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Manufacturing Technology (ME361) Lecture 2: Shantanu Bhattacharya

The document discusses the manufacturing properties of materials, specifically focusing on bonding mechanisms in solids and crystal structure. It describes how bonding occurs between atoms due to attractive and repulsive forces, and common bonding types like covalent, metallic, and van der Waals. It also explains crystal structures for metals like body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and close packed hexagonal. Finally, it summarizes methods for producing single crystalline silicon via the Czochralski and float zone processes.

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Sahil Sunda
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
47 views

Manufacturing Technology (ME361) Lecture 2: Shantanu Bhattacharya

The document discusses the manufacturing properties of materials, specifically focusing on bonding mechanisms in solids and crystal structure. It describes how bonding occurs between atoms due to attractive and repulsive forces, and common bonding types like covalent, metallic, and van der Waals. It also explains crystal structures for metals like body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and close packed hexagonal. Finally, it summarizes methods for producing single crystalline silicon via the Czochralski and float zone processes.

Uploaded by

Sahil Sunda
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Manufacturing Technology

(ME361) Lecture 2
Shantanu Bhattacharya
Manufacturing Properties of Materials
Structure of Matter:
Material properties are a function of the basic
molecular structure.
Solids are known for their capability to retain
definite shapes and thus the bonding
mechanics between the molecules forming a
solid is very important.
• Two atoms sufficiently close
to each other have their Bonding of solids
outer electrons shared by
both the nuclei which results
in an attractive force
between the two atoms.
• This force increases with the
decrease in distance
between the two atoms.
• However the two atoms do
not collapse as a repulsive
force is generated when the
two nuclei come very close.
• This repulsive force increases rapidly with decreasing inter-atomic
distance.
• The equilibrium inter-atomic distance de is the distance at which the
attractive and repulsive forces balance each other.
• The slope of the repulsive force curve is always more than that of the
attractive force curve at the point of intersection ‘A’ of the curves.
Therefore, the equilibrium is of a stable nature.
Bonding of solids
• The mechanism we have discussed is one
of the various possible interactions
resulting in bonding between atoms, and
is known as covalent bonding.
• In a given solid one or more bonding
mechanism can be simultaneously
active.
• The nature of bonding mechanism
depends on the electronic structure of
the atoms involved.
• Some bonding mechanisms in solids are
metallic bonding, van der waals bonding.

• In a metal a large no. of free electrons are present, resulting in the formation of a
common electron cloud.
• The rest of the system consists of positively charged ions which are held together by
the cloud.
Bonding of solids

• The mechanism of bonding in alloys is similar.


• In inert atoms as the free electrons, the
metallic bonding mechanism cannot be
operative in inert atoms.
• In such cases a very weak short range force of
attraction is generated and this is known as
Vander-waals force.
• The origin of this force is attributed to a
rapidly-fluctuating dipole moment.
Bonding in Solids
• The figure shows two molecules at a
distance ‘d’ each of which has a
symmetric charge distribution.
• All the three different overall
configurations of the charge
distributions, shown in figure, lead to
the development of an attractive force
though individually the molecules are
neutral.
• This force is inversely proportional to d4
• This type of bonding is very weak and is active in weak and low
melting point materials such as paraffin and plastics.
• It is obvious that the strength of the bond controls the properties,
e.g., melting point, of a material.
Crystal Structure
• The properties of a material not only
depends on the bond strength but also
on the arrangement of the atoms
which are very well arranged in a very
well ordered pattern in all metals and
also many non metallic solids.
• Such solids are commonly called
crystalline solids.
• In a large no. of situations, the whole
solid is seldom composed of one single
crystal and instead has a large no. of
small, randomly oriented crystalline
grains from the whole solid.
• Such materials are termed
polycrystalline solid.
Crystal Structure
• In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell the repetition of which forms
the whole crystal.
• The structure of a crystal is identified and described by this unit cell.
• The three commonly observed crystal structures in metals are the
Body centered cubic (BCC), Face centered cubic (FCC) and the Close
packed hexagonal (CPH) out of which the FCC and the CPH have the
most dense packing.
• The inter-atomic distance in such crystals is of the order of 10-7mm.
Body centered cubic structure

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with
many unit cells.
Face centered cubic structure

The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with
many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley &
Sons, 1976.
Close packed hexagonal structure

The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells.
Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
Crystal structures of some common
metals
Crystal Structure
• When a liquid metal solidifies by cooling, the atoms arrange themselves in regular
space lattices, forming a crystal.
•The crystallization starts simultaneously at various places within the liquid mass.
•As shown in the following figure the growth of crystal grains and the ultimate
formation of the polycrystalline structure with inbetween grain boundaries get
formulated.

• Most metals have only one crystal structure. A few metals can however
possess more than one crystal structure. Such metals are known as allotropic
metals.
• A number of material properties are dependent on the crystal structure. Like
BCC metals are usually harder , FCC are usually ductile. In CPH structures
the ductility is low.
Silicon for fabrication
• Silicon is the most popular Microelectronic material.
• Silicon and its compounds (Oxides, Nitrides, polysilicon) can
be categorized into three classes based on the amount and
range of order.
• These are single crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous
materials.
• In single crystalline materials, almost all of the atoms in the
crystal occupy well defined and regular positions known as
lattice sites.
• Materials like silicon dioxide are amorphous which means that
they do not posses any long range order.
• The third class of material is polycrystalline and these are
single small crystals randomly oriented with respect to each
other.
Single Crystalline Silicon
•They are characterized by crystalline
orientation of their surfaces.
•The classification is based on Miller
indices as shown in the figure below.
•A particular direction is indicated with
square bracket such as [100].
•The set of equivalent directions is
described in angle brackets <100>.
•If this direction is the normal vector of a
plane, it is denoted with parenthesis
(100).
•The set of equivalent planes is described with braces, such as {100}.

•Single crystalline silicon is mostly fabricated with Czocharalski growth method. A small
seed crystal with a given orientation is dipped into a highly purified silicon melt. The
seed is slowly pulled out of the melt while the crucible is rotated.
•The other method is floating zone method where a polysilicon rod is used as a starting
material.
•A seed crystal at the end of the rod defines the orientation . A radio frequency heater
locally melts the polysilicon rod. Crystal growth starts with the end from the seed.
Single Crystalline silicon formulation (Czochralski’s
growth method)
• Single crystal silicon is formulated
with Czochralski growth method.
• A small seed crystal with a given
orientation is dipped into a highly
purified silicon melt.
• The seed is slowly pulled out of the
melt while the crucible containing
the melt is rotated.
• The material is polycrystalline silicon
and is 99.9999% pure.
• The poly is loaded into a fused silica
crucible that is contained in an
evacuated chamber.
• The chamber is back filled with inert
gas and the crucible is heated to
1500 deg. C.
• The seed crystal is a small chemically etched crystal lowered into contact with
the melt. This must be carefully oriented since it will serve as the template for
growth of the much larger crystal.
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method
Czochralsky’s Growth Method

•In reality, the maximum pull rate is not normally used.


•The crystalline quality is a sensitive function of the pull rate.
•The material near the melt has a very high density of point defects. So quick cooling
would help to prevent these defects to go into the formulating crystal.
•However, too much gradient may create large thermal stresses and thus
dislocations, particularly in larger diameter wafer.
Single Crystalline silicon formulation (Float zone
method)
•This method is used for extremely
high purity silicon growth.

•A rod of high purity polycrystalline


material is held in a chuck while a
metal coil driven by a high power radio
frequency signal is slowly passed
along its length.

•Alternatively, a focussed e-beam can


also be used for heating the rod.

•The field setup by the RF power leads


to eddy currents and joule heating and
the material is melted.
• To enhance the growth along the preferred crystal orientation a seed crystal is
injected into the top of the molten rod.
•In this technique a thin neck of 3mm diameter and 10-20mm long is pulled and
the pull rate and the temperature lowered to shoulder the crystal out to a larger
diameter.

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