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Submitted to: Dr. Anjum Khalid

Submitted by: Arsalan Altaf
Roll no: Me-023
Sec: A
Batch: 2007-08
Department: Mechanical ‘
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  is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric
power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an
extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for
agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

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A wind farm is a collection of windmills or turbines which are used to generate electrical power
through their mechanical motions as they are pushed by the wind. Both Europe and the United
States have large numbers of wind farms, and the technology is also found on other continents.
In Asia, India especially has devoted a great deal of funding to establishing wind farms. The
energy generated by a wind farm can be fed directly into the general energy grid after passing
through transformers.

As a potentially large source of renewable energy, wind farms are particularly popular in
nations which are focusing on alternative energy. Other types of renewable energy
include wave power and solar arrays. All of these technologies take advantage of already
existing energy, converting it into a usable form. Since a wind farm does not actively deplete
resources as it generates power, it is considered a form of ͞green͟ energy.

Naturally, some resources must be expended to create a wind farm. The turbines, transformers,
and grid system on a wind farm are often made from less than ideal substances, such as metals
mined in an unclean way. However, once installed, a wind farm requires no additional energy
output other than that required for basic maintenance. This is a marked contrast to a power
plant which relies on coal or petroleum products. Consumers who want to support wind farms
can buy energy credits which go to developers of wind farms.

Naturally, the best place for a wind farm is a windy location. In some instances, a windy location
may also be generally unusable or uninhabitable. In other instances, a wind farm may take up
useful real estate which could be used for farming. This has led to some criticism of wind farms,
since they take up a great deal more space than a comparable non-renewable energy
generating facility. In addition, wind farms pose a severe threat to migratory birds, as has been
clearly documented by several scientific organizations.
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Generally the development and operation of a wind farm can be subdivided into the following
four phases:

î‘ Initiation and feasibility (concluded by go/no-go)

î‘ Prebuilding (concluded by go/no-go)
î‘ Building
î‘ Operation and maintenance

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The initiation and feasibility phase section includes site selection criteria and a discussion of the
methodology for the assessment of the likely energy yield ʹ a critically important factor in the
investment decision. Often, several sites will need to be investigated before making a selection.

Main subject during this phase is that one or more appropriate sites are selected for possible
siting of a wind farm. Main characteristics are investigated like number of turbines, installed
power and hub height. The feasibility study comprises an inventory and assessment of the main
project risks like the presence of sufficient wind resources, sufficient grid capacity and
verification with the municipality zoning plan. The phase is concluded with a go/no-go decision
for the next process step.

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In order to develop and construct an economical feasible wind farm an inevitable first step is to
obtain one or more appropriate areas of satisfactory dimensions. Already for a medium size
wind farm, e.g. 5 wind turbines of 2 MW, a substantial area is required. Depending on the rotor
diameter the required mutual distance between the wind turbines is 300 to 500 meter and
further to limit the nuisance or for safety reasons the distance to the nearest dwellings and
company buildings is also at least 300 to 500 meter. Next step, immediately following pre-
selection of the area, is to assess the corresponding local long term wind climate. Generally
speaking, potential wind farm sites are preferably vacant areas at the flat land or on top of hilly
areas. In all cases the sites should be characterized with high and recurrent wind resources.
Purpose of the initial screening study is to identify and evaluate factors that may lead to a
definitive cross out of a pre-selected area. In case the site screening does not identify any
prohibitive limitations the feasibility study may proceed.
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The financial feasibility is a prerequisite for the development of a wind energy project. The wind
resource assessment is of outstanding importance for the estimation of the yearly energy yield
and determines for the greater part the financial feasibility. The energy available in the wind is
proportional with the wind speed to the third power. Based on local wind speed data of meteo
stations can be determined a local wind atlas of the planned wind farm. It is necessary to use
minimal one year of wind data to avoid fluctuations in wind speed during the seasons. The wind
atlas is related to a roughness map of the area which is needed to determine the wind speed at
a specific site and height. The estimated wind distribution results in a yearly energy yield
representing the gross income of the wind farm.

The yearly energy yield is calculated by multiplying the wind turbine power curve with the wind
distribution function at site:

E yearly yield (kWh) = E f (w i) . P (w i) i = 1, n

With

F: wind distribution function (yearly hours per wind speed interval)

P: wind turbine power curve (power output as function of wind speed)
wi: wind speed at interval or ͞bin͟i, common interval size is 0.5 to 1 m/s
i: number of wind intervals ͟bins͟ between cut-in and cut-out wind speed; generally from to
25 m/s

Figure 2a shows a power curve (PV) of a 2 MW wind turbine with optimal efficiency, i.e. without
noise reduction measures that usually lead to less energy generation. Figure 2b shows the most
commonly used wind speed distribution based on the statistical Weibull function with shape
factor 2 and average wind speed of 7 m/s. Based on the PV curve from figure 2a and Weibull
wind speed distribution with shape factor 2.0 the gross energy yield corresponding to 7 to 8.5
m/s is presented in table 1.
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Modern wind turbines are available in the power range from 0.75 to more than 3 MW having
rotor diameters varying from 55 to more than 100 meter. Although in the past also two bladed
rotors were used, nowadays only three blade rotors are commercially available. Generally, the
hub height varies from 0.9 to 1.25 times the rotor diameter. Most manufacturers offer wind
turbines with two or three different rotor diameters corresponding to low (large rotor),
medium (standard rotor) and high or offshore (small rotor) wind climate. At a first screening the
outer dimensions of the available terrain are of importance. Wind turbines require a mutual
spacing of at least four to five rotor diameters, corresponding with approximately 300 to 400
meter. A flat and undisturbed area is requested for buildings, trees and other obstacles lead to
a lowering of the wind speed. Next to the terrain orography it is well-advised to examine the
local grid properties at an early phase. Main question is the distance to the nearest medium or
high voltage substation with sufficient feed in capacity. It is advised to make already during the
feasibility phase an appointment with the local grid operator to discuss grid connection
including corresponding cost and planning.


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In most countries it is prohibited that wind turbine rotors rotate above roads, railway tracks
and water ways. A minimum distance has to be observed from wind turbines to public
infrastructure. In northern countries and countries with continental climate specific attention
has to be paid to probable icing problems. Ice developed on rotating rotor blades can be
thrown far from the turbine and harm persons or result in material damage. Local authorities
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and concerned parties may demand for an aditional risk analyses in case in the vincinity of the
planned wind farm at least one of the following items count:

î‘ Transport, storage or processing of hazardous goods

î‘ Pipelines for transport of hazardous goods (also underground)
î‘ Dwellings, company or public buildings
î‘ Roads, railway tracks and water ways
î‘ Medium and high voltage conductor
î‘ Danger of icing

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The wind farm site has to meet national, regional and local requirements. In most countries
special legislation is formulated for the environmental planning and the building aspects.
During the wind farm planning phase it is necessary to meet special zoning plan requirements.
For instance it may be decided that a specific zoning plan prohibit wind turbines or have laid
down maximum heights for buildings. Under such conditions it has to be discussed with the
local authorities͛ possible ways and procedures to adopt the zoning plan to make the
installation of a wind farm feasible.

In most European countries wind turbines have to be certified according to national or

international safety standards especially developed for wind turbines. Manufacturers have to
demonstrate approved certification by a valid ͞type-certificate͟.

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As example is shown in the tables x and y the investment and operational cost of a wind farm of 10 MW.
Wind turbines investment and operational costs are fully proportional with the installed capacity.
Investment costs per MW installed are about 150.395 Million rupees. And yearly operating cost
somewhat more than 4813 kRs. per MW. For a 10 MW wind farm, five wind turbines of 2 MW, the
investment and refurbishment costs are estimated as follows:
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Non-recurring investment costs Costs per wind turbine Wind farm cost
-Price level 2006- X 1000 PKR X 1000 PKR
Preparatory cost 12034 60,165.03
5 wind turbines of 2 MW each 240.394 1201.91
Wind farm civil and Electrical 24,032.74 120.161
infrastructure
Grid connection 24,032.74 120.161

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Refurbishment (at year 10) 30,037.96 150.190
-price level 2006-
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In most cases the wind farm is financed by a mix of own capital (equity) and bank loan. The
amount of equity is mostly limited to 20 to 40% of total investment. It may be interesting for
companies, investment groups and private person to invest in wind energy for possible tax
reduction benefits. A number of national governments in Europe have incentives to promote
electricity production by renewable sources. A well known incentive is tax reduction for
investments in ͞green͟ energy sources.


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During this phase all preparatory work is done needed to start the building phase. The wind
farm developer has to apply for all necessary permits and a power purchase agreement (PPA)
has to be settled for selling the produced wind energy. The contractors for delivery of the wind
turbines and corresponding civil and electrical infrastructure have to be selected. And last but
not least, the project financing has to be arranged.



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Based on the wind resource assessment the most promising wind farm locations are studied in
more detail. The computer models WasP, Wind farmer and WindPRO are some of the most well
known models to calculate the energy yield of planned wind farms.

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Not only wind speed and wind direction distribution are taken into account but also the terrain
orography; for instance a steep slope in the terrain will cause higher winds at the hill top. Such
details in the modeling make that wind turbines are optimal sited by assuring optimal exposure
to the wind. Generally the lay-out is optimized for exposure from the prevailing wind direction.

The mutual distance between the wind turbines has to meet the requirements of the
manufacturers. When siting the wind turbines too close this may result in a lowering of the
electricity production. Another, more serious, consequence may be the damaging of primary
structural parts caused by the wake of upwind sited wind turbines. The minimum distance
depends on the siting with regard to the prevailing wind direction. When siting perpendicular to
the prevailing wind direction the distance has to be at least four and otherwise minimal five
times the rotor diameter.

The gross energy yield of the wind farm is dominated by the local wind distribution and the
siting of the wind turbines. To calculate the net energy yield it is needed to determine the
anticipated losses. The gross annual energy yield has to be adjusted for:

î‘ Wake losses
î‘ Grid losses
î‘ Availability




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The wind speed down stream the rotor, the so-called wake, of the turbine is lower compared to
the undisturbed wind speed resulting in a somewhat reduced performance of down stream
sited wind turbines. The wake is characterized by extra turbulence which may lead to
premature damage of main structural components.

It is common practice to estimate the wind farm wake losses in the range of 3 to 4% of the
gross energy yield.




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Grid losses are defined as the electrical losses between wind turbine switchgear and public grid
connection, i.e. the location of the accountable metering. Depending on the lay-out the
electrical losses are in the range of 2 to 3% of the gross energy yield.

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The availability of a wind turbine is defined as the time the wind turbine is in operation or ready
for operation with external conditional, for instance too low wind or grid loss, preventing the
system from energy generation. The technical availability of the turbine is 97% or higher. This
figure is based on data of modern operational wind farms.



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The wind farm must comply with all regulations pertaining to environmental permitting. For the
environmental permit a site plan and various environmental studies, amongst others on plant
and animal life, are necessary.




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The noise impact of the wind turbines on the environment is one of the major permitting
issues. Wind turbines produce noise, mostly caused by the rotor blades and drive train. The
distance to nearby located dwellings has to be sufficient to assure that the noise level at the
house front is below the statutory norm.

Next to a noise assessment and visual impact study, most of the authorities demand safety and
risk assessment studies and shadow casting examinations. Shadow flickering is caused by
sunlight reflecting on non rotating blades or tower. Shadow casting is due to periodically ʹ
about once per second ʹ interrupting the sunlight by the rotating blades. Both flickering and
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shadow casting on dwellings and offices can be very annoying for people in there. Shadow
casting is not regulated by law.




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It is not allowed for wind turbines to rotate above roads or railway-tracks. In case icing on the
rotor blades and nacelle may cause danger for persons and material in the near environment
protective measures have to taken. A well-known measure is rotor standstill during icing up and
release for starting up after visual observation all ice has disappeared.



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Usually not each individual wind turbine is connected to the public grid separately. For the wind
farm an internal grid is designed and installed. The voltage of the internal grid is preferred at
medium voltage level, between 10 to 20 kV, in order to limit the losses. In most cases the wind
turbines are electrically connected in a loop to ensure redundancy. The wind turbine generators
operate mostly below 1000 V and each wind turbine is equipped with a transformer to
transform the power from low to medium voltage level. The wind turbine transformer is
located in the nacelle or tower base or in special housing next to the tower. It depends on the
public grid voltage if a central wind farm transformer is required to transform the medium
voltage to grid voltage or only a switchgear installation including accountable metering
provisions.

In some occasions no public grid to the wind farm is available or the existing grid has
insufficient capacity. If the grid has to be extended or reinforced for the wind farm only the
costs have to be born fully by the wind farm developer.



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As said before, for most sites in Europe wind energy is not yet cost effective. To promote wind
energy incentives are essential, the most applied promotion measures are:

î‘ Subsidies (governmental or local) on investments in renewable energy sources

î‘ Tax benefits for investing in renewable energy sources
î‘ Reduced interest tariffs on loans for renewable
î‘ Subsidies on the production of renewable energy (increased feed in tariff)
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In case the financing is based for the greater part on loans the financers may ask for additional
securities to guarantee that the loan can be repaid. The following securities can be asked for:

î‘ Power purchase agreement with settled minimum feed in tariff for the loan period
î‘ Guarantee that in years with moderate wind supply the income is sufficient for interest
and repayment
î‘ Warrantees on supplied components and wind farm performance (availability and
power curve) for the loan period
î‘ Machine breakdown and business interrupt insurance.
î‘ Service and maintenance contract


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The building phase includes all activities from commencement of the works up to take over of
the operational wind farm.



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Following selection of the contractors and financial close of the project the manufacturing and
building process commences.

For the required exceptional transport the contractor has to verify the accessibility of supply
routes towards site. Also adjacent to each wind turbine location sufficient space has to
available for storage of the main components, assembly of the rotor and placing of the building
crane. An area of approximately 50x80 square meter suits most applications. A 2MW wind
turbine requires at least a 600 tons caterpillar crane for hoisting of the tower parts, nacelle and
rotor.

Manufacturing and assembly of the main components takes fully place in the factories of the
wind turbine supplier.

The following assembled main components are shipped to site:

î‘ Foundation anchor or tube

î‘ Three or four tubular tower parts
î‘ Ground controller and switchgear
î‘ Wind farm SCADA system
î‘ Transformer (in case of ground based)
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î‘ Fully assembled nacelle (including gearbox, generator, yaw mechanism,

mechanical break, converter and if applicable the transformer))
î‘ Hub and rotor blades



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It is common use that the contractor assigns a number of so-called ͞hold and witness͟ points
for the client. These hold and witness moments are meant for the wind farm owner to audit the
progress and quality of work including the verification that the components are in conformity
with the specifications. Hold and witness moments are mostly planned immediately following a
project milestone, for instance a main component ready for transport to site. Mostly hold and
witness moments are link with installments.

The following hold and witness points are commonly used:

î‘ Start of component production including audit of contractors quality system

î‘ Factory acceptance test (FAT) of components ready for shipment
î‘ Site acceptance test (SAT) of components delivered at site
î‘ Several inspections during building at site, connected to milestones

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Starting from date of take-over the owner is responsible for daily operation of the wind farm.
Also from that date warrantee and maintenance contracts become valid. The technical and
economical life span of a wind farm is anticipated as 20 years.

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Wind turbines are designed to operate unmanned. For normal operation no operator has to be
available at site. It is common practice that medium and large size wind farms are equipped
with a wind farm control and monitoring system (SCADA). By means of modem or internet
remote access to the SCADA system is available. The SCADA system provides reports on energy
yield, availability and failure statistics.
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Main function of the daily operator is to verify regularly that the wind farm is in optimal
condition and performing according expectation. Also the operator is responsible that
maintenance and repairs are carried out accordance to contract and within reasonable time.


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Modern wind turbines require twice a year a preventive maintenance service. For a wind
turbine in the MW-segment a planned preventive maintenance overhaul requires 2 tot 3
working days for two engineers. The work comprehends amongst others inspection and testing
of the control and safety devices, repair of small defects, replacement or filling up of
consumables like bearing grease and gearbox lubrication. The gearbox is the most vulnerable
component and therefore subject of special interest during maintenance. At regular intervals oil
samples are taken and investigated on pollution, filters are replaced and gearings are inspected
on damages.

The number of repairs differ largely between individual wind turbines and wind farms. The
average yearly number of corrective actions per wind turbine is 3 to 4. Only those corrective
actions are counted that need a visit on site of a service engineer. The mean down time per
failure is 2 to 4 days. The cause of failure is equally divided between mechanical and electrical
problems.

Although not formally admitted by the manufacturers it is common practice that after 10 to 12
years of operation wind turbines need a major overhaul. The overhaul comprehends cleaning
and repair work of the rotor blades and refurbishment of the drive train, i.e. replacement of
bearings and if necessary replacement of gearbox parts.

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Pakistan is building wind power plants in Jhimpir, Gharo, Keti Bandar and Bin Qasim in Sindh.
The government of Pakistan decided to develop wind power energy sources due to problems
supplying energy to the southern coastal regions of Sindh and Baluchistan, the project was
undertaken with assistance from the government of China. Another area with potential is Swat
which shows good wind conditions
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These issues aside, the technology is generally believed to be environmentally sound and
fiscally viable. Especially if wind farms are combined with other renewable energy
sources, green energy could make up a bulk of the power grid. This could have a huge impact
on the environment and on society in general. Especially at the end of the twentieth century,
when a growing number of citizens began to call for energy reforms, wind farms hold a great
deal of promise.



1.‘ www.wisegeek.com
2.‘ www.wikipedia.com
3.‘ Leonardo Energy
Power Quality & utilization guide (Distribution Generation)


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