UNIT 1 COMPONENTS OF

ORGANISATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT (OD) PROCESS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Process of Organisational Development
1.3 Initial Diagnosis
1.4 Data Collection
1.5 Data Feedback and Confrontation
1.6 Selection and Design of Interventions
1.7 Implementation of Intervention
1.8 Action Planning and Problem Solving
1.9 Team Building
1.10 Inter-Group Development
1.11 Evaluation and Follow-Up
1.12 Let Us Sum Up
1.13 Unit End Questions
1.14 Suggested Readings and References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the Block 1 we have extensively discussed about organisational development.
We described organisational development as a process of improving organisations.
It can be explained as an effort, planned organisation wide and managed from the
top to increase organisational effectiveness and health through planned interventions
in the organisations process using behavioural science knowledge.
An organisation is a part and parcel of society at large and thus it has an external
environment that is outside the organisation and an internal environment. Both
these environment need to be taken in to consideration to promote organisational
development. The success of organisational development thus will depend on the
implementation of internal and external measures.Internal measures entails a
paradigm shift in terms of reorienting all levels of personnel toward development
goals the creation of a development office a high level of transparency collaboration,
flexibility and creative thinking. In the external measures the process requires the
implementation of highly integrated public relations, fundraising and advocacy plans.
This integration of the internal and external measures comes as a core of an
institution for its development.
The intervention strategies of organisational development lead to improved
organisation performance through an improved decision making climate. 5
Analysing and Managing the Organisational development experts work to improve relationship among interacting
OD Process
and interdependent organisational group and gather attitudinal data throughout the
organisation and feel this data back to selected individuals and group. This
information comes as a basis for planning and making needed improvements. The
process of organisational development is long term and requires both commitment
and positive attitude of those involved in it. It is not a one time training and
development programme but is an ongoing and cyclic process.
In the present unit we will focus on the process of organisational development. We
will discuss each stage of organisational development process one by one and try
to understand their relevance.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 discuss about process of organisational development; and
 explain each step involved in the process of organisational development.

1.2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANISATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Organisational development can also be described as a process of changing people
and other related aspects of an organisation. Thus it consists of many sub processes
and steps. When the process of any organisational development starts it progresses
through different stages and determines satisfactory progress made for additional
involvement. The organisational development process is based on the action research
model which begins with an identified problem or need for change. The process
proceeds through assessment, planning of an intervention, implementing the
intervention, gathering data to evaluate the intervention, and determining if satisfactory
progress has been made or if there is need for further intervention. The process
is cyclical and ends when the desired developmental result is obtained.
The organisational development process begins when an organisation recognises
that a problem exists which impacts the mission or health of the organisation and
change is desired. It can also begin when leadership has a vision of a better way
and wants to improve the organisation. An organisation does not always have to
be in trouble to implement organisation development activities. The process can
be initiated to bring about overall change in organisational culture or just for
enhancement of processes and structures in an organisation. The process may also
be implemented keeping in mind the long term and aspirational goals of the
organisation.
The process may also be launched when a member of an organisation or unit
contacts an organisational development practitioner about potential help in
addressing an organisational issue. The organisation member may be a manager,
staff specialist, or some other key participant, and the practitioner may be an
organisational development professional from inside or outside of the organisation.
Determining whether the two parties should enter into an organisational development
relationship typically involves clarifying the nature of the organisation’s current
functioning and the issue(s) to be addressed, the relevant client system for that
issue, and the appropriateness of the particular organisational development
6
practitioner. In helping assess these issues, the organisational development
practitioner may need to collect preliminary data about the organisation. Similarly, Components of
Organisational
the organisation may need to gather information about the practitioner’s competence Development (OD)
and experience. This knowledge will help both parties determine whether they Process
should proceed to develop a contract for working together.
Before we go on to discussing the organisational development process we will
focus on two important terms, that of, entering and contracting. Entering and
contracting involve defining in a preliminary manner the organisation’s problems
and opportunities for development and establishing collaborative relationship
between the organisational development practitioner and a group of employees
involved in the organisational development process, about how to work on those
issues. Entering and contracting set the initial parameter for carrying out the
subsequent paces of organisational development: diagnosing the organisation,
planning and implementing changes and evaluating and institutionalising them. They
help to define what issues will be addressed by those activities, which will carry
them out, and they will be accomplished.
Entering and contracting can vary in complexity and formality depending on the
situation. In those cases where the manager of a work group or department serves
as his or her own organisational development practitioner, entering and contracting
typically involve the manager and group members meeting to discuss what issues
to work on and how they will jointly accomplish that. Here, entering and contracting
are relatively simple and informal. They involve all relevant members directly in the
process without a great number of formal procedures. In situations where managers
and administrators are considering the use of professional organisational development
practitioners, either from inside or from outside the organisation, entering and
contracting tend to be more complex and formal. Organisational development
practitioners may need to collect preliminary information to help define the
problematic or development issues. They may need to meet with representatives
of the client organisation rather than with the total membership; they may need to
formalise their respective roles and how the change process will unfold.
The activities of entering an organisational development relationship are a necessary
prelude to developing an organisational development contract. They define the
major focus for contracting, including the relevant parties. Contracting is a natural
extension of the entering process and clarifies how the organisational development
process will proceed. It typically establishes the expectations of the parties, the
time and resources that will be expended, and the ground rules under which the
parties will operate. The goal of contracting is to make a good decision about how
to carry out the organisational development process. It can be relatively informal
and involve only a verbal agreement between the client and organisational
development practitioner. A team leader with organisational development skills, for
example, may voice his or her concerns to members about how the team is
functioning. After some discussion, they might agree to devote one hour of future
meeting time to diagnosing the team with the help of the leader. Here, entering and
contracting are done together informally. In other cases, contracting can be more
protracted and result in a formal document. That typically occurs when organisations
employ outside organisational development practitioners. Government agencies,
for example, generally have procurement regulations that apply to contracting with
outside consultants.
Regardless of the level of formality, all organisational development processes require
some form of explicit contracting that result in either a verbal or a written agreement.
Such contracting clarifies the client’s and the practitioner’s expectations about 7
Analysing and Managing the how the organisational development process will take place. Unless there is mutual
OD Process
understanding and agreement about the process, there is considerable risk that
some once expectations will be unfilled. That can lead to reduced commitment and
support, to misplaced action, or to premature termination of the process. The
contracting step in organisational development generally addresses three key
areas: what each party expects to gain from the organisational development process,
the time and resources that will be devoted to it, and the ground rules for working
together.
The different approaches to OD process but the typical process consists of seven
steps, viz., initial diagnosis, data collection, data feedback and confrontation, action
planning and problem solving, team building, inter group development and evaluation
and follow up.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss the meaning of organisational development relationship.
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2) How is organisational process cyclical?
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3) Explain developing contract as a part of process of organisational
development.
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4) Explain the concept of entering.
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1.3 INITIAL DIAGNOSIS

Diagnosing organisation is a major aspect of organisational development. When
diagnosis is done well, it clearly points the organisation and the organisational
8
development practitioner toward a set of appropriate activities that will improve Components of
Organisational
organisational effectiveness. Development (OD)
Process
Diagnosis is the process of understanding how the organisation is currently
functioning and provides information necessary to design change interventions. It
generally follows from successful entry and contracting, which sets the stage for
successful diagnosis. They help the organisational development practitioners to
focus on, how to collect and analyse the data to understand them, and how to
work together to develop action steps from the diagnosis.
It is not necessary that initial diagnosis is conducted when the organisation faces
certain problems as the process can be initiated to tackle the problem and improve
the performance of the organisation. In order to do so initially the focus should be
on identifying the parts of the organisation that requires to be changed. Once
choice is made, condition may be further reviewed to understand the problem
better. This review or in other words data collection is the second step in the
process of organisational development and will be discussed later.
Diagnosis provides a systematic understanding of organisations so that appropriate
interventions may be developed for solving problems and enhancing effectiveness.
If executives recognise that there are inadequacies within organisation which can
be corrected by organisational development activities, it is necessary to find out
the professional and competent people within the organisation to plan and execute
organisational development activities.
If competent people are not available within the organisation the services of an
external agency may utilised. The consultants adopt various methods including
interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, analysis of documents and reports,
focused group discussions for diagnosing the problem. The methods can be selected
on the basis of the initial diagnosis and then the organisation can move to the next
stage of data collection.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of initial diagnosis.
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2) Discuss the relevance of initial diagnosis.
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3) When do we take the help of external agency?
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Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 1.4 DATA COLLECTION
After the initial stage of diagnosis is complete it is necessary to carry out data
collection in order to generate necessary information that will facilitate and enhance
the process of organisational development. This stage may also be termed as need
assessment as the development of intervention strategy will mainly depend on this
stage. Various methods of data collection may used for this purpose. A combination
of methods may also be used as per the purpose of data collection. It can be done
with the help of questionnaires, observations, interview methods etc. Focus group
discussion is another method that can be used in order to collect data from the
employees in an organisation.
The initial diagnosis will give certain idea about the impending problem in the
organisation and depending on that a suitable method of data collection may be
selected and data may be collected. Data can be collected to assess the
organisational culture or climate or to understand any behavioural problems arising
in the organisation. On the whole this particular stage is important so as to have
a concrete proof of the problem or situation occurring in the organisation and to
confirm the results of initial diagnosis. The data collection may be conducted by
the personnel from the organisation or experts from an external agency may also
be hired for the purpose.
However, encouraging participation of employees in this step can be of great help
as it will promote their involvement. Also the goal and objective of data collection
should be made clear in order to inform the employees about the overall purpose
of the process and to ensure their cooperation and deal with any kind of insecurities
in their minds.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the relevance of data collection.
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2) How does initial diagnosis help?
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3) Why do we have to encourage employee participation in the data collection
process?
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10
 Components of
1.5 DATA FEEDBACK AND CONFRONTATION Organisational
Development (OD)
During the stage of data feedback and confrontation, data collected is analysed Process
and reviewed by the organisational development practitioners. This is mainly done
to bring in to perspective the view points of various organisational development
practitioners involved in the process and also to better understand the data collected.
The data collected is to be systematically analysed an interpreted so as to have
a concrete idea about the problem and situation in the organisation. The results
obtained are discussed at a length by the practitioners or the experts involved in
the process of organisational development. Again the participation of the employees
at various levels may be of great help in this case. The data thus analysed is now
ready in order to select and design suitable intervention strategy. Thus after the
stage of data collection, feedback is sought from the experts or the organisational
development practitioners and it is confronted or discussed at a length in order to
interpret it correctly. This process is crucial in a way as with inputs from varied
experts and employees the data collected can be meaningfully interpreted in order
to make decisions with regard to the nest step.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of data feedback.
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2) What is meant by confrontation here?
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1.6 SELECTION AND DESIGN OF

INTERVENTIONS
Once the process of diagnosis including the initial diagnosis, data collection and
feedback and confrontation is complete, then based on the interpretation and
discussion, suitable intervention strategy may be selected and applied. During this
stage goals are created on the basis information collected. Decisions with regard
about suitable intervention strategy to be implemented and the way in which it is
implemented is to taken at this stage. The interventions are the planned activities
that are introduced into the system to accomplish desired changes and improvements.
During this stage the suitable interventions are to be selected. In earlier blocks we
discussed in detail about various intervention strategies that can be implemented
in an organisation. We will now focus on some of the strategies.
1) Techno structural approach: As the name suggests this intervention mainly
relates to technology and also task methods and processes. The main goal of
the intervention is to match technology and social structure existing in the 11
Analysing and Managing the organisation. A technological advancement in an organisation is often met with
OD Process
strong resistance from the employees. Technological advancement is necessary
for organisational development as it will lead to less error rate and fast and
improved production. But negative attitude and resistance from the employees
will interfere with the whole process of technological advancement. Thus this
intervention strategy can be used in order to help employees understand the
relevance of the technological advancement and to put to rest their insecurities.
This can be done when an alignment is created between the technological
configuration and the social structure of the organisation.
2) Process consultation: This mainly focuses on the processes in the organisation
and is mainly implemented in order to enhance these processes in order to
make them faster and more effective. The processes may be related to
communication, interpersonal relationship, problem solving, decision making
etc. This intervention strategy has been discussed in detail in the earlier block.
3) Team building: Team work today is one of the most important aspects in
an organisation. Organisations generate varied measures in order to encourage
team work amongst their employees. Team work not only ensures effective
dealing of complex problems faced by the organisations but also leads to
efficiency in complex work activity. However putting a team together is a
challenge and that is what is exactly covered under this intervention of team
building. It mainly focuses on how a team can be created and discusses the
stages of forming, norming, storming, performing and adjourning.
4) Third-party intervention: This is an intervention that is designed in order to
improve inter group relationships through better communication and interaction
between various groups that exist in the organisational setup. It also strives
to reduce conflict, unhealthy competition, promoting interdependence and a
spirit of team work and encouraging cooperation.
5) Survey Feedback: In this intervention a survey is conducted with help of a
questionnaire. Information is collected with regard to the attitudes, perceptions
and feelings of the employees. The data thus collected is then used to provide
a feedback to the organisation so that they have an idea about their employees.
The data thus can be used by the organisation to make the overall functioning
of the organisation more effective and to develop satisfaction and organisational
citizenship amongst their employees.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss third party intervention.
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2) Describe techno structural activities.
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12
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 Components of
3) What is process consultation? Organisational
Development (OD)
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4) Explain team building.
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1.7 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERVENTION

During this stage the selected intervention is finally implemented. Intervention may
take the form of training programmes, workshops, feedback of data to the
employees, group discussions, written exercises, on-the-job activities, etc. Great
care needs to be taken before the intervention is implemented to avoid any sort
of negative impact. A huge amount of effort and financial investment goes in to the
overall organisational development process and at this stage the whole process
should not crumble just because no adequate care is taken at the time of
implementation of an intervention strategy. The organisational development
practitioners should identify before hand any negative attitudes and resistance on
the part of the employees and that should be dealt with before the actual
implementation. A conducive environment should be conducted in the organisation
in order to ensure success and positive effect of the intervention strategy. This will
also ensure real and long lasting change with regard to the problem. More than
one intervention may also be employed at the same to time.

1.8 ACTION PLANNING AND PROBLEM

SOLVING
Based on the data collected and its interpretation the organisational development
practitioners prepare recommendations and specific action plan in order to solve
the specific and identified problem.The present stage of action planning and problem
solving is required in order to ensure effective management of the problem or the
situation faced by the organisation. The process of developing an action plan
involves the identification of certain target variables and determination of techniques
to deal with impending situation or problem. The action plan can be termed as
another intervention strategy. It actually specifies the intervention strategy. As certain
objectives are created that are to be achieved as part of the intervention strategy
implementation process. Also planning is done about the people involved in
implementation, time period required, assignment of responsibilities etc.
With regard to problem solving, the focus is mainly on understanding the nature
of the problem, identifying a suitable solution and then trying to resolve the problem.
Problem solving in an organisational set up does not merely focus on decision
making with regard to suitable solution. It also includes identifying the problem
13
and understanding it in a better way, deciding about the possible solutions and
Analysing and Managing the implementing them. The process of problem solving also includes reviewing the
OD Process
outcomes after implementation of the solutions.
Thus the action planning and problem solving is an important stage that specifically
focus on the problem in a systematic matter, that adds on to the effect of an
intervention strategy.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of implementation of intervention.
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2) What is involved action planning and problem solving?
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3) Describe the process of problem solving.
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1.9 TEAM BUILDING

As discussed earlier in this unit and in earlier blocks, team building is a process
of creating teams. Teams have always existed in an organisation. There are formal
teams and there are informal teams. Formal teams are the part of an organisational
structure. For example a particular department is a formal team that has various
employees working together and who are interdependent to get their work activities
successfully completed. An informal team on the other hand may be a group of
employees from various departments that interact and have a common goal. In an
organisational set up teams may be purposely created in order to deal with certain
problems or issues or in order to promote innovations or to make certain decisions.
Organisations have long understood the relevance of teams and how they enhance
the overall production process and lead to increased profits. However if a team
is not effectively put together then it can lead to disastrous outcome. Employees
are to be assigned to teams in a systematic manner after having a complete idea
about their techniques, skills, personalities, behaviour, attitudes, values etc. Thus
the whole process of team building is very crucial. The size of the team and its
composition is also extremely important. This will again depend on the purpose for
which the team is been built. The organisation should focus on a team right from
14
the first stage that of forming to the last stage of adjourning, when the team is Components of
Organisational
dissolved after its purpose is achieved. Development (OD)
Process
Team building as part of organisational development process is essential mainly for
successful implementation of the process. During implementation of any intervention
varied activities or tasks may be required to be performed; teams would help in
effective conduction of these activities and tasks. Further the trust, interdependence
and cohesiveness between the team members will promote efficient implementation
of any strategy. However as mentioned earlier utmost care needs to be taken
while building the teams.

1.10 INTER-GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Besides team building another important stage is that of intergroup development.
There will exist various groups in organisation that can be categorized as formal
and informal. One main objective of the organisational development practitioners
should be to promote positive interaction and smooth communications amongst
these groups. This in turn will again facilitate the implementation of intervention
strategy. Inter- group development can be brought about by conducting meetings
and workshops and constantly encouraging interaction amongst the members of
various groups. This will lead to a positive relation between groups that will in turn
lead to reduced conflict, better team work and overall effective functioning in the
organisation.
The inter- group development will also take care of diversity amongst the employees
in an organisation that results from employees belonging to different races, religion,
culture, region and gender. It will promote acceptance and respect amongst various
group members in the organisation leading to development of a harmonious
environment.

1.11 EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP

This is the last stage of organisational development process, but can be termed as
the most effective stage. During this stage organisational development practitioner
tries to evaluate the whole process and impact of the process. At this stage it is
necessary to evaluate each stage for their effectiveness and take necessary measures
if the intended results are not obtained. Based on the evaluation of the whole
process, follow up in terms of developing or selecting new intervention strategies
or adopting other measure to rectify any shortcomings in process may be required.
These two aspects are extremely important to mainly understand the impact and
the degree of impact of the whole process. Further depending on the result of the
evaluation suitable follow-up can be developed.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe team building.
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15
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 2) What is meant by inter group development?
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3) Explain evaluation and follow-up.
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1.12 LET US SUM UP

Organisational development can be defined as the process of working together
with organisations, organisation leaders and organisation groups in bringing
systematic change to the root problems and hence increasing productivity and
employee satisfaction. Mainly organisational development offers three things, what
we do, how we do and the results we get. By understanding these three aspects
we can solve critical aspects of the organisation. It is a complex strategy that
brings changes in every aspect of the entire organisation. It is designed in a way
to produce a end kind of result. Ultimately it can be said that organisational
development is a new field which also includes positive adult development and
plays a major role in business profit.
Managing the organisational development programs is a constant concern and a
continuous activity. Innovations are carried out to solve complex organisational
problems through laboratory training, feedback methodology and action research.
Second generation organisational development efforts revolved around organisational
transformation visioning and virtual organisation. What one should understand is
various objects of organisational development before the beginning is made. In
other words it is the planned change to a company or organisation to enable
growth in an effective way. It includes consulting with the organisation to improve
effectiveness, the client and consultant relation, empowering individuals and team
and developing capable managers.
A lot of planning needs to done before the organisational development process is
implemented. The success of organisational development process mainly depends
on the members of an organisation, that is not only the top management but
employees at hierarchical levels. This process calls for active involvement and
participation of the employees. The attitudes of the employees are of extreme
importance in this case. Any change is normally met by a negative reaction. Thus
the employees should be given an idea about the problem and need for organisational
development intervention. They also should be encouraged to participate in the
overall process which will give them a feeling of involvement and will also reduce
insecurities sin their minds that result from anticipation of any kind of change in an
organisation.
16 To conclude, the process organisational development is extremely important to
bring about a positive change and promote advancement in an organisation. An Components of
Organisational
organisation should adopt it as a part and parcel of its functioning and make it an Development (OD)
ongoing process. Process

1.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the role of initial diagnosis in understanding the problems of the
organisation.
2) Discuss team building and state its relevance in the process of organisational
development.
3) Which is the most important stage in the organisational development according
you? Give reason.
4) Describe the stages of action planning and problem solving.

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Smith, A. (1998), Training and Development in Australia. 2nd ed. 261. Sydney:
Butterworths.
Richard Arvid Johnson. Management, Systems, and Society : An Introduction.
Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co.
Richard Beckhard (1969). Organisation development: strategies and models.
Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. p. 114. ISBN  0876205406 9780876205402
OCLC 39328. 
Wendell L French; Cecil Bell. Organisation development: behavioural science
interventions for organisation improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W. (Editors) (2005). Organisation Development. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W. (Editors), 2005, Reinventing Organisation
Development. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
deKler, M. (2007). Healing emotional trauma in organisations: An O.D. Framework
and case study. Organisational Development Journal, 25(2), 49-56.
Wendell L French; Cecil Bell (1973).Organisation development: behavioural science
interventions for organisation improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
chapter 8.
Cherrington, David J. Organisational Behaviour: The Management of Individual
and Organisational Performance . Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Dove, Rick. “The Principles of Change.”Automotive Manufacturing and
Production.March 1997.
Dyer, William G. “Team Building: A Microcosm of the Past, Present, and Future
of O.D.” Academy of Management OD Newsletter.Winter 1989.
Gibson, James L., John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly Jr. Organisations:
Behaviour, Structure, Processes. 8th ed. Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1994.
Goodstein, Leonard D., and W. Warner Burke.”Creating Successful Organisation
Change.”Organisational Dynamics.Spring 1991. 17
Analysing and Managing the Ivancevich, John M., and Michael T. Matteson. Organisational Behaviour and
OD Process
Management . Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1990.
Lippitt, Gordon L., Peter Longseth, and Jack Mossop. Implementing Organisational
Change.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
Northcraft, Gregory B., and Margaret A. Neale.Organisational Behaviour: A
Management Challenge . Chicago: The Dryden Press, 1990.
Recardo, Ronald J. “Best Practices in Organisations Experiencing Extensive and
Rapid Change.” National Productivity Review.Summer 2000.
Shaffer, Rima. Principles of Organisation Development.American Society for Training
and Development, 2000.
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Used (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Block, P. (2002). The answer to how is yes. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Bolman, L. G. and Deal, T. E. (1997).Reframing organisations: Artistry, choice,
and leadership. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bradford, D. L. & Burke, W. W. (Eds.) (2005).Reinventing organisation
development: New approaches to change in organisations.Wiley & Sons.
Bunker, B. B. & Alban, B. T. (1997). Large group interventions: Engaging the
whole system for rapid change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Burke, W. W. (2007). Organisation Change: Theory and practice (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cummings, T. G. & Worley, C. G. (2005). Organisation development & change.
(8th ed.). Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing.
Fordyce, J. & Weil, R. (1979).Managing with people, A manager’s handbook
of organisation development methods (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Francesco, A.M. and B.A. Gold. (1998). International organisational behaviour:
Text, readings, cases, and skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Harvey, D. & Brown, D. R. (2005). An experiential approach to organisation
development (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive
plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Lippitt, G. L. &Lippitt, R. (1994). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.).
New York: Wiley & Sons.
Mclean, G. N., Rothwell, W. J., & Sullivan, R. S. (eds.). (2005). Practicing
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