AN INTRODUCTION TO

NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS
 GEOPHYSICS AND

ASTROPHYSICS MONOGRAPHS

AN INTERNATIONAL SERIES OF FUNDAMENTAL TEXTBOOKS

Editor

B. M. MCCORMAC, Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory, Palo Alto, Calif, U.S.A.

Editorial Board

R. GRANT ATHAY. High Altitude Observatory, Boulder, Colo., U.S.A.

W. S. BROECKER. Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Palisades, New York, U.S.A.
P. 1. COLEMAN, JR., University of California, Los Angeles, Calif, U.S.A.
G. T. CSANADY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass., U.S.A.
D. M. HUNTEN, University o/Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., U.S.A.
C. DE JAGER, The Astronomical Institute, Utrecht. The Netherlands
J. KLECZEK, Czechoslovak Academy olSciences, Ondtejov, Czechoslovakia
R. LUST, President Max-Planck Gesellschaltfur Forderung der lVissenschalten, Munchen, F.R.G.
R. E. MUNN, University olToronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada
Z. SVESTKA, The Astronomical Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
G. WEILL, Service d'Aeronomie, Verrieres-Ce, Buisson, France

VOLUME 18
 AN INTRODUCTION
TO
NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS
The Formation and the Evolution of Matter in the Universe

JEAN AUDOUZE
lnstitut d'Astrophysique de Paris, France

and

SYLVIE VA UCLAI R
DAPHE, Ohservatoire de Meudon, France
and lnstitut d'Astrophysique, Paris

D, REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY

DORDRECHT: HOLLAND/BOSTON: U.S.A.
LONDON: ENGLAND
Library of Congre~ Cataloging in Publication Data

Audouzc. Jean
An introduction to nuclear astrophysics.

(Geophysics and astrophysics monographs; v. 18)

En!. and updated translation of L'Astrophysique nuclt\aire.
Includes bibliographies and index.
\. Nuclear astrophysics. I. Vauclair, Sylvie, joint author. II. Title. III. Series.
QB464.A9313 1979 523.01'9'7 79-20752
ISBN-13: 978-90-277-1053-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-9477-5
DO I: 10.1007/978-94-009-9477-5

Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company,

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Copyright © 1980 by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD IX

INTRODUCTION xi
XXI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTER I / THE OBSERVATIONAL BASIS OF NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS

1.1. The Importance of the Four Fundamental Interactions 1

1.2. A Brief Description of the Observed Universe 3

CHAPTER II / THE EVOLUTION OF MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE 21

11.1. The Origin of the Universe 21
11.1.1. The Hadron Era 24
II.I.2. The Lepton Era 24
II. 1.3. The Radiation Era 24
11.1.4. The Stellar Era 25
II.2. Stellar Evolution 26
II.2.1. The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 26
11.2.2. Stellar Evolution 28

CHAPTER III/THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE OBSERVABLE

UNIVERSE 33
IIl.1. Techniques for Abundance Determination 33
IIl.I.I. The Direct Methods 33
III. 1.2. The Indirect Methods 33
111.2. The Abundances of the Elements in the Universe 38
111.3. Main-Sequence Peculiar Stars 42

CHAPTER IV / THERMONUCLEAR REACTIONS AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

IN STELLAR INTERIORS 45
IV.1. Nuclear Reactions: Generalities 45
IV.2. Nuclear Reaction Rates 46
IV.3. Hydrogen Burning 51
IV.3.1. The Proton-Proton Chain or PPI Chain 51
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS

IV.3.2.
The Proton Chains with a He Catalyst, or PPII and PPIII
Chains 53
IV.3.3. The CNO Cycles 54
IVA. Helium Burning 55
IV.5. Hydrostatic C, 0, and Si Burning 57
IV.6. Conclusion 58

CHAPTER V / EXPLOSIVE NUCLEOSYNTHESIS IN STARS 60

V.l. Supernovae 60
V.l.l. The Fe Photodisintegration Mechanism 64
V.l.2. The C Detonation Mechanism 64
V.I.3. The Neutrino Transport Mechanism 65
V.lA. Deceleration of the Central Pulsar 65
V.2. Other Explosive Objects or Explosive Stages 67
V.2.I. The Helium Flashes 67
V.2.2. The Novae Outbursts 68
V.2.3. Explosions of Supermassive Stars 69
V.3. The Explosive Nucleosynthesis 70
VA. The Main Results of the Explosive Nucleosynthesis 74
VA.I. Explosive Burning in H and He Burning Zones 74
VA.2. Explosive Nucleosynthesis in C, 0, and Si Burning Zones 75

CHAPTER VI/FORMA TION OF THE HEA VY ELEMENTS: S, r, AND p

PROCESSES 80
VI.l. Abundances of the Heavy Elements-Processes of Neutron Capture 81
VI.2. Neutron Capture Reactions 85
VI.3. The S Process 86
VI.3.I. The Main Neutron Sources for the S Process 86
VI.3.2. The s Process Nucleosynthesis 87
VIA. The r Process 89
VI. 5. The p Process 92
VI.5.I. Weak Interaction Mechanism 93
VI.5.2. Spallation Reactions 93
VI.5.3. Thermonuclear Reactions 94

CHAPTER VII / NUCLEOSYNTHESIS OF THE LIGHT ELEMENTS 97

VII.1. The Abundance of the Light Elements 97
VII.2. The Spallation Reactions 100
VIl.3. Production of Li, Be, B, by the Galactic Cosmic Rays 102
VIlA. Light Element Production in Stellar Objects 108
VIlA.i. Light Element Production in Supernovae Explosions 108
VII.4.2. Other Stellar Sites to Produce 7Li 109
VII.5. The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis 109
 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

VII.5.l. The Basic Assumptions llO

VII.5.2. The Standard Model 110
VII.6. Conclusion 113

CHAPTER VIII! NUCLEOCHRONOLOGIES AND THE FORMATION OF THE

SOLAR SYSTEM 115
VIII. I. Astronomical Chronologies 116
VIII.2. Nucleochronologies 118
VIII.2.1 Duration of the Nucleosynthesis: Long Lifetime
Radionuclides 121
VIII.2.2. The Short Lived Isotopes (AT» 1) 123
VIII. 3. Isotopic Anomalies in Carbonaceous Chondrites 128
VIII.4. The Astrophysical Implications of the Anomalies 132
VIII.5. Conclusion 135

CHAPTER IX / CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF GALAXIES 137

IX.l. Observational Abundance Distribution 137
IX.2. The Ingredients of the Galactic Chemical Evolution 140
IX.2.l. Parameters Related to the Stellar Populations 140
IX.2.2. Dynamical Effects: Inflow of External Gas;
Inhomogeneities 143
IX.3. Evolution of the Solar Neighborhood 144
IX.3.l. The Simple Model 144
IX.3.2. Further Models of Evolution 147
IX.3.2.l. Variable Initial Mass Function Models (VIM F) 147
IX.3.2.2. Prompt Initial Enrichment (PIE model) 147
IX.3.2.3. Metal Enhanced Star Formation (MESF) 147
IX.3.2.4. Accretion or Infall of External Gas 148
IX.4. Numerical Models with No Instant Recycling 149
IX.5. Conclusion: Chemical Evolution of Galaxies 152

CONCLUSION 155

APPENDIX 159
Appendix AI. Some Fundamental Constants 159
Appendix All. Some Astronomical Constants 159
Appendix AlII. Some Quantities Associated with One Electron-Volt 160
Appendix B. Atomic Mass Excesses 161

INDEX OF SUBJECTS 165

 FOREWORD

This textbook represents an extended version of a short monograph I'Astrophysique

Nucleaire written by both of us and published by les Presses Universitaires de France
in 1972. The text of the present work has been enlarged (the material from the French
monograph represents about 33% of this book) and updated because of the impressive
progress achieved in this fast moving field. This book, which is also largely based on
lectures presented to many students, mainly those of Ecole Polytechnique for Jean
Audouze and those of Universite Paris VII for Sylvie Vauclair, is intended for under-
graduate (astronomy major or non major) and graduate students interested in Astro-
physics and also to a more general audience since no specific expertise in astronomy,
physics and mathematics is required to fruitfully read this text.
We are both grateful to our many students who have been attending our lectures
and forced us to shape the material presented here. We acknowledge the invaluable
help of Mmes Annie Dao, Marie-Claude Pantalacci and Madeleine Steinberg in
the material presentation of the text. We would like to thank Dr. Billy McCormac,
the editor of the collection, and Dr. Gerard Vauclair for their critical comments on
the manuscript. Last but not least, we thank the D. Reidel Publishing Company
for their patience.

JEAN AUDOUZE AND SYLVIE VAUCLAIR

Paris and M eudon
December 1978

ix
 INTRODUCTION

Man has always been intrigued by his environment and by his relationship with it.
During the first ages of Humanity this relationship was described or debated by
religions or superstitions and not by what we designate under the name of sciences.
But, since the very first ages, men have adopted the scientific attitude which is to
describe an environment in terms of interactions between the various constituents of
what is believed to be the Universe. This is why astronomy, which tries to describe
the whole Universe and to understand its evolution, has been the first science to
emerge from the human mind. During antiquity men already knew the difference
between stars and planets. More recently, the important (and controversial at the
time) contributions of Copernicus and Galileo (to choose among the most famous
astronomers) are quite well known.
Man has spent more time penetrating the nature of the microcosm than making
a rough description of the macrocosm. If the word and the concept of the atom is
indeed ancient (atoms were imagined by Greek philosophers such as Democritus),
their study in the scientific sense has only been initiated during the 19th century:
one must wait for the works of Thompson and Rutherford to get into the tremendous
and complex world of the atoms themselves which are composed of almost empty
spaces where electrons jingle around extremely small and dense nuclei. At present,
many physicists devote their scientific endeavors to try and discover what is the
actual basic stone (if any!) of our Universe: the atomic nuclei are constituted by
nucleons (protons and neutrons). Current theories on the nature of the nucleons
themselves assume that they are formed by a combination of three more elementary
or basic particles, the quarks. Research on such particles is presently the subject
of very refined and difficult experiments: big accelerators such as those of CERN,
Pulkovo, Argonne, ... are daily creating strange particles, but have not yet un-
ravelled their secret.
Nuclear astrophysics attempts to describe how and where matter has been formed.
This subset of astrophysics relies heavily on nuclear physics which is a microcosmic
description of the matter. In this monograph we attempt to show that the nature
and the evolution of macro-objects such as galaxies or stars are directly related to
the physical behavior of infinitesimal entities such as atoms and their constituents,
electrons, nuclei and nucleons, i.e. protons and neutrons.
One of the best examples of this correlation is the fact that the luminosity of more
than 90% of the visible stars (including the Sun) is due to the release of nuclear
energy. It is quite obvious in the case of the Sun that other sources of energy are
unable to explain its rather old age (~4.6 X 109 yr). The discovery of nuclear energy
is a direct consequence of the famous Einstein equation which relates mass to energy
xi
xii INTRODUCTION

(E = mc 2 where c is the light velocity i.e., 3 x 10 10 cm S-l) and of the discovery

made by Aston by mass spectrometry techniques that one He nucleus weighs less
than four protons. Therefore, when four protons transform into one He nucleus
at the center of the Sun, the energy released by such a fusion is sufficient to account
for the solar luminosity and it can last for about 10 10 yr (Chapter IV). Similarly,
the explosion of supernovae releases energies as large as 10 51 erg (i.e. about 10 10
times the energy released by the Sun during one year. As we will see in Chapter V
these explosions might be triggered by mechanisms such as the energy transport
by neutrinos. All throughout the monograph there will be a recurrent cycle between
the study of the physics of massive objects such as stars (R '" 10 10 cm) or galaxies
(R '" 3 x 1022 em) and the study of nuclear physics which governs the behavior of
micro-entities, such as nucleons and nuclei (R '" 10- 13 em). To introduce the reader
to this exercise of a double look at very large and very tiny objects, we have gathered
in Table I the relative dimensions of some of the different constituents of the observ-
able matter while Figures 1,2, and 3 respectively show a galaxy (composed of about
1011 stars) a small cluster of stars and a view of a 1 J1Irl meteoretical crystal of silicate
mineral obtained by electron microprobe techniques. The purpose ofthis monograph,
therefore, is to try and offer a simple and hopefully consistent view on the formation
of the different nuclei, which constitute entities as diverse as our bodies, the Earth
and all the celestial objects. It will be seen that such studies of the so-called nucleo-
synthetic processes also suggest answers to various important problems such as the
age and the possible origin of the Universe, the evolution of stars and galaxies ...
The flow of this monograph is as follows: Chapter I describes the observational
basis of Nuclear Astrophysics, namely an overview of the observed Universe in
relation with the four basic interactions of Physics (gravitation, nuclear, electrical
and weak interactions) and the composition of the observed Universe. Chapter II
deals with the evolution of matter in the Universe; some features relevant to cosmol-
ogy are recalled together with a brief review of the stellar and galactic evolution
and a quick survey of the main nucleosynthetic processes and the regions of the
Universe where these processes take place. Chapter III reviews the abundance of
the chemical elements, i.e. the chemical composition of the observed Universe and
describes the techniques by which these abundances are determined. The abundances
of chemically peculiar stars (Ap and Am stars) are recalled as well as the non nuclear
processes (diffusion of the elements) responsible for these anomalies. Chapter IV
provides the reader with the principles of nuclear physics which are needed to com-
pute the rate of fusion reactions responsible for the nucleosynthesis of elements
from H to Fe. Chapter V analyses the end of stellar evolution, in particular, the
mechanisms responsible for the supernovae and novae explosion. The bulk of this
chapter is devoted to the so-called explosive nucleosynthesis which takes place
during these events and which is able to explain the nucleosynthesis of rare nuclear
species such as 13C, 15N, 170, 25Mg, 26Mg, 29Si, 30Si ... Chapter VI describes
the formation of the elements heavier than Fe which are synthetized by neutron
absorption reactions. The main nuclear features of the neutron induced reactions
such as the principles ofthe slow and rapid neutron absorption processes are recalled.
A few words are said about the nucleosynthesis of p process elements which are
both the rarest and the most proton rich heavy elements. Chapter VII reviews the
 INTRODUCTION xiii

TABLEI
Logarithmic scale (cm)

30
The furthest detected radio galaxy

The furthest detected visible galaxy

25

Radius of the galaxy: IS kpc

20
Radius of a stellar cluster
distance of the nearest star I pc = 3 x 10'8 em
I light-year = IO'8 cm
IS
Distance Earth-Sun: I astronomical-unit = 1.5 x 10 13 em
Radius of the Sun: 7 x 10'0 em
Distance Earth-Moon: 3.8 x 10'0 em
10
Radius of the Earth: 6370 km
Radius of the Moon: 1700 km
Radius of a neutron star: "" 10 km
5

The Man"" 170cm

o
The Ant '" 0.3 cm

-5
The smallest protozoa I /lm = 10- 4 em
The atomic radius I A = 10- 8 em
-10

The nuclear radius 1 fm = 10- 13 cm

-IS
xiv INTRODUCTION

Fig. I. A cluster of galaxies in the region of 73 Leo. The size of this cluster is of the order of 3 x 106
light years. (Photograph kindly lent by the Observatoire de HaUle Provence du Centre National de 10 Re-
cherche Scientifique, France.)
 INTRODU CTION xv

Fig. 2a. A globular cluster of stars: NGC 5272. This cluster of about 105 to 106 stars has been formed
like the 120 other globular clusters in the very early stages of the Galaxy.
xvi INTRODUCTION

Fig. 2b. An open cluster of stars : h Per (NGC 869- 884). This relatively young cluster is inside the Galac-
tic Disk. (Photographs kindly lent by the Observatoire de Haute Provence du Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, France.)
 INTRODUCTION xvii

Fig. 3. Micron size crystal of a lunar feldspar collected in the Luna 16 mission. This crystal has been
submitted to the solar particle irradiation: the amorpheous coating and the rounded habit is due to the
solar wind, especially the H and He components of about I keV (10 3 eV) per nucleon. Inside the crystal
damage tracks induced by heavy ion components (especially Fe) of the solar cosmic rays are noticeable.
This specific crystal has been submitted to a flux of a bout 10 10 heavy ions cm- 2 (energy ofa few MeV
per nucleon) . This very detailed plate has been obtained and kindly let by the Orsay group (M. Maurette
et a/.) and has been taken with the High Voltage Electron Microscope of the Institut d'Optique Electronique
du C.N.R.S. (Toulouse, France).
~viii INTRODUCTION

nucleosynthesis of the lightest elements with atomic masses below 12 (D, 3He, 4He,
5Li, 7Li, 9Be, lOB, and lIB). Some of these elements especially Li, Be and Bare

°
formed by spallation reactions induced by rapid (a few MeV) protons or alpha par-
ticles impinging on C, N or nuclei. These reactions which are presented in this chap-
ter occur quite naturally in the interaction between the galactic cosmic rays and the
interstellar medium. At present, the hypothesis which is the most successful in explain-
ing the formation of D, 3He, 4He and 7Li is the nucleosynthesis occurring during
the primordial phases of the Universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis). The Big Bang
model assumes that the Universe has been very dense and very hot at its birth.
Chapter VIII summarizes the methods by which the age of the Universe can be
estimated: using the Universe expansion (Hubble age), the position of the stars
of the oldest stellar clusters (the globular clusters) in the luminosity-superficial
temperature (Hertzsprung-Russell) diagrams, and finally the so-called nucleo-
cosmochronological methods based on the search for abundances of long lived
radioactive nuclei such as U, Th, Pu and also 1291. Various isotope anomalies have
been discovered in some mineralogic phases of carbonaceous chondrites such as
the Allende meteorite which fell in Mexico in 1971. These anomalies concern 0,
Mg, Ca, Nd, Ba ... and can be considered both as big puzzles for all the nucleo-
synthetic theories and as possible clues to understand the formation of the solar
system. The present isotope determinations as well as a few scenarios proposed to
try to explain these determinations are given at the end of this chapter. Finally, in
Chapter IX the studies of the nucleosynthesis are used to attempt a description of
the galactic evolution. The evolution of the density of the stars, of the interstellar
gas and of the abundances of the different chemical elements is reviewed as well
as the influence of important parameters such as the rate of star formation and the
nucleosynthetic power of the stars of a given mass.
At the end of this brief introduction we would like to stress the novelty of the field
covered by this monograph. It was only in 1938 that the physicists Bethe and von
Weiszacker began to apply the discovery of the large energy released by nuclear
reactions to the physics of the Sun and related stars. The field has indeed become
very active after the works of Hoyle in (1946) and Salpeter (1951) which preceded the
influential reviews of Burbidge et al. (1957) and of Cameron (1957) on the nucleo-
synthesis occurring in stellar interiors. At about the same time (1949) Gamow tried
to push the idea that a large part of the nucleosynthesis occurred during the birth
of the Universe in the frame of the Big Bang cosmology. Otherwise, the major develop-
ments of nuclear astrophysics are much more recent: for instance, explosive nucleo-
synthesis has been studied and developed after 1965 (around 1970); the origin of the
light elements of atomic mass A < 12 has only been understood around 1973; the
nucleocosmochronology and the nova explosions, around 1972. Finally, half of the
work which deals with the problem of chemical evolution of galaxies has been per-
formed after 1974 according to Audouze and Tinsley (1976). This novelty of the
subject is due to the fact that astrophysics is a multidisciplinary field. Its development
needs progress in both astronomy and nuclear physics, and more generally, progress
in the whole physics such as the behavior of elementary particles like neutrinos, quarks
and gluons, and the finest details of hydrodynamics and thermodynamics. In this
monograph, we will emphasize the strong influence of almost all the main physics laws
on nuclear astrophysics, which attempts to describe the origin of the material Universe.
 INTRODUCTION xix

References
Quoted in the text:

Audouze, J. and Tinsley, B. M.: 1976, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astroph}'s. 14, 43.
Bethe, H. A.: 1938, Phys. Rev. 55, 103; 55, 434.
Burbidge, E. M .. Burbidge, G. R .. Fowler, W. A .. and Hoyle. F.: 1957, ReI". Mod. Phys. 29, 547.
Cameron, A. G. W.: 1957, Puhl. Astron. Soc. Pacific 69, 201.
Gamow, G.: ReI'. Mod. Phys. 21, 367.
Hoyle, F.: 1946, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 106,343.
Salpeter, E. E.: 1951, Phys. Rev. 88 (2),547.
von Weizsiicker, C. F.: 1938, Forschullgen und Fortschritlc 15, 159 lin German).
von Weizsiicker, C.F.: 1938, Weltall39, 218 lin German).

Other general reterences:

Clayton, D. D.: 1968, Principles of Stellar EI'olution and Nucleosynthesis, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Fowler, W. A.: 1967, Nuclear Astrophysics, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Reeves, H.: 1964, Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis, Gordon and Breach Science Pubs., .Inc., New
York.
Trimble, Y.: 1975, Rcv. Mod. PhI'S. 47, 877.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTER I
Fig. 1.6 is from Y. M. Georgelin and Y. P. Georgelin, 1976, Astron. Astro-
phys. 49, 74. Permission to reproduce this figure has been kindly
granted by the authors and the Editor-in-chief of the journal.

CHAPTER III
Fig. II1.6 is Figure 9 from Shapiro and Silberberg, quoted by V. Trimble,
Invited Paper of Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, 1974.
Reproduced with the kind permission of the authors and the
publisher.

CHAPTER IV
Fig. IV.I is Figure 3-1 from Atomic Nucleus, by R.D. Evans, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1955. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book
Company and the author.
Fig. IV.3 was redrawn by D.D. Clayton from W.A. Fowler and J.J. VogI,
Figure 4-4, p. 298 in Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleo-
synthesis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968. It is reproduced with
the kind permission of the authors and the publisher.
Fig. IV.7 was adapted from Figure 1, from R. T. Rood and M. H. Ulrich,
1974, Nature 252, 366. Reproduced with the kind permission of
the authors and the publisher.
Fig. IV.9 is Figure 1, p. 123, from an article by G.R. Cauglan in eND
Isotopes in Astrophysics, J. Audouze (ed.), D. Reidel Publ. Co.,
Dordrecht, Holland, 1977. Reproduced with the kind permission
of the author.

CHAPTER V
Fig. Y.3 is taken from a chapter by L. Rosino in Supernovae, D. Schramm
(ed.), D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht, Holland, 1977. Reproduced
with the kind permission of the author.
Fig. V.S is Figure 1-3, p. 7, from Pulsars, by R.N. Manchester and J.H.
Taylor, Freeman and Co., 1977. Reproduced with the kind per-
mission of the authors and the publisher.
Fig. V.7 is Figure I, p. 205, from an article by J. Audouze and B. Lazaretf
in Novae and Related Stars, M. Friedjung (ed.), D. Reidel Publ.
Co., Dordrecht, Holland, 1977. Reproduced with the kind per-
mission of the authors.
xxi
xxii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fig. V.8 is Figure I of an article by K.J. Fricke, 1973, Astrophys. J. 183

948. Reprinted by courtesy of the author and the Astrophysica
Journal, published by the University of Chicago Press. Copy
right 1973, The American Astronomical Society.
Fig. V.9 is Figure 14 of an article by V. Trimble, 1975, Rev. Mod. Phys.
47, 952. Reproduced with the kind permission of the author and
the publisher.
Fig. V.IO is from an article by J. Audouze and B. Lazareff in Novae and
Related Stars, M. Friedjung (ed.), D. Reidel Pub!. Co., Dordrecht,
Holland, 1977. Reproduced with the kind permission of the
authors.
Figs. V.lla, b are Figures 2 and 3 from R.C. Pardo, R.G. Couch, and D.W.
Arnett, 1974, Astrophys. J. 191, 714. Reprinted by courtesy of
the authors and the Astrophysical Journal, published by the Uni-
versity of Chicago Press. Copyright 1974, The American Astro-
nomical Society.
Fig. V.12 is Figure 1, p. 147 of an article by J. W. Truran in Supernovae,
D. Schramm (ed.), D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht, Holland,
1977. Reproduced with the kind permission of the author.

CHAPTER VI
Fig. VI. 1 is Figure 4, p. 138, of an article by A.G. W. Cameron, 1973, Space
Sci. Rev. 15, 121. Reproduced with the kind permission of the
author.
Figs. VIA, 6, and 8 are Figures 7-30, p. 586; 7-20, p. 563; and 7-27, p. 578 from
P.A. Seeger, W.A. Fowler, and D.D. Clayton, 1965, Astrophys.
J. Suppl. 11, 121. Reprinted by courtesy of the authors and the
Astrophysical Journal, published by the University of Chicago
Press. Copyright 1965, The American Astronomical Society.
Fig. VI.7 is Figure 7-21, p. 564, from D. Clayton, in Principles of Evolution
and Nucleosynthesis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1978. Reproduced
with the kind permission of the author and the publisher.

CHAPTER VII
Figs. VII.! and 2 are Figures IV-2, p. 54 and 11-8, p. 15 from H. Reeves, in Nuclear
Reactions in Stellar Surfaces and Their Relation With Stellar Evolu-
tion, Gordon and Breach, London, 1971. Reproduced with the
kind permission of the author and the publisher.
Figs. VIII.5 and 6 are Figures 1 and 6 from J. Audouze and M. Menneguzzi, Origine
des rayonnements cosmiques, Vol. 4, p. 549, La Recherche, Paris.
Reproduced with the kind permission of the authors and the pub-
lisher.
Fig. VII.8 is Figure 3 from R. V. Wagoner, 1973, Astrophys. J. 179, 343.
Reprinted by courtesy of the author and the Astrophysical Journal,
published by the University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1973,
The American Astronomical Society.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii

CHAPTER VIII
Fig. VIII.2 is Figure 1-20, p. 65, from D. Clayton in Principles of Stellar
Evolution and Nucleosynthesis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968.
Reproduced with the kind permission of the author and the
publisher.
Fig. VIII.3 is Figure 1 of an article by K. Gopalan and G. W. Wetherhill.
1971, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 8484. Reproduced with the kind per-
mission of the authors and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.5 is figure on p. 75 of an article by D. Schramm, 1974, Scientific
American 230, 69. Reproduced with the kind permission of the
author and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.6 is from J. H. Reynolds, 1960, Phys. Rev. Letters 4, 8. Reproduced
with the kind permission of the author and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.7 is from E.C. Alexander, Jr., R.S. Lewis, J.H. Reynolds, and
M.C. Michel, 1971, Science 172, 837. Reproduced with the kind
permission of the authors and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.8 is from J.H. Reynolds, 1977, in Rare Gas Isotopes to Early Solar
System History, Proc. Soviet-American Conf. on Cosmochem. of
Moon and Planets, NASA SP 370-2-771. Reproduced with the
kind permission of the author.
Fig. VIII.9 is figure on p. 108 ofD. Schramm and D. Clayton, 1978, Scientific
American 239, 98. Reproduced with the kind permission of the
authors and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.l1 is Figure I of an article by J. Audouze, J.P. Bibring, J.e. Dran,
M. Maurette, and R.M. Walker, 1976, Astrophys. J. Letters, Ll85.
Reprinted by courtesy of J. Audouze and the Astrophysical
Journal, published by the University of Chicago Press. Copyright
1976, The American Astronomical Society.
Fig. VIII.l2 is Figure I, p. 16, of an article by D. Clayton, in eND Isotopes
in Astrophysics, J. Audouze (ed.), D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht,
Holland, 1977. Reproduced with the kind permission of the author.
Fig. VIII.l3 is Figure 2, p. 393, from D. Schramm, Supernovae and Formation
of the Solar System, in Protostars and Planets, T. Gehrels (ed.),
Univ. of Arizona Press, 1978. Reproduced with the kind permis-
sion of the author and the publisher.
Fig. VIII.l4 is Figure 1, p. 402 and Figure 1, p. 404, of H. Reeves, The Big
Bang Theory of the Origin of the Solar System in Protostars and
Planets, T. Gehrels (ed.), Univ. of Arizona Press, 1978. Repro-
duced with the kind permission of the author and the publisher.

CHAPTER IX
Figs. IX.2, 3, 4, and 6 are Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 from an article by J. Audouze and
B. Tinsley, 1976, Ann. Rev. Astrophys. 14. Reproduced with the
kind permission of the authors and the publisher.
Fig. IX.5 is Figure 2 from an article by RE.J. Pagel and RE. Patchett,
xxiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1975, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 172, 13. Reproduced

with the kind permission of the authors and the publisher.
Figs. IX.7, 8a, and 8b are Figures 3, 3a, and 3b of an article by L. Vigroux, J. Audouze,
and J. Lequeuz, 1976, Astron. Astrophys. 52, 1. Reproduced with
the kind permission of the authors and the publisher.