[90 g * 4.184 J/(g*oC) * (T – 30 oC)] + [30 g * 4.184 J/(g*oC) * (T – 50 oC)] = 0
T = 35 oC (Final temperature for both waters are the same as they are mixed together)

Example:
A 100 g of water at 30 oC is mixed with 300 g of iron at 80 oC. What is the resulting temperature?
Cp of Fe is 0.444 J/(g*oC).

Solution:
(m Cp ∆T)Water + (m Cp ∆T)Iron = 0
100 * 4.184 * (T-30) + 300 * 0.444 * (T-80) = 0
T = 42.1oC

8
 9

Example:
1) A system undergoes a cyclic process which involves several steps as indicated in the
table (Units are in J):
Step (Point x  Point y) q w ∆U c
U1 1 3 U3
a (1  2) qa (450) 50 ∆aU
b (2  3) qb (-450) wb (100) -350 a b
c (3  1) -300 wc (150) -150 2
Total qTot (-300) 300 ∆TotU(0) U2

Solve for the unknown ∆U, q, w in each step as well as the total q and ∆U of the cycle.
∆TotU = ∆aU + ∆bU + ∆cU
= (U2 – U1) + (U3 – U2) + (U1 – U3)
∆TotU = 0J Cyclic process results to zero change as it reverts to its original state

∆TotU = qTot + wTot qTot = qa + qb + qc

0 = qTot + 300 -300 = 50 + qb - 300
qTot = -300 J qb = -50 J

∆cU = qc + wc wTot = wa + wb + wc
-150 = -300 + wc 300 = 50 + wb + 150
wc = 150 J wb = 100 J

∆bU = qb + wb ∆TotU = ∆aU + ∆bU + ∆cU

-350 = qb + 100 0 = ∆aU - 350 - 150
qb = -450 J ∆aU = 500 J

∆aU = qa + wa qTot = qa + qb + qc
500 = qa + 50 or -300 = qa - 450 - 300
qa = 450 J qa = 450 J

9
 10

Latent Heat

Previous examples have heat involved in the change in temperature. This heat is called sensible
heat. During boiling of water, temperature is constant despite the fact that the water continues to
absorb heat. As the temperature does not change, isn’t this a violation on the First Law of
Thermodynamics?

The heat involved during phase change (i.e. Freezing, Vaporization) is called the latent heat.
For water, the following are the latent heats:

Phase Change Latent Heat (cal/g) Latent Heat (J/g or kJ/kg)

Fusion (∆fH) 80 335
H2O(s)  H2O(l)
Vaporization (∆vH) 540 2260
H2O(l)  H2O(v)

Latent heat is also called enthalpy of fusion / enthalpy of vaporization. The numbers on the table
are positive as during fusion or vaporization, heat goes to the system. The values are negative
for freezing and condensation.

Latent comes from the Latin word, latere, which means hidden. For sensible heat, it involves
temperature change. However, for latent heat, it does not involve temperature change but change
in phase.

Example:

A 1 lb of Ice is to be melted. How much heat is necessary?

Solution:
q = m*∆fH

1 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑞 = 1 𝑙𝑏 ∗ ∗ (335 )
2.2 𝑙𝑏 𝑘𝑔

q = 151.8 kJ

Heat needed to melt 1 lb of ice is 151.8 kJ. Take note that the sign is positive.

10
 11

Example:

A 3 kg of steam is condensed. How much heat did it release to the system?

Solution:
q = m*∆vH

𝑘𝐽
𝑞 = 3 𝑘𝑔 ∗ (−2260
)
𝑘𝑔
Take note that ∆vH at condensation is negative.
q = - 6780 kJ
Condensation of 3 kg steam released 6780 kJ of heat to the surroundings.

Reference:

https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch21/chemical.php Oct. 1, 2020

Activities:

1) In a certain process, 678 J of heat is absorbed by a system while 294 J of work is done
by on the system. What is the change in the internal energy?

2) A system was heated by about 1000 J but only 690 J went to the system. If the heat
capacity is 500 J/K, what is the temperature change of the system? How efficient was the
heating?

3) A system undergoes a cycle of process which involves several steps as indicated in the
table (Units are in J):
Step (Point x  Point y) q w ∆U
a (1  2) 100 -250 ∆aU
b (2  3) qb wb 150
c (3  1) -300 wc ∆cU
Total qTot 500 ∆TotU

Solve for the unknown ∆U, q, w in each step as well as the total q and ∆U of the cycle.

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4) A substance had a change in temperature of 80 oC. Calculate the change in temperature

in: (a) K, (b) oF

Is the unit of Specific heat, J/(g* oC), the same with J/(g*K)?
What is the relation between change in temperature in oC and oF?

5) Oxygen gas of 5 lbm undergoes temperature change from 100 oF to 120 oF. Calculate (a)
∆U, (b) ∆H. Cv = 0.157 BTU/(lbm*R), Cp/Cv= 1.4

6) Ice at –10 oC is heated until its temperature become 69 oC. Calculate the total heat
involved in the process per kg of H2O. Cp (ice) = 2.108 J/(g oC)

ANSWER KEY:
1) 384 J
2) 1.33 K, 69%
4) 80 K, 144 oF, Yes, ∆Tin degF=∆Tin degF
5) (a) 16 BTU, (b) 22 BTU
6) 645 kJ

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