LEARNING

MATERIAL FOR
7-8
WEEK NUMBER:

I. TITLE: Periods and Movements in Literature

II. OBJECTIVES: After this lesson, you are expected to:

1. trace the foundation of literature and literary criticism through literary

period development
2. familiarize the intellectual, linguistic, religious and artistic influences of
literature
through the literary periods
3. identify definite characteristics of each literary period and movements
for an in-depth study of literature

III. INTRODUCTION

Tracing the evolution of literature through time scholars often group works from a
certain timeframe together and label it as period or movement. This aims to dissect these movements
for better understanding. The movements or periods where not mutually exclusive in the time frames,
they overlap, liberally. In some cases, a single author can even be claimed by more than one movement.

IV. CONTENT

EARLY PERIODS OF LITERATURE

A. Classical Period

The period known as “archaic” Greece begins around 800 years before the birth of Christ.
This is the era of the epic poets Homer and Hesiod, and of the lyric poets Archilochus, Ibycus, Alcaeus
and Sappho. What we call the _Classical_ period emerges around 500 B.C., the period of the great
dramatists Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles, the philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the
schools of rhetoric, and the rise of Athenian democracy and power. After this is the _Hellenistic_ period,
witnessing the diffusion of Greek culture through much of the Mediterranean, and middle east, a
diffusion vastly accelerated by the conquests of Alexander the Great, and the various dynasties
established by his generals after his death in 323 B.C. Over the Hellenised domains there was a common
ruling class culture, using a common literary dialect and a common education system.1 The city of
Alexandria in Egypt, founded by Alexander in 331 B.C., became a center of scholarship and letters,
housing an enormous library and museum, and hosting such renowned poets and grammarians as
Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, Aristarchus and Zenodotus. We know of these figures partly through
the work of Suetonius (c. 69-140 A.D.) who wrote the first histories of literature and criticism.2
 The Hellenistic period is usually said to end with the battle of Actium in 31 B.C.in which the last
portion of Alexander’s empire, Egypt, was annexed by the increasingly powerful and expanding Roman
Republic. After his victory at Actium, the entire Roman world fell under the sole rulership of Julius
Caesar’s nephew, Octavian, soon to become revered as the first Roman Emperor, Augustus. During this
span of almost a thousand years, poets, philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians and critics laid down
many of the basic terms, concepts and questions that were to shape the future of literature as it evolved
all the way through to our own century. These include the concept of _mimesis_ or imitation; the
concept of beauty and its connection with truth and goodness; the ideal of the organic unity of a literary
work; the social, political and moral functions of literature; the connection between literature,
philosophy and rhetoric; the nature and status of language; the impact of literary performance on an
audience; the definition of figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy and symbol; the notion of a
_canon_ of the most important literary works; and the development of various genres such as epic,
tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry and song.
Intellectual Contexts

Perhaps the most salient factor concerning poetry at this time was the authority and status it
had achieved. As we have seen, the evolution of this authority had been multifaceted: poetry claimed to
present a vision of the world, of the gods, of ethics and morality that was true. Poetry was not only the
repository of collective wisdom, as accumulated over the ages, but it was also the expression of
universalized myth. It had a public function that was most evident in its supreme embodiment, tragedy,
which assumed for the ancient Greeks the roles of our theologies and religious institutions, our histories,
our modern mass media, our education system, and our various modes of ascertaining truth.

There are a number of intellectual currents which can be mentioned here. Interestingly, these
currents merged in important ways with the main stream of culture that was comprised by poetry. The
first of these was sophistic, which arose in fifth century Athens, and whose major exponents such as
Protagoras and Gorgias were contemporaries of Plato. The second was rhetoric, the art of public
speaking, an art vital to the effective functioning of Athenian democracy. Both the sophists and the
rhetoricians offered training in public debate and speaking, often for very high fees; their curriculum
aimed to prepare young men of the nobility for political life. While the two currents, sophistic and
rhetoric, were so closely connected that the Sophists were indeed the first teachers of rhetoric, there
was a distinction between them: rhetoric was, strictly speaking, restricted to the techniques of
argument and persuasion; the more ambitious sophists promised a more general education extending
over the areas considered by philosophy: morality, politics, as well as the nature of reality and truth
(CCP, 64, 66).
 Plato was opposed to both sophistic and rhetoric. He objected to sophistic accounts of the
world, which were essentially secular, humanistic and relativistic. These accounts rejected the authority
of religion and viewed truth as a human and pragmatic construct. In other words, there was no truth
which ultimately stood above or beyond human perception. What Plato rejects in rhetoric is also based
on its alleged exclusion of truth: rhetoric is concerned not with truth but merely with persuasion, often
preying on the ignorance of an audience and merely pandering to its prejudices rather than seeking a
moral and objective foundation. Clearly, the attitudes of sophistic and rhetoric arise in a democratic
environment: just as in our modern- day democracies, the concept of truth as some kind of
transcendent datum is extinguished; as in our lawcourts, we can argue only that one version of events is
more probable and internally coherent than another. We do not claim that this superior version
somehow expresses an infallible truth. Much of Plato’s philosophy is generated by a desire to impose
order on chaos, to enclose change and temporality within a scheme of permanence, and to ground our
thinking about morality, politics and religion on timeless and universal truths that are independent of
human cognition. So profound was Plato’s opposition to sophistical and rhetorical ways of thinking that
his own philosophy is internally shaped and generated by negating their claims. His so-called dialectical
method, which proceeds by systematic question and answer, arises largely in contradistinction to their
methods. What is important for us is that Plato finds the same vision of the world in literature. In fact,
he sees tragedy as a form of rhetoric. T.H. Irwin states that “[i]n attacking rhetoric, Plato also attacks a
much older Athenian institution, tragic drama.” Like rhetoric, tragedy “makes particular moral views
appear attractive to the ignorant and irrational audience” (CCP, 67-68). Jennifer T. Roberts reminds us of
“the important role played in the education of Athenian citizens by attendance at tragedies. It was tragic
drama that afforded Athenians an opportunity to ponder and debate many of the same issues that arose
in Plato’s dialogues.”4 Hence, for Plato, sophistic and rhetoric effectively expressed a vision of the world
that had long been advanced by the much older art of poetry. It is not only his dialectical method but
the content of his philosophy that arises in the sharpest opposition to that vision.

What was that poetic vision? It was a vision going all the way back to Homer: we may recall the
squabbling between Zeus and his Queen Hera, the laughable scene with Hephaistos, the disputes
between various goddesses such as Athene and Aphrodite, and in general the often indecorous conduct
of the gods. This is a vision of the world as ruled by chance, a world where “natural processes are
basically irregular and unpredictable, and that gods can interfere with them or manipulate them as they
please_ (CCP, 52). Plato firmly rejects this undignified and unsystematic (and perhaps liberal) vision. As
many scholars have pointed out, partly on Aristotle’s authority, Plato’s own ideas were indebted to a
pre-Socratic tradition of naturalism, which attempt to offer an alternative account of the world, an
account that is not poetic or mythical or based on tradition but which appeals rather to natural
processes in the service of a rational explanation. Irwin points out that in agreeing with the pre-
Socratics, both Socrates and Plato were challenging _widespread and deep-seated religious assumptions
of their contemporaries. In rejecting the Homeric irregular picture of the universe, they, like the
naturalists, were rejecting the view that we incur divine punishment by failing to make the appropriate
sacrifices or by fighting on an ill-omened day or by securing a god’s favor by offering gifts. In Plato’s
view, the gods are “entirely just and good, with no anger, jealousy, spite or lust.” Both of these views,
says Irwin, existed in an unreconciled fashion in Greek tradition (CCP, 52-53). Moreover, like the
naturalists, Socrates and Plato distinguished between mere evidence of the senses, which was
“appearance,” and an underlying reality accessible only through reason (CCP, 54). Hence, Greek
philosophy begins with the application of rational thinking to all areas of human life: _In the lifetime of
Socrates reflection on morality and human society ceased to be the monopoly of Homer and the poets;
it became another area for critical thinking_ (CCP, 58). In other words, Greek philosophy begins as a
challenge to the monopoly of poetry and the extension of its vision in more recent trends such as
sophistic and rhetoric. Plato’s opposition of philosophy to poetry effectively sets the stage for more than
two thousand years of literary theory and criticism.
B. Medieval Period

The term "medieval" (originally spelled mediaeval) comes from Latin, meaning "middle age." It
was first introduced into English in the 19th century, a time when there was heightened interest in the
art, history, and thought of Middle Age Europe.
When Were the Middle Ages?
Most scholars associate the beginning of the medieval period with the collapse of the Roman
empire, which occurred in 476. Scholars disagree about when the period ends, however. Some place it
at the start of the 15th century (with the rise of the Renaissance Period), in 1453 (when Turkish forces
captured Constantinople), or in 1492 (Christopher Columbus' first voyage to the Americas).
Books in the Medieval Period

The majority of books from the middle age were written in what is known as Middle English,
though French and Latin were also used for law and the church, respectively. Spelling and grammar
were inconsistent in these early writings, which can make them hard to read; it wasn't until the
invention of the printing press in 1410 that spelling began to be standardized.

The literate people of the time were likely in either government or the church. Books (and the
parchment itself) were often made by monks, and it was a time- and labor-intensive process. Everything
was done by hand, making books very expensive to produce. So, even if a medieval London merchant
could read, a personal library of handmade books would have been out of his price range. However, as
the middle class grew and literacy expanded in the later middle age, people might have owned a book of
hours (prayer book) produced by professional artisans and copiers.

Literature in the Medieval Period

Much of the early literature of this period consists of sermons, prayers, lives of saints, and
homilies. In secular medieval literature, the figure of King Arthur, an ancient British hero, attracted the
attention and imagination of these early writers. Arthur first appeared in literature in the Latin "History
of the British Kings" around 1147.
Included in this period is the epic "Beowulf," which dates back to approximately the eighth
century. We also see works like "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" (c.1350–1400) and "The Pearl"
(c.1370), both written by anonymous authors. Geoffrey Chaucer's work falls into this period as well:
"The Book of the Duchess" (1369), "The Parliament of Fowls" (1377–1382), "The House of Fame" (1379–
1384), "Troilus and Criseyde" (1382–1385), the very famous "Canterbury Tales" (1387–1400), "The
Legend of Good Women" (1384–1386), and "The Complaint of Chaucer to His Empty Purse" (1399).

Another common theme in medieval literature is courtly love. The term "courtly love" was
popularized by writer Gaston Paris to describe the Medieval love stories commonly told to help the
noble class pass time. It is generally believed that Eleanore of Aquitaine introduced these types of tales
to the British nobility after hearing them in France. Eleanore used the stories, which were popularized by
troubadours, to impart lessons of chivalry to her court. At the time, marriages were seen only as
business arrangements, so courtly love allowed people a way to express the romantic love they were
often denied in marriage.

Troubadours in the Middle Ages

Troubadours were traveling composers and performers. They mostly sang songs and recited
poems of courtly love and chivalry. In a time when few could read and books were hard to come by,
troubadours played an important role in the spread of literature throughout Europe. Though few of
their songs were ever recorded, troubadours helped shape the literary culture of the middle ages. 

Other Books

Other books produced during this time were law books, calligraphy model books, and scientific texts.

C. Renaissance and Reformation

During the Renaissance/Reformation period, literature flourished primarily

in Italy, France, Spain, and England. Thanks to the invention of printing (in 15th-century Germany) and
the Early Modern rise of the middle class (which possessed the time and wealth to partake in literacy),
literature spread more quickly and to a wider audience than ever before. This article focuses on creative
literature (as opposed to scholarly literature); key scholarly developments of this period are covered
elsewhere (see History of Western Philosophy, History of Science).

Renaissance

The cultural shift known as the Renaissance (which emerged in Italy, then spread across
Western Europe) can be defined as "the full revival of humanism". The term humanism denotes "an
outlook that emphasizes human capabilities and concerns"; the two most visible consequences of this
outlook are secular appreciation (i.e. appreciation for humans and the human world) and critical
thought (see Humanism).
 Propelled by humanism, Renaissance scholars sought to revive the study of classical literature,
as well as to create new literature in the spirit of the classics. Renaissance authors embraced humanism
by injecting a measure of realism (physical, social, emotional) into the characters, plots, and settings of
this new literature, distinguishing it from medieval work (which lacked such realism). Though some new
creative writing was produced in Latin, the dominance of vernacular languages (which had been
established by medieval writers) would not be displaced.

While the Renaissance took place mainly within the period ca. 1400-1600, the roots of the
movement lie in the fourteenth century. This is especially true of literature, the earliest field of
Renaissance endeavour. Thus, in discussion of literary history, it is convenient to define the span of the
Renaissance as ca. 1300-1600. (Alternatively, the period ca. 1300-1400 can be described as a transitional
"pre-Renaissance".)

Reformation

The Renaissance overlaps with most of the Reformation, in which much of northern Europe was
converted to Protestantism (see Reformation). Since Protestantism emphasizes salvation
through individual faith (as opposed to relying on clergy as intermediaries), its adherents were
encouraged to become literate and personally read the Bible. Rates of literacy improved, and the Bible
was translated into many vernacular languages (including a German translation by Luther).

The Novel

The term novel can be defined as "a long prose story". In the Western world, the novel first
emerged as a minor genre of literature in ancient Greece and Rome. It grew more prominent in
the Middle Ages, especially in the form of prose romances. Only in modern times, however, did novel-
writing truly surge, in terms of both output and innovation.

During the period ca. 1800-present, the novel has thrived as the leading form of Western
literature. This triumph was preceded by the formative age of the novel, ca. 1500-1800, during which
many types and styles of novel-writing initially developed. The primary languages of the novel's
formative age were Spanish, French, English, and German.

Main Article

Italy

The pinnacle of Italian literature, which flourished throughout the entire

Renaissance/Reformation period, was achieved during the fourteenth century. This century gave rise to
the three most renowned authors in the Italian language: Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.
 The first stirrings of humanism date to the early fourteenth century; the foremost manifestation
of these stirrings is the poetry of Dante, greatest of Italian writers. Though generally classified as a late
medieval author, Dante is considered the outstanding forerunner to Renaissance literature, and thus is
logically included in this article.

Dante is renowned as the greatest epic poet of the Middle Ages (placing him alongside Homer
and Milton, the greatest ancient and modern epic poets, respectively). His masterpiece, the Divine
Comedy, is the foremost work of Italian literature. Describing the author's journey through hell,
purgatory, and heaven, the Divine Comedy provides a detailed account of the medieval Christian view of
the universe.

The greatest lyric poet in Italian is Petrarch, known primarily for the Canzoniere, a collection of
over three hundred poems. Consisting mainly of sonnets, the Canzoniere explores a variety of subjects,
in particular Petrarch's love for a woman named Laura. Petrarch was the leading pioneer of the full-scale
revival of classical literature, earning him the title "father of humanism".

Boccaccio, the greatest writer of Italian prose, is renowned chiefly for the Decameron, a
collection of one hundred short stories. The tales, ranging from earthy comedies to romantic tragedies,
are framed by a story of ten travelers, each of whom tells ten stories in order to pass the time. Many of
the stories were not freshly composed by Boccaccio, but rather skillful reworkings of folktales. (Indeed,
creative adaptation of preexisting work has been common artistic practice in all media throughout
history.) The firm humanism of Boccaccio's work (e.g. the realistic speech and behavior of his
characters) secure his place as a distinctly Renaissance author.3

One of the most prominent consequences of the humanist outlook is optimism in human
potential. While the medieval outlook consistently portrayed humanity as inherently lowly and corrupt,
humanism proclaims the dignity and worth of human beings, asserting that determined people can rise
to greatness through force of will. This belief in human capability to triumph over fortune is reflected in
the stories of the Decameron.3

As noted in the previous article, epic legends (in the form of narrative poetry and prose) are by
far the most prominent works of medieval literature; consequently, even though many other types of
literature flourished during the Middle Ages, these are relatively unfamiliar to modern readers.
Fortunately, much of the character of medieval literature is present in the works of the fourteenth-
century Italian authors, given that they stand at the very dawn of the Renaissance era. Through
Petrarch, one is exposed to the qualities of medieval lyric poetry; through Boccaccio, to the qualities of
non-epic medieval story-telling.

France, Spain, and England

As noted earlier, the foremost literary tongues of the Renaissance/Reformation period were
Italian, French, Spanish, and English. The first century of this period witnessed the pinnacle of Italian
literature; the last century, of Spanish and English literature. French literature (which, along with
German, would culminate in the Romantic age) is less prominent during this period.

The foremost French author of the Renaissance/Reformation era is Michel de Montaigne, the
first great modern writer (and perhaps greatest all-time writer) of the essay, which can be defined as "a
short prose examination of a subject"; indeed, Montaigne himself coined the term "essay" (from the
French "essai", meaning "attempt"). Prior to Montaigne, who established the essay as one of the most
popular methods of Western expression, only a handful of ancient philosophers had embraced the form.
Montaigne's essays, written over the late sixteenth century, explore such profound human themes as
friendship, ethics, and death.7

Spanish literature culminated during the Spanish Golden Age (ca. 1500-1650), the literary
pinnacle of which is occupied by Miguel de Cervantes, foremost author in the Spanish language. As
noted earlier, the "formative age" of the novel spanned ca. 1500-1800; Cervantes' masterpiece, Don
Quixote (published in the early seventeenth century), is considered the greatest and most influential
novel of this period. Don Quixote follows the comical adventures of a retired gentlemen who, in a state
of idealistic madness fuelled by medieval romances, embarks on a series of delusional chivalric quests.6

The late sixteenth/early seventeenth centuries also witnessed the most renowned figure in all of
literature: William Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of all time. Shakespeare's repertoire consists of
some three dozen plays, conventionally divided into comedies, tragedies, and histories (tragedies
drawn from English history); the tragedy Hamlet is often singled out as his masterpiece. In addition to
plays, Shakespeare composed over 150 sonnets.8

LATTER / MODERN PERIODS OF LITERATURE

A. Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an age of unprecedented optimism in the potential of knowledge and

reason to understand and change the world (see Enlightenment). The movement flourished across
Western Europe, especially in France and England. For the first time in history, all fields of knowledge
were subjected to unrelenting critical examination (which continues to this day).

The fierce rationalism of the Enlightenment was compatible with the aesthetic ideals
of classicism (structure, unity, clarity, restraint; see Western Aesthetics), which characterize much
creative literature of the age. Some writers, however, felt overly constrained by such aesthetic qualities,
yearning instead to express raw, unbridled passion. This approach, which emerged in late
Enlightenment Germany (and subsequently flourished across the West), is known as Romanticism.

This article focuses on creative literature (as opposed to scholarly literature); key scholarly
developments of the Enlightenment are covered elsewhere (see History of Western Philosophy, History
of Science).

Main Article

Drama

During the late seventeenth century, France waxed as the supreme political and cultural power
of Europe, and French literature experienced its classical age (aka Neoclassical age). Many French
authors of this period embraced the aesthetic of classicism (e.g. clear language, balanced structure), and
often drew material from classical history and legend.

Classical French literature flourished especially in the form of drama, culminating in the comic
dramatist Molière (pen name of Jean Baptiste Poquelin), greatest of French playwrights. His foremost
work, Le Misanthrope, comprises a satirical attack on the frivolous pursuits and petty cruelties of high
society.3,4

Poetry

In England, the late seventeenth century featured John Milton, the foremost name in English
literature after Shakespeare. His masterpiece, Paradise Lost (which recounts Satan's engineering of the
fall of humanity from the Garden of Eden), is considered the greatest epic poem in English, and the
greatest modern (ca. 1500-present) epic. Milton also penned a sequel, Paradise Regained, in which
Satan fails to corrupt Jesus.2

Rise of the Novel

While many novels (long prose stories) were produced by ancient and medieval writers, the
form received unprecedented attention in modern times. The modern history of the novel can be
divided into two ages: the formative age of the novel, ca. 1500-1800; and the period ca. 1800-present,
in which the novel has thrived as the leading form of Western literature. Formative age novel-writing
flourished primarily in Spanish, French, English, and German.

As the novel did not achieve its supreme position until the nineteenth century, novelists of the
formative age are generally less prominent than other literary figures (namely poets and dramatists).
Nonetheless, a list of the principal novelists of the formative age will be attempted here: in Spanish,
Cervantes; in French, Rabelais; in English, Fielding; in German, Goethe. The most widely familiar novels
of the formative age are likely Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Defoe's Robinson Crusoe.

Satire

Two of the primary targets of critical examination during the Enlightenment

were governments and religious authorities. Many Enlightenment thinkers campaigned vigorously
against restrictions on freedoms (e.g. censorship, discrimination) and religious interference in public
affairs (e.g. law, education, government). These calls for reform were raised by some of the most
eloquent writers in history, such that the Enlightenment is also known as the golden age of satire.

The two leading figures of Enlightenment satire are Voltaire (in French) and Swift (in English).

PRIMARY SATIRISTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD

 French Voltaire

English Swift

Voltaire (pen name of François Marie Arouet) battled many forms of injustice, including religious and
political discrimination, arbitrary imprisonment, and torture. He is known primarily for his
many philosophical and satirical works, including novels, short stories, and essays. Voltaire was also an
accomplished poet, tragedian, and historian.6

Irish-English author Jonathon Swift, perhaps the most widely famous satirist in history, penned
many works of satirical prose on a wide range of issues; a key personal grievance was English
mistreatment of the Irish. Swift's masterpiece is the novel Gulliver's Travels, a broad examination of
ethics, politics, and society framed in a series of fantastic adventures.

B. Early Romanticism

Enlightenment scholars argued that the exercise of disciplined reason was the key to truth and
progress. While this was proved largely true (most dramatically in the field of science), many Western
thinkers wondered whether reason alone was sufficient. In the late eighteenth century, the strictly
rational approach of the Enlightenment came to be rivalled by an alternative worldview that
emphasized emotion as the key to great truth. This worldview, known as Romanticism, flourished in
both literature and art.

Romanticism (ca. 1750-1900) first emerged in German literature of the late eighteenth century,
from which it spread to other regions and aesthetic forms. (The first few decades of Romanticism in
Germany are known as the Sturm und Drang period.) The leading figure of Romantic German literature
is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the greatest writer in the German language.

Goethe is considered the greatest poet in German, and often the greatest novelist and dramatist
as well; his breadth of literary achievement is perhaps unrivalled. From the earliest days of Romanticism,
Goethe made rich contributions of poetry (lyric and epic), tragedies, and novels to the movement. His
greatest novel is Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, which recounts the adventures and personal
growth of the wandering title character. This novel is often considered the first coming-of-age story (aka
"bildungsroman").

Goethe's career would culminate in the nineteenth century, when Romanticism burst into full bloom
across Western Europe (see Modern Literature).
 C. Modern Literary Period

The Modernist Period in English Literature occupied the years from shortly after the beginning
of the twentieth century through roughly 1965. In broad terms, the period was marked by sudden and
unexpected breaks with traditional ways of viewing and interacting with the world. Experimentation and
individualism became virtues, where in the past they were often heartily discouraged. Modernism was
set in motion, in one sense, through a series of cultural shocks. The first of these great shocks was the
Great War, which ravaged Europe from 1914 through 1918, known now as World War One. At the time,
this “War to End All Wars” was looked upon with such ghastly horror that many people simply could not
imagine what the world seemed to be plunging towards. The first hints of that particular way of thinking
called Modernism stretch back into the nineteenth century. As literary periods go, Modernism displays a
relatively strong sense of cohesion and similarity across genres and locales. Furthermore, writers who
adopted the Modern point of view often did so quite deliberately and self-consciously. Indeed, a central
preoccupation of Modernism is with the inner self and consciousness. In contrast to the Romantic world
view, the Modernist cares rather little for Nature, Being, or the overarching structures of history. Instead
of progress and growth, the Modernist intelligentsia sees decay and a growing alienation of the
individual. The machinery of modern society is perceived as impersonal, capitalist, and antagonistic to
the artistic impulse. War most certainly had a great deal of influence on such ways of approaching the
world. Two World Wars in the span of a generation effectively shell-shocked all of Western civilization.
In its genesis, the Modernist Period in English literature was first and foremost a visceral
reaction against the Victorian culture and aesthetic, which had prevailed for most of the nineteenth
century. Indeed, a break with traditions is one of the fundamental constants of the Modernist stance.
Intellectuals and artists at the turn of the twentieth century believed the previous generation’s way of
doing things was a cultural dead end. They could foresee that world events were spiraling into unknown
territory. The stability and quietude of Victorian civilization were rapidly becoming a thing of the past.
The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria was essentially the triggering event of the First
World War, a conflict which swept away all preconceived notions about the nature of so-called modern
warfare.
In the world of art, generally speaking, Modernism was the beginning of the distinction between
“high” art and “low” art. The educational reforms of the Victorian Age had led to a rapid increase in
literacy rates, and therefore a greater demand for literature or all sorts. A popular press quickly
developed to supply that demand. The sophisticated literati looked upon this new popular literature
with scorn. Writers who refused to bow to the popular tastes found themselves in a state of alienation
from the mainstream of society. To some extent, this alienation fed into the stereotype of the aloof
artist, producing nothing of commercial value for the market. It’s worth mentioning that this alienation
worked both ways, as the reading public by and large turned their backs on many “elitist” artists. The
academic world became something of a refuge for disaffected artists, as they could rub elbows with
fellow disenfranchised intellectuals. Still, the most effective poets and novelists did manage to make
profound statements that were absorbed by the whole of society and not just the writer’s inner circles.
In the later years of the Modernist period, a form of populism returned to the literary mainstream, as
regionalism and identity politics became significant influences on the purpose and direction of artistic
endeavor.
The nineteenth century, like the several centuries before it, was a time of privilege for wealthy
Caucasian males. Women, minorities, and the poor were marginalized to the point of utter silence and
inconsequence. The twentieth century witnessed the beginnings of a new paradigm between first the
sexes, and later between different cultural groups. Class distinction remains arguably the most difficult
bridge to cross in terms of forming a truly equitable society. Some would argue that class has become a
euphemism for race, but that’s another discussion. The point is that as the twentieth century moved
forward, a greater variety of literary voices won the struggle to be heard. What had so recently been
inconceivable was steadily becoming a reality. African-Americans took part in the Harlem Renaissance,
with the likes of Langston Hughes at the forefront of a vibrant new idiom in American poetry. Women
like Hilda Doolittle and Amy Lowell became leaders of the Imagist movement. None of this is to suggest
that racism and sexism had been completely left behind in the art world. Perhaps such blemishes can
never be fully erased, but the strides that were taken in the twentieth century were remarkable by any
measure.
In Modernist literature, it was the poets who took fullest advantage of the new spirit of the
times, and stretched the possibilities of their craft to lengths not previously imagined. In general, there
was a disdain for most of the literary production of the last century. The exceptions to this disdain were
the French Symbolist poets like Charles Beaudelaire, and the work of Irishman Gerard Manley Hopkins.
The French Symbolists were admired for the sophistication of their imagery. In comparison to much of
what was produced in England and America, the French were ahead of their time. They were similarly
unafraid to delve into subject matter that had usually been taboo for such a refined art form. Hopkins,
for his part, brought a fresh way to look at rhythm and word usage. He more or less invented his own
poetic rhythms, just as he coined his own words for things which had, for him, no suitable descriptor.
Hopkins had no formal training in poetry, and he never published in his lifetime. This model – the self-
taught artist-hermit who has no desire for public adulation – would become synonymous with the poet
in the modern age. This stereotype continues unrivaled to this day, despite the fact that the most
accomplished poets of the Modern period were far from recluses. Even though alienation was a nearly
universal experience for Modernist poets, it was impossible to escape some level of engagement with
the world at large. Even if this engagement was mediated through the poetry, the relationship that
poets had with their world was very real, and very much revealing of the state of things in the early
twentieth century.

Leading up to the First World War, Imagist poetry was dominating the scene, and sweeping
previous aesthetic points of view under the rug. The Imagists, among them Ezra Pound, sought to boil
language down to its absolute essence. They wanted poetry to concentrate entirely upon “the thing
itself,” in the words of critic-poet T. E. Hulme. To achieve that effect required minimalist language, a
lessening of structural rules and a kind of directness that Victorian and Romantic poetry seriously lacked.
Dreaminess or Pastoral poetry were utterly abandoned in favor of this new, cold, some might say
mechanized poetics. Imagist poetry was almost always short, unrhymed, and noticeably sparse in terms
of adjectives and adverbs. At some points, the line between poetry and natural language became
blurred. This was a sharp departure from the ornamental, verbose style of the Victorian era. Gone also
were the preoccupations with beauty and nature. Potential subjects for poetry were now limitless, and
poets took full advantage of this new freedom.
No Modernist poet has garnered more praise and attention than Thomas Stearns Eliot. Born in
Missouri, T. S. Eliot would eventually settle in England, where he would produce some of the greatest
poetry and criticism of the last century. Eliot picked up where the Imagists left off, while adding some of
his own peculiar aesthetics to the mix. His principal contribution to twentieth century verse was a return
to highly intellectual, allusive poetry. He looked backwards for inspiration, but he was not nostalgic or
romantic about the past. Eliot’s productions were entirely in the modern style, even if his blueprints
were seventeenth century metaphysical poets. One of the distinguishing characteristics of Eliot’s work is
the manner in which he seamlessly moves from very high, formal verse into a more conversational and
easy style. Yet even when his poetic voice sounds very colloquial, there is a current underneath, which
hides secondary meanings. It is this layering of meanings and contrasting of styles that mark Modernist
poetry in general and T. S. Eliot in particular. It is no overstatement to say that Eliot was the pioneer of
the ironic mode in poetry; that is, deceptive appearances hiding difficult truths.
In American Literature, the group of writers and thinkers known as the Lost Generation has
become synonymous with Modernism. In the wake of the First World War, several American artists
chose to live abroad as they pursued their creative impulses. These included the intellectual Gertrude
Stein, the novelists Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the painter Waldo Pierce, among
others. The term itself refers to the spiritual and existential hangover left by four years of unimaginably
destructive warfare. The artists of the Lost Generation struggled to find some meaning in the world in
the wake of chaos. As with much of Modernist literature, this was achieved by turning the mind’s eye
inward and attempting to record the workings of consciousness. For Hemingway, this meant the
abandonment of all ornamental language. His novels are famous for their extremely spare, blunt, simple
sentences and emotions that play out right on the surface of things. There is an irony to this bluntness,
however, as his characters often have hidden agendas, hidden sometimes even from themselves, which
serve to guide their actions. The Lost Generation, like other “High Modernists,” gave up on the idea that
anything was truly knowable. All truth became relative, conditional, and in flux. The War demonstrated
that no guiding spirit rules the events of the world, and that absolute destruction was kept in check by
only the tiniest of margins.
The novel was by no means immune from the self-conscious, reflective impulses of the new
century. Modernism introduced a new kind of narration to the novel, one that would fundamentally
change the entire essence of novel writing. The “unreliable” narrator supplanted the omniscient,
trustworthy narrator of preceding centuries, and readers were forced to question even the most basic
assumptions about how the novel should operate. James Joyce’s Ulysses is the prime example of a novel
whose events are really the happenings of the mind, the goal of which is to translate as well as possible
the strange pathways of human consciousness. A whole new perspective came into being known as
“stream of consciousness.” Rather than looking out into the world, the great novelists of the early
twentieth century surveyed the inner space of the human mind. At the same time, the psychoanalytic
theories of Sigmund Freud had come into mainstream acceptance. These two forces worked together to
alter people’s basic understanding of what constituted truth and reality.
Experimentation with genre and form was yet another defining characteristic of Modernist
literature. Perhaps the most representative example of this experimental mode is T. S. Eliot’s long
poem The Waste Land. Literary critics often single out The Waste Land  as the definitive sample of
Modernist literature. In it, one is confronted by biblical-sounding verse forms, quasi-conversational
interludes, dense and frequent references which frustrate even the most well-read readers, and sections
that resemble prose more than poetry. At the same time, Eliot fully displays all the conventions which
one expects in Modernist literature. There is the occupation with self and inwardness, the loss of
traditional structures to buttress the ego against shocking realities, and a fluid nature to truth and
knowledge.
The cynicism and alienation of the first flowering of Modernist literature could not persist. By
mid-century, indeed by the Second World War, there was already a strong reaction against the
pretentions of the Moderns. Artists of this newer generation pursued a more democratic, pluralistic
mode for poetry and the novel. There was optimism for the first time in a long time. Commercialism,
publicity, and the popular audience were finally embraced, not shunned. Alienation became boring.
True, the influence of Modernist literature continues to be quite astonishing. The Modern poet-critics
changed the way people think about artists and creative pursuits. The Modern novelists changed the
way many people perceive truth and reality. These changes are indeed profound, and cannot easily be
replaced by new schemas.
This article is copyrighted © 2011 by Jalic Inc. Do not reprint it without permission. Written by
Josh Rahn. Josh holds a Masters degree in English Literature from Morehead State University, and a
Masters degree in Library Science from the University of Kentucky.
Major Modernist Writers

 Bishop, Elizabeth (1911-1979)

 Conrad, Joseph (1857-1924)
 Doolittle, Hilda (1886-1961)
 Eliot, Thomas Stearns (1888-1965)
 Faulkner, William (1897-1962)
 Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1896-1940)
 Hemingway, Ernest (1899-1961)
 Hughes, Langston (1902-1967)
 James, Henry (1843-1916)
 Lawrence, D. H. (1885-1930)
 Lowell, Amy (1874-1925)
 Pound, Ezra (1885-1972)
 Shaw, George Bernard (1856-1950)
 Stevens, Wallace (1879-1955)
 Williams, Tennessee (1882-1941)
 Woolf, Virginia (1882-1941)
 Yeats, William Butler (1865-1939)

D. Contemporary Period of Literature

           The contemporary period of literature was between the years 1945 and 1970. At this time
in history, technology was expanding and the war was over. Since the fighting was over,
Americans had to deal with the aftermath. Fortunately, World War I brought our country out of
the deep despair and poverty from the Great Depression. It was a consumer economy. People
began buying more goods and the economy benefitted. On the other hand, Americans held fear.
They had seen so much death, and they lost their loved ones. They almost lost hope. Because of
the disillusionment from the Modern period, people realized that war was not as good as it was
expected to be. Our country became powerful, but Americans wanted to return to pre-war life.
Americans also had to deal with racism that was sparked by the Civil War. The United States was
trying to get back on its feet from the recent wars, as well as, deal with an ever- changing
country.
         These changes were made evident in literature. Americans wanted all of the new
technology, so they bought it. They needed money, so Americans tried very hard to become
 prosperous. They wanted the typical American dream of "Rags to Riches." Writers noticed this
trend, and they used it to influence their literature. Authors wrote many stories about
characters trying to achieve success, and dealing with the trials that came along with it.
         The 1960's were troubling and rebellious years. Our President, John F. Kennedy, was shot
and killed. Our country was also involved in the in the Vietnam War. The United States was not
happy about the involvement with Vietnam. After two world wars, Americans did not want to
fight another war. They rebelled in a different way. They rebelled against the culture itself
instead of the Government. In literature, this theme is obvious. Authors wrote about people
that were dealing with any kind of rebellion, because our country was rebelling against itself.
         The Civil War was over, but racism was not. Stories were based on the unfair advantage
white people had over black people. Characters also struggled with figuring out what their
American dream really was. The racism made our country question our beliefs and motives.
Americans did not like how racism affected their country. Americans, as well as, the characters
focused on establishing the true American dream was, and they tried to deal with racism and
Civil rights. Americans began to see that all were not treated equal.
         Although our country dealt with many struggles, we made it through. Wars and racism
affected our society. There was a lot of hope lost. We became powerful, but Americans
preferred the less powerful version of our country. They liked the country we had before the
wars affected us. Consequently, they tried to change. They tried to become prosperous and
achieve the American dream, or change it where it had faults. Americans also dealt with racism
and civil rights to make our country fair and just. Authors let this reflect in their literature.





 

 Literary Themes
           Rebellion and the fight for the American dream were two main themes in the
Contemporary period of literature. The assassination of our president is what sparked most
rebellion. There was also rebellion within racism. African-Americans began to stand up for
themselves. Women fought for their rights as well. Authors would write stories about people
that stood up for what is right, or they wrote about rebellious people. Americans tried to
discover what the American dream was. They originally thought it was prosperity, but it wasn't.
They saw their culture becoming something terrible, so they tried to rediscover themselves.
Literature told all about rediscovery of individuals, and the rebellion of individuals. It also told
the stories of men and women dealing with be treated wrong because of their gender or race.

Difference Between Modern and Contemporary Literature

 34
  The key difference between modern and contemporary literature is their time period. Modern
literature refers to the literature dating from late nineteenth century to nineteen sixties while
the contemporary literature refers to the literature dating from the Second World War to the
present.
 Modern literature and contemporary literature are two overlapping taps and many people don’t
know the exact difference between them. Although both modern and contemporary refer to
new or current work, in literature, contemporary literature is the literary period that follows
modernist period.
 What is Modern Literature?

 As a literary period, modern literature basically refers to the modernist period in the literature
that has its origins in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The most significant
feature of this period is the deliberate break from traditional writing, in both prose and verse.
Modernist writers experimented with new form and content. Most importantly, revolutionary
figures such as Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Charles Darwin, and Friedrich Nietzsche influenced
writers to think in a new way. The industrial revolution, urbanization and world wars were also
main influential forces behind the modernist period.
 Furthermore, inner self and consciousness were predominant concerns in modernist literature.
The stream of consciousness was one of the main literary techniques modernist writers used to
convey their ideas. They also used techniques such as irony, satire, and interior monologues.
James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Ernest Hemingway, Joseph Conrad, T.S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, F. Scott
Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, William Butler Yeats, and Virginia Woolf are some popular
modernist writers.
 What is Contemporary Literature?

 The term contemporary literature is a very broad one. In a general sense, contemporary
literature refers to literary work published in the modern world. However, in literature,
contemporary literature refers to literature dating from the Second World War to the present.
However, this is only a vague definition; it is important to notice that there is no clear-cut
explanation for this period. Furthermore, most scholars consider contemporary literature as the
literary period that follows modernist period.
 Work in contemporary literature mainly includes believable stories with a base in reality. The
characters are strong and believable while the setting is modern era. Moreover, stories in
contemporary literature are considered to be more character driven than plot driven. Some
genres of this period include flash fiction, slam poetry, memoirs, autobiographies, novels, and
poetry.
 Moreover, studies in contemporary literature typically also include a variety of topics such as
African American literature, post-colonial literature, and Latin literature. In other words, one can
study contemporary works written by many literary figures in Asia, Middle East, and Africa when
learning contemporary literature.
 What is the Difference Between Modern and Contemporary Literature?

 Modern literature or modernist literature refers to a late 19th century and early 20 th century
style/movement that broke away from the traditional styles. Contemporary literature is the
period that followed modernist literature. Modern literature refers to the literature dating from
late nineteenth century to nineteen sixties while the contemporary literature refers to the
literature dating from the Second World War to the present. Thus, the main difference between
 modern and contemporary literature is their time period. Moreover, modernist literature mainly
included North American and European literature whereas contemporary literature includes
literature all over the world.


 Summary – Modern vs Contemporary Literature

 Many people confuse the two terms modern literature and contemporary literature. Although
both may refer to the same in a general sense, there is a difference between modern and
contemporary literature according to their time periods. Modern literature refers to the
literature dating from late nineteenth century to nineteen sixties while the contemporary
literature refers to the literature dating from the Second World War to the present.

V. REFERENCES: De Guzman, Renato. 2012. English and American Literature. Jimcyville

Publications.
Tenejeros, Malabon City.

Senatin, Ruby B. & Fe Centenera. 2009. Introduction to Literature.

National Book Store
Mandaluyong City, Mania
 Selden, Raman et. al 2017. A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary
Theory. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. London & New York

Tan, Arsenia B. 2001. Introduction to Literatue 4 th Edition. Academic

Publishing Corporation. Cubao, Quezon, City

Poem Analysis, https://poemanalysis.com/literary device/repetition

VI. ASSESSMENT
TASK:
Graded Recitation/
QUIZ