Hippocrates

Hippocrates of Kos (/hɪˈpɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος,

translit. Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; c. 460 – c. 370 BC), also known as
Hippocrates of Kos
Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles
(Classical Greece), who is considered one of the most outstanding
figures in the history of medicine. He is traditionally referred to as
the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions
to the field, such as the use of prognosis and clinical observation,
the systematic categorization of diseases, or the formulation of
humoural theory. The Hippocratic school of medicine
revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a
discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally
been associated (theurgy and philosophy), thus establishing
medicine as a profession.[1][2]

However, the achievements of the writers of the Hippocratic

Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions
of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus very little is
known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did.
Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient
physician and credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath, which is A conventionalized image in a
still relevant and in use today. He is also credited with greatly Roman "portrait" bust (19th-century
advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up engraving)
the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing
Born c. 460 BC
practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other
works.[1][3] Kos, Ancient Greece
Died c. 370 BC
(aged approximately
90)
Contents
Larissa, Ancient
Biography Greece
Hippocratic theory Occupation Physician
Crisis Era Classical Greece
Professionalism
Direct contributions to medicine
Hippocratic Corpus
Hippocratic Oath
Legacy
Image
Legends
Genealogy
Namesakes
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Biography
Historians agree that Hippocrates was born
around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of
Kos; other biographical information, however, is
likely to be untrue.[5]

Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek

physician,[6] was Hippocrates' first biographer
and is the source of most personal information
about him. Later biographies are in the Suda of
the 10th century AD, and in the works of John
Tzetzes, Aristotle's Politics, which date from the
4th century BC.[7]

Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' father was Illustration of the story of Hippocrates refusing the
Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was presents of the Achaemenid Emperor Artaxerxes, who
Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of was asking for his services. Painted by Girodet.[4]
Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-
in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to
Galen, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates' true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a
son named Hippocrates (Hippocrates III and IV).[8][9]

Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather (Hippocrates I), and studied
other subjects with Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos,
and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. Plato mentions Hippocrates in two
of his dialogues: in Protagoras, Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad";[10][11]
while in Phaedrus, Plato suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thought that a complete knowledge of
the nature of the body was necessary for medicine.[12] Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine
throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. Several different
accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in Larissa, at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he
lived to be well over 100.[9]

Hippocratic theory

It is thus with regard to the disease called Sacred: it appears to me to be nowise more divine
nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other
affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder....

— Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease

Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not
because of superstition and gods.[13][14][15][16] Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of
allying philosophy and medicine.[13] He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and
arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental
factors, diet, and living habits. Indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the
Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is
now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.[14][15][16]

Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with disease.
The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost
nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of
humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible
series of symptoms.[17] The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying
general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis. It
could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.[18][19]

Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine. Now, the
physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the
Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates' day has caused serious criticism over their
denunciations; for example, the French doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation
upon death".[20]

Analogies have been drawn between Thucydides' historical method and the Hippocratic method, in
particular the notion of "human nature" as a way of explaining foreseeable repetitions for future usefulness,
for other times or for other cases.[21]

Crisis

Another important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a

crisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the
illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to
death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would
make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and
then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend
to occur on critical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time
after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far Asklepieion on Kos
from a critical day, a relapse might be expected. Galen believed
that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that
it predated him.[22]

Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power
of nature" ("vis medicatrix naturae" in Latin). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the
power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (physis).[23] Hippocratic therapy focused on simply
easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital
importance."[24] In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle,
and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever
used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing balms were sometimes employed.[25]

Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be
wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.[25][26] Generalized treatments he
prescribed include fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar. Hippocrates once said that
"to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness." However, potent drugs were used on certain
occasions.[27] This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as
broken bones which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area.
The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end.
One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on prognosis. At Hippocrates' time,
medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an
illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.[16][28]

Professionalism

Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism,

discipline, and rigorous practice.[30] The Hippocratic work On the
Physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt,
honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic
physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he
followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel,
instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of
bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room.[31] He
even kept his fingernails to a precise length.[32]
A number of ancient Greek surgical
The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines
tools. On the left is a trephine; on the
of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that
right, a set of scalpels. Hippocratic
physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a medicine made good use of these
very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be tools.[29]
passed down and employed by other physicians.[9] Hippocrates
made careful, regular note of many symptoms including
complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.[28] He is said to have measured a patient's pulse
when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying.[33] Hippocrates extended clinical
observations into family history and environment.[34] "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection
and observation."[16]

Direct contributions to medicine

Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases
and medical conditions.[35] He is given credit for the first
description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign
in chronic lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease.
For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as
"Hippocratic fingers".[36] Hippocrates was also the first physician
to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously
alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act Clubbing of fingers in a patient with
Eisenmenger's syndrome; first
II, Scene iii. of Henry V.[37][38]
described by Hippocrates, clubbing
Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, is also known as "Hippocratic
fingers".
endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation,
relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and
convalescence." [28][39] Another of Hippocrates' major
contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment
and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain
relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery.[40] Hippocrates was the first
documented chest surgeon and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to
drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.[40]
The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human rectum and the treatment
thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be
caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced
ways.[41][42] Cautery and excision are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred
methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying
various salves are suggested as well.[43][44] Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning,
strangling, and excising."[41] Also, some of the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy outlined in the
Corpus are still in use.[41][42] For example, the uses of the rectal speculum, a common medical device, are
discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.[42] This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to
endoscopy.[45][46] Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise to treat diseases
such as diabetes, what is today called lifestyle medicine.

Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let food be your medicine, and medicine
be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine".[47] Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact
origins remain unknown.[48][49]

In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the Saint Catherine's Monastery in
South Sinai, they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript also
contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe.[50]

Hippocratic Corpus
The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum) is a
collection of around seventy early medical works collected in
Alexandrian Greece.[51] It is written in Ionic Greek. The question
of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the
treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered,[52] but
current debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as
potentially authored by him. Because of the variety of subjects,
writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic
Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins
numbers the authors at nineteen).[27] The corpus came to be
known by his name because of his fame, possibly all medical
works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in
Alexandria.[10][31][53] The volumes were probably produced by
his students and followers.[54]

The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research,

notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in
A 12th-century Byzantine manuscript
of the Oath in the form of a cross
no particular order.[52][55] These works were written for different
audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes
written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can
be found between works in the Corpus. [56] Notable among the treatises of the Corpus are The Hippocratic
Oath; The Book of Prognostics; On Regimen in Acute Diseases; Aphorisms; On Airs, Waters and Places;
Instruments of Reduction; On The Sacred Disease; etc.[27]

Hippocratic Oath
The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates
in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the
most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the authenticity of the document's author has
come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for
other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals.[57] Such derivatives are
regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice.[10][58][59]

Legacy
Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine
named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him,
he is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine".[60] His
contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his
death the advancement stalled.[61] So revered was Hippocrates that
his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon
and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a
long time.[10][24] The centuries after Hippocrates' death were
marked as much by retrograde movement as by further
Mural painting showing Galen and advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the
Hippocrates. 12th century; Anagni, practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according to
Italy
Fielding Garrison.[62]

After Hippocrates, the next significant physician was Galen, a

Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine,
making some advancements, but also some regressions.[63][64] In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world
adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies.[65] After the European
Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th
century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas
Sydenham, William Heberden, Jean-Martin Charcot and William Osler. Henri Huchard, a French
physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."[66]

Image

According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates".[67] Concerning
his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern
and forbidding".[10] He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical.
Francis Adams describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."[17]

His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled
face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts
of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.[61]
Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an authority
on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of
mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit."[66] "His
figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according to A Short History of Medicine,
inspiring the medical profession since his death.[68]

Legends
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville reports (incorrectly) that
Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" [sic],
and recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter. She was
transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess
Diana, and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges
three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a
knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of
the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous
dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend of
Melusine.[69]

Genealogy
Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage
directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles.[27]
According to Tzetzes's Chiliades, the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II
Engraving: bust of Hippocrates by
is:[70]
Paulus Pontius after Peter Paul
1. Hippocrates II. Rubens, 1638
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostratus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
A mosaic of Hippocrates on the floor
32768. Asklepius
of the Asclepieion of Kos, with
Asklepius in the middle, 2nd–3rd
Namesakes century

Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after

Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those. Hippocratic face is the change
produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the
like. Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic
succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench
(a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices
named after Hippocrates.[71] Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes. Risus
sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. The most
severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.[72]

In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the
Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University
Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of
"HIgh PerfOrmance Computing for Robot-AssisTEd Surgery") is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School
of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center,
"to develop advanced planning, simulation, and
execution technologies for the next generation of
computer-assisted surgical robots."[73] Both the
Canadian Hippocratic Registry (http://www.hippocrati
cregistry.com) and American Hippocratic Registry are
organizations of physicians who uphold the principles
of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through
changing social times.

See also
Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and Medicine

Notes
1. Garrison 1966, pp. 92–93
2. Nuland 1988, p. 5
3. Garrison 1966, p. 96
4. Pinault, Jody Rubin (1992). Hippocratic
Lives and Legends (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=8nMVlrkspnIC&pg=PA79). Brill. Statue of Hippocrates in front of the Mayne
p. 79. ISBN 978-90-04-09574-8. Medical School in Brisbane
5. Nuland 1988, p. 4
6. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 2006
7. Aristotle. "Politics Book VII" (http://classics.m
it.edu/Aristotle/politics.7.seven.html). Internet
Classics Archive.
8. Adams 1891, p. 19
9. Margotta 1968, p. 66
10. Martí-Ibáñez 1961, pp. 86–87
11. Plato 380 B.C.
12. Plato 360 B.C. 270c
13. Adams 1891, p. 4
14. Jones 1868, p. 11
15. Nuland 1988, pp. 8–9
16. Garrison 1966, pp. 93–94
17. Adams 1891, p. 15
18. Margotta 1968, p. 67
19. Leff & Leff 1956, p. 51
20. Jones 1868, pp. 12–13
21. "L'influence de la médecine hippocratique
sur la Guerre du Péloponnèse de
Thucydide" (https://www.academia.edu/3477
9296). www.academia.edu. Retrieved
2019-04-18.
22. Jones 1868, pp. 46, 48, 59
23. Garrison 1966, p. 99
24. Margotta 1968, p. 73
25. Garrison 1966, p. 98
26. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 35
27. Tuke 1911
28. Garrison 1966, p. 97
29. Adams 1891, p. 17
30. Garrison 1966
31. Margotta 1968, p. 64
32. Rutkow 1993, pp. 24–25
33. Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 88
34. Margotta 1968, p. 68
35. Starr, Michelle (18 December 2017).
"Ancient Poo Is The First-Ever Confirmation
Hippocrates Was Right About Parasites" (htt
ps://www.sciencealert.com/hippocrates-wor
ms-confirmed-ancient-greek-faeces).
Science Alert. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
36. Schwartz, Richards & Goyal 2006
37. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 40
38. Margotta 1968, p. 70
39. Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 90
40. Major 1965
41. Jóhannsson 2005, p. 11
42. Jani 2005, pp. 24–25
43. Jóhannsson 2005, p. 12
44. Mann 2002, pp. 1, 173
45. Shah 2002, p. 645
46. NCEPOD 2004, p. 4
47. Chishti, Hakim (1988). The Traditional
Healer's Handbook. Vermont: Healing Arts
Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-89281-438-1.
48. Cardenas, Diana (2013). "Let not thy food be
confused with thy medicine: The Hippocratic
misquotation" (https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/258099432). e-SPEN Journal.
49. King, Helen (2020). Hippocrates now : the
"father of medicine" in the internet age.
London New York, NY: Bloomsbury
Academic. pp. 105–109. ISBN 978-1-350-
00591-4.
50. GIBBENS, SARAH (2017). "Text by 'Father
of Medicine' Found in Remote Egyptian
Monastery" (https://www.nationalgeographic.
com/history/article/hippocrates-manuscript-si
nai-palimpsests-st-catherines-monastery-sp
d). nationalgeographic.
51. Iniesta, Ivan (20 April 2011), "Hippocratic
Corpus", BMJ, 342: d688,
doi:10.1136/bmj.d688 (https://doi.org/10.113
6%2Fbmj.d688), S2CID 220115185 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22011518
5)
52. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 27
53. Smith, Wesley D. (2002). "The Hippocratic
Tradition" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
1018190846/http://www.biusante.parisdesca
rtes.fr/ressources/pdf/medicina-hippo2.pdf)
(PDF). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/ressources/pdf/
medicina-hippo2.pdf) (PDF) on 2017-10-18.
Retrieved 18 October 2017.
54. Hanson 2006
55. Rutkow 1993, p. 23
56. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 28
57. "International Code of Medical Ethics" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20080920142540/ht
tps://www.wma.net/news-post/modern-physi
cians-pledge-approved-by-world-medical-as
sociation/). World Medical Association.
Archived from the original (https://www.wma.
net/policies-post/wma-international-code-of-
medical-ethics/) on 2008-09-20.
58. Jones 1868, p. 217
59. Buqrat Aur Uski Tasaneef by Hakim Syed
Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India,
1966, pp. 56–62.
60. Jouanna 1999, p. 42: "Hippocrates was
neither the Father of Medicine nor the
founder of the Coan school, but he did
manage to confer an exceptionally lustrous
reputation upon this school through his
teaching". Though antiquated, the traditional
title remains in wide use among scholars:
see, e.g., Jouanna 1999, pp. xi, xii, 4, 229,
348; King 2008, p. 322; Smith 1998.
61. Garrison 1966, p. 100
62. Garrison 1966, p. 95
63. Jones 1868, p. 35
64. West, John B. (Spring 2014). "Galen and the
beginnings of Western physiology". Am J
Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 307 (2):
L121–L128.
doi:10.1152/ajplung.00123.2014 (https://doi.
org/10.1152%2Fajplung.00123.2014).
PMID 24879053 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/24879053).
65. Leff & Leff 1956, p. 102
66. Garrison 1966, p. 94
67. Jones 1868, p. 38
68. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 29
69. Anthony Bale, trans., The Book of Marvels
and Travels, Oxford 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-
960060-1, p. 15 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=KqonpxzxlFoC&pg=PA15) and
footnote
70. Adams 1891
71. Fishchenko & Khimich 1986
72. "The dilemma of balding solve by father of
medicine Hippocrates". Healthy Hair
Highlights News. 15 August 2011.
73. Project Hippocrates 1995

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Further reading
Adams, Francis (translator) (1891) (1994) [1891], Works by Hippocrates (http://classics.mit.e
du/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html), The Internet Classics Archive: Daniel C. Stevenson,
Web Atomics © 1994–2000.
Coulter, Harris L (1975), Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought: The
Patterns Emerge: Hippocrates to Paracelsus, 1, Washington, DC: Weehawken Book
Craik, Elizabeth M. (ed., trans., comm.), The Hippocratic Treatise On glands (Leiden; Boston:
Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36).
Di Benedetto, Vincenzo (1986), Il medico e la malattia. La scienza di Ippocrate, Turin:
Einaudi
Edelstein, Ludwig (1943), The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation,
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
Enache, Cătălin (2019), Ontology and Meteorology in Hippocrates' On Regimen,
Mnemosyne 72 (2), 173-96 (https://brill.com/abstract/journals/mnem/72/2/article-p173_1.xml
#affiliation0).
Goldberg, Herbert S. (1963), Hippocrates, Father of Medicine, New York: Franklin Watts
Heidel, William Arthur (1941), "Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method", Nature, 149
(3781): 422–423, Bibcode:1942Natur.149..422J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942Nat
ur.149..422J), doi:10.1038/149422a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F149422a0),
S2CID 4136630 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4136630)
Hippocrates (1990), Smith, Wesley D (ed.), Pseudepigraphic writings : letters, embassy,
speech from the altar, decree, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09290-7
Jori, Alberto (1996), Medicina e medici nell'antica Grecia. Saggio sul 'Perì téchnes'
ippocratico, Bologna (Italy): il Mulino.
Kalopothakes, M.D. (1857), An essay on Hippocrates (http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pag
eviewer-idx?
c=moa&cc=moa&idno=akk6471.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=3),
Philadelphia: King and Baird Printers.
Langholf, Volker (1990), Medical theories in Hippocrates : early texts and the "Epidemics",
Berlin: de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-011956-5
Levine, Edwin Burton (1971), Hippocrates, New York: Twayne
Lopez, Francesco (2004), Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Percorsi di ragionamento e
testimonianze. Vol. I (https://books.google.com/books?id=A4fGB7Fzj_UC), Cosenza (Italy):
Edizioni Pubblisfera, ISBN 978-88-88358-35-2.
Moon, Robert Oswald (1923), Hippocrates and His Successors in Relation to the
Philosophy of Their Time, New York: Longmans, Green and Co
Petersen, William F. (1946), Hippocratic Wisdom for Him Who Wishes to Pursue Properly
the Science of Medicine: A Modern Appreciation of Ancient Scientific Achievement,
Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas
Phillips, E.D. (1973), Aspects of Greek Medicine, New York: St. Martin's Press
Pliny the Elder, Natural History: Book XXIX., translated by John Bostock. See original text in
Perseus program (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+29.2).
 Sargent, II, Frederick (1982), Hippocratic heritage : a history of ideas about weather and
human health (https://archive.org/details/hippocraticherit0000sarg), New York: Pergamon
Press, ISBN 978-0-08-028790-4
Smith, Wesley D. (1979), Hippocratic Tradition, Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-
1209-7
Temkin, Owsei (1991), Hippocrates in a world of pagans and Christians (https://archive.org/d
etails/hippocratesinwor00owse), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-
8018-4090-6 online free to borrow (https://archive.org/details/hippocratesinwor00owse)

External links
Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Hippocrates
Works by Hippocrates (http://galen.bbaw.de/epubl/online/editionencmg_01.html) at the
Corpus Medicorum Graecorum (http://cmg.bbaw.de/)
The Harvard Classics Volume 38 with "The Oath of Hippocrates", project gutenberg (http://w
ww.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5694)
Hippocrates collection (https://onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en/languages/english/hippocra
tes-collection-315), full works in English, at One More Library (https://onemorelibrary.com/ind
ex.php/en/)
Works by Hippocrates (https://librivox.org/author/8284) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Hippocrates (http://www.iep.utm.edu/hippocra/) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
Works by or about Hippocrates (https://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-5643) in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
First printed editions of the Hippocratic Collection (https://web.archive.org/web/2012052321
1351/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/hipp_va.htm) at the Bibliothèque
Interuniversitaire de Médecine of Paris (BIUM) studies and digitized texts by the BIUM
(Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris) (http://www.bium.parisd
escartes.fr) see its digital library Medic@ (https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/htt
p://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm).
List of works by Hippocrates (http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/hipges.html), with digitized
editions, manuscripts and translations.

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