Topic 1: Introduction to Principles of Teaching

 Principles of Teaching
o Nature of the learning process.
o Goals of the learning process.
o Construction of knowledge.
o Strategic thinking.
o Thinking about thinking.
o Context of learning.
o Motivational and emotional influences on learning.
o Intrinsic motivation to learn.

 Teaching Methods: Not as Simple as ABC

The teacher-centered approach vs. the student-centered approach. High-tech vs. low-tech
approaches to learning. Flipped classrooms, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning,
personalized learning and more.
Not only are there dozens of teaching methods to explore, it is also important to have a sense for
how they often overlap or interrelate.
“Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a
teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus
low-tech material use,” according to the informative Teach.com article, which breaks down a variety
of influential teaching methods as follows:
Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning
Teachers serve as instructor/authority figures who deliver knowledge to their students through
lectures and direct instruction, and aim to measure the results through testing and assessment. This
method is sometimes referred to as “sage on the stage.”
Student-Centered Approach to Learning
Teachers still serve as an authority figure, but may function more as a facilitator or “guide on the
side,” as students assume a much more active role in the learning process. In this method, students
learn from and are continually assessed on such activities as group projects, student portfolios and
class participation.
High-Tech Approach to Learning
From devices like laptops and tablets to using the internet to connect students with information
and people from around the world, technology plays an ever-greater role in many of today’s
classrooms. In the high-tech approach to learning, teachers utilize many different types of
technology to aid students in their classroom learning.
Low-Tech Approach to Learning
Technology obviously comes with pros and cons, and many teachers believe that a low-tech
approach better enables them to tailor the educational experience to different types of learners.
Additionally, while computer skills are undeniably necessary today, this must be balanced against
potential downsides; for example, some would argue that over-reliance on spell check and
autocorrect features can inhibit rather than strengthen student spelling and writing skills.
Diving further into the overlap between different types of teaching methods, here is a closer look at
three teacher-centered methods of instruction and five popular student-centered approaches.
Teaching Methods [Teacher-Centered]
Direct Instruction (Low Tech)
Under the direct instruction model — sometimes described as the “traditional” approach to
teaching — teachers convey knowledge to their students primarily through lectures and scripted
lesson plans, without factoring in student preferences or opportunities for hands-on or other types
of learning. This method is also customarily low-tech since it relies on texts and workbooks rather
than computers or mobile devices.
Flipped Classrooms (High Tech)
What if students did the “classroom” portion of their learning at home and their “homework” in the
classroom? That’s an oversimplified description of the flipped classroom approach, in which
students watch or read their lessons on computers at home and then complete assignments and
do problem-solving exercises in class.
Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech)
In the kinesthetic learning model, students perform hands-on physical activities rather than
listening to lectures or watching demonstrations. Kinesthetic learning, which values movement and
creativity over technological skills, is most commonly used to augment traditional types of
instruction — the theory being that requiring students to do, make or create something exercises
different learning muscles.
Teaching Methods [Student-Centered]
Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech)
Inspired by the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted to ensure equal
access to public education for all children, differentiated instruction is the practice of developing an
understanding of how each student learns best, and then tailoring instruction to meet students’
individual needs.
In some instances, this means Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students with special
needs, but today teachers use differentiated instruction to connect with all types of learners by
offering options on how students access content, the types of activities they do to master a
concept, how student learning is assessed and even how the classroom is set up.
Inquiry-Based Learning (High Tech)
Rather than function as a sole authority figure, in inquiry-based learning teachers offer support and
guidance as students work on projects that depend on them taking on a more active and
participatory role in their own learning. Different students might participate in different projects,
developing their own questions and then conducting research — often using online resources —
and then demonstrate the results of their work through self-made videos, web pages or formal
presentations.
Expeditionary Learning (Low Tech)
Expeditionary learning is based on the idea that there is considerable educational value in getting
students out of the classroom and into the real world. Examples include trips to City Hall or
Washington, D.C., to learn about the workings of government, or out into nature to engage in
specific study related to the environment. Technology can be used to augment such expeditions,
but the primary focus is on getting out into the community for real-world learning experiences.
Personalized Learning (High Tech)
In personalized learning, teachers encourage students to follow personalized, self-directed learning
plans that are inspired by their specific interests and skills. Since assessment is also tailored to the
individual, students can advance at their own pace, moving forward or spending extra time as
needed. Teachers offer some traditional instruction as well as online material, while also continually
reviewing student progress and meeting with students to make any needed changes to their
learning plans.
Game-Based Learning (High Tech)
Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based
learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work on quests to accomplish a
specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of
earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game. For teachers, planning this type of
activity requires additional time and effort, so many rely on software like Classcraft or 3DGameLab
to help students maximize the educational value they receive from within the gamified learning
environment.
What About Blended Learning and UDL?
Blended Learning
Blended learning is another strategy for teachers looking to introduce flexibility into their
classroom. This method relies heavily on technology, with part of the instruction taking place
online and part in the classroom via a more traditional approach, often leveraging elements of the
flipped classroom approach detailed above. At the heart of blended learning is a philosophy of
taking the time to understand each student’s learning style and develop strategies to teach to
every learner, by building flexibility and choice into your curriculum.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
UDL incorporates both student-centered learning and the “multiple intelligences theory,” which
holds that different learners are wired to learn most effectively in different ways (examples of these
“intelligences” include visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, musical,
etc.). In practice, this could mean that some students might be working on a writing project while
others would be more engaged if they created a play or a movie. UDL emphasizes the idea of
teaching to every student, special needs students included, in the general education classroom,
creating community and building knowledge through multiple means.
Teaching Methods: A to Z
In addition to the many philosophical and pedagogical approaches to teaching, classroom
educators today employ diverse and sometimes highly creative methods involving specific
strategies, prompts and tools that require little explanation. These include:

o Appointments with students

o Art-based projects
o Audio tutorials
o Author’s chair
o Book reports
o Bulletin boards
o Brainstorming
o Case studies
o Chalkboard instruction
o Class projects
o Classroom discussion
o Classroom video diary
o Collaborative learning spaces
o Creating murals and montages
o Current events quizzes
o Debates
o Designated quiet space
o Discussion groups
o DIY activities
o Dramatization (plays, skits, etc.)
o Educational games
o Educational podcasts
o Essays (Descriptive)
o Essays (Expository)
o Essays (Narrative)
o Essays (Persuasive)
o Exhibits and displays
o Explore different cultures
o Field trips
o Flash cards
o Flexible seating
o Gamified learning plans
o Genius hour
o Group discussion
o Guest speakers
o Hands-on activities
o Individual projects
o Interviewing
o Journaling
o Laboratory experiments
o Learning contracts
o Learning stations
o Lecturing
o Literature circles
o Making posters
o Math games
o Mock conventions
o Motivational posters
o Music from other countries/cultures
o Oral reports
 o Panel discussions
o Peer partner learning
o Pen pals
o Photography
o Problem solving activities
o Reading aloud
o Readers’ theater
o Recitation
o Reflective discussion
o Research projects
o Rewards & recognition
o Role playing
o School newspapers
o Science fairs
o Scrapbooks
o Sister city programs
o Spelling bees
o Storytelling
o Student podcasts
o Student portfolios
o Student presentations
o Student-conceived projects
o Supplemental reading assignments
o TED talks
o Team-building exercises
o Term papers
o Textbook assignments
o Think-tac-toe
o Time capsules
o Timelines
o Use of community or local resources
o Video creation
o Video lessons
o Vocabulary lists
o Web quests
o Word walls
o Workbooks

For the Love of Teaching

So, is the teacher the center of the educational universe or the student? Does strong reliance on
the wonders of technology offer a more productive educational experience or is a more traditional,
lower-tech approach the best way to help students thrive?
Questions such as these are food for thought for educators everywhere, in part because they
inspire ongoing reflection on how to make a meaningful difference in the lives of one’s students.

 Teaching Styles Lesson
 You’ve Got Style
 These teaching styles highlight the five main strategies teachers use in the classroom, as well as the
benefits and potential pitfalls of each.
The Authority, or lecture style
The authority model is teacher-centered and frequently entails lengthy lecture sessions or one-way
presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb information.

o Pros: This style is acceptable for certain higher-education disciplines and auditorium settings with
large groups of students. The pure lecture style is most suitable for subjects like history, which
necessitate memorization of key facts, dates, names, etc.
o Cons: It’s a questionable model for teaching children because there is little or no interaction with
the teacher. Plus it can get a little snooze-y. That’s why it’s a better approach for older, more
mature students.

The Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role by showing students what they need to know. The
demonstrator is a lot like the lecturer, but their lessons include multimedia presentations, activities, and
demonstrations. (Think: Math. Science. Music.)

o Pros: This style gives teachers opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats including lectures
and multimedia presentations.
o Cons: Although it’s well-suited for teaching mathematics, music, physical education, or arts and
crafts, it is difficult to accommodate students’ individual needs in larger classrooms.

The Facilitator, or activity style

Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking skills and retain knowledge
that leads to self-actualization.

o Pros: This style trains students to ask questions and helps develop skills to find answers and
solutions through exploration; it is ideal for teaching science and similar subjects.
o Cons: Challenges teacher to interact with students and prompt them toward discovery rather than
lecturing facts and testing knowledge through memorization. So it’s a bit harder to measure
success in tangible terms.

The Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best suited for curricula that require lab activities, such as chemistry and biology, or
subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate and creative writing.

o Pros: Guided discovery and inquiry-based learning place the teacher in an observer role that
inspires students by working in tandem toward common goals.
o Cons: Considered a modern style of teaching, it is sometimes criticized as eroding teacher
authority. As a delegator, the teacher acts more as a consultant rather than the traditional authority
figure.

The Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that blends the teacher’s personality
and interests with students’ needs and curriculum-appropriate methods.

o Pros: Inclusive! And it enables teachers to tailor their styles to student needs and appropriate
subject matter.
o Cons: Hybrid style runs the risk of trying to be too many things to all students, prompting teachers
to spread themselves too thin and dilute learning.

Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and curriculum—from math and
science to English and history—it’s crucial that they remain focused on their teaching objectives and avoid
trying to be all things to all students.
What you need to know about your teaching style
Although it is not the teacher’s job to entertain students, it is vital to engage them in the learning process.
Selecting a style that addresses the needs of diverse students at different learning levels begins with a
personal inventory—a self-evaluation—of the teacher’s strengths and weaknesses. As they develop their
teaching styles and integrate them with effective classroom management skills, teachers will learn what
works best for their personalities and curriculum.
Our guide encapsulates today’s different teaching styles and helps teachers identify the style that’s right
for them and their students. Browse through the article or use these links to jump to your desired
destination.

o What is a teaching style inventory, and how have teaching styles evolved?
o What teaching method is best for today’s students?
o How does classroom diversity influence teachers?

Emergence of the teaching style inventory

How have teaching styles evolved? This is a question teachers are asked, and frequently ask themselves, as
they embark on their careers, and occasionally pause along the way to reflect on job performance. To
understand the differences in teaching styles, it’s helpful to know where the modern concept of classifying
teaching methods originated.
The late Anthony F. Grasha, a noted professor of psychology at the University of Cincinnati, is credited
with developing the classic five teaching styles. A follower of psychiatrist Carl Jung, Grasha began studying
the dynamics of the relationship between teachers and learning in college classrooms. His groundbreaking
book, Teaching with Style, was written both as a guide for teachers and as a tool to help colleagues,
administrators and students systematically evaluate an instructor’s effectiveness in the classroom.
Grasha understood that schools must use a consistent, formal approach in evaluating a teacher’s
classroom performance. He recognized that any system designed to help teachers improve their
instructional skills requires a simple classification system. He developed a teaching style inventory that has
since been adopted and modified by followers.

o Expert: Similar to a coach, experts share knowledge, demonstrate their expertise, advise students,
and provide feedback to improve understanding and promote learning.
o Formal authority: Authoritative teachers incorporate the traditional lecture format and share many
of the same characteristics as experts, but with less student interaction.
o Personal model: Incorporates blended teaching styles that match the best techniques with the
appropriate learning scenarios and students in an adaptive format.
o Facilitator: Designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom projects while
providing information and offering feedback to facilitate critical thinking.
 o Delegator: Organizes group learning, observes students, provides consultation, and promotes
interaction between groups and among individuals to achieve learning objectives.

Although he developed specific teaching styles, Grasha warned against boxing teachers into a single
category. Instead, he advocated that teachers play multiple roles in the classroom. He believed most
teachers possess some combination of all or most of the classic teaching styles.
How does differentiated instruction affect teaching styles?
Carol Ann Tomlinson, a professor at the University of Virginia, is an early advocate of differentiated
instruction and a pioneer in the development of learning-based teaching styles. If Grasha laid the
groundwork for 20th-century teachers to adopt styles tailored to match their personalities and strengths,
Tomlinson has advanced this theme into the 21st century by focusing on differentiated instruction.
In the simplest terms, differentiated instruction means keeping all students in mind when developing
lesson plans and workbook exercises, lectures, and interactive learning. These student-focused differences
necessitate instructional styles that embrace diverse classrooms for students at all learning levels and from
various backgrounds without compromising the teacher’s strengths.
What teaching style is best for today’s students?
Whether you’re a first-year teacher eager to put into practice all of the pedagogical techniques you
learned in college, or a classroom veteran examining differentiated instruction and new learning
methodologies, consider that not all students respond well to one particular style. Although teaching
styles have been categorized into five groups, today’s ideal teaching style is not an either/or proposition
but more of a hybrid approach that blends the best of everything a teacher has to offer.
The traditional advice that teachers not overreach with a cluster of all-encompassing teaching styles might
seem to conflict with today’s emphasis on student-centered classrooms. Theoretically, the more teachers
emphasize student-centric learning, the harder it is to develop a well-focused style based on their
personal attributes, strengths, and goals.
In short, modern methods of teaching require different types of teachers—from the analyst/organizer to
the negotiator/consultant. Here are some other factors to consider as teachers determine the best
teaching method for their students.
Empty vessel: Critics of the “sage on the stage” lecture style point to the “empty vessel” theory, which
assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to be filled by the “expert” teacher. Critics of this
traditional approach to teaching insist this teaching style is outmoded and needs to be updated for the
diverse 21st-century classroom.
Active vs. passive: Proponents of the traditional lecture approach believe that an overemphasis on
group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like facilitator and delegator, favor gifted and competitive
students over passive children with varied learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of
meeting the needs of all learners.
Knowledge vs. information: Knowledge implies a complete understanding, or full comprehension, of a
particular subject. A blend of teaching styles that incorporate facilitator, delegator, demonstrator, and
lecturer techniques helps the broadest range of students acquire in-depth knowledge and mastery of a
given subject. This stands in contrast to passive learning, which typically entails memorizing facts, or
information, with the short-term objective of scoring well on tests.
Interactive classrooms: Laptops and tablets, video conferencing, and podcasts in classrooms play a vital
role in today’s teaching styles. With technology in mind, it is imperative that teachers assess their students’
knowledge while they are learning. The alternative is to wait for test results, only to discover knowledge
gaps that should have been detected during the active learning phase.
Constructivist teaching methods: Contemporary teaching styles tend to be group-focused and inquiry-
driven. Constructivist teaching methods embrace subsets of alternative teaching styles, including
modeling, coaching, and test preparation through rubrics scaffolding. All of these are designed to
promote student participation and necessitate a hybrid approach to teaching. One criticism of the
constructivist approach is that it caters to extroverted, group-oriented students, who tend to dominate
and benefit from these teaching methods more than introverts; however, this assumes introverts aren’t
learning by observing.
Student-centric learning does not have to come at the expense of an instructor’s preferred teaching
method. However, differentiated instruction demands that teachers finesse their style to accommodate the
diverse needs of 21st-century classrooms.
The ‘sage on the stage’ meets the ‘tiger mom’
The objective of blending teaching styles to leverage the teacher’s strengths while meeting the demands
of diverse students has become increasingly difficult, as parents take a decidedly proactive role in child-
learning techniques.
The traditional authoritative/expert, or “sage on the stage” lecture style, has come under attack by some
parents—and contemporary educational leaders—who emphasize that a more diverse approach to
teaching is necessary to engage students. This is compounded by the rise of “tiger moms,” a term made
popular by parents devoted to improving the quality of education with laser-precision focus on A-list
schools and a highly competitive job market.
Age of the proactive parent
Regardless of what style a teacher adopts, it’s important for teachers to develop positive attitudes, set
goals, and establish high expectations for students.
“Assume students can excel!” education authors Harry and Rosemary Wong declare. As former teachers
with a combined 80-plus years of educational experience, the Wongs emphasize in their best-selling
book, The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective Teacher and their more recent, The Classroom
Management Book  that successful teachers share three common characteristics:

o effective classroom management skills

o lesson mastery
o positive expectations

All instructors, when developing their teaching styles, should keep in mind these three goals, as well as the
primary objective of education: student learning.
How does classroom diversity influence teachers?
It is abundantly clear that today’s teachers are responsible for students with a diverse range of learning
abilities. The 21st-century teacher does not have the luxury of “picking the low-hanging fruit” and then
leaving the rest of the tree for experts who specialize in children with behavioral issues or learning
disorders.
Today’s teachers must develop instructional styles that work well in diverse classrooms. Effective teaching
methods engage gifted students, as well as slow-learning children and those with attention deficit
tendencies. This is where differentiated instruction and a balanced mix of teaching styles can help reach all
students in a given classroom—not just the few who respond well to one particular style of teaching.
The wonderment of teaching, what author/educator Dr. Harry Wong refers to as “that a-ha moment” when
a child “gets it,” is one of the most rewarding and seemingly elusive benefits of becoming a teacher. This
transfer of knowledge from expert to student is an art form and a skill. Fortunately, both can be learned
and perfected.
Knowing how to engage students begins with selecting the teaching style that’s right for you. And
remember, even though you may prefer one teaching style over another, you must find the style that
works best for your students! Try different styles to meet different objectives, and always challenge
yourself to find ways to reach each student.
 
Topic 2: Early Education Theories

EARLY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

  Edward Thorndike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949)

An American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His
work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped
lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems,
such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and
served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. A Review of General
Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist of the 20th
century. 
Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and behavior analysis, providing the
basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology with his law of effect. Through his contributions
to the behavioral psychology field came his major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great
influence in the classroom.
Connectionism Theory
Edward Lee Thorndike was a pioneer not only in behaviorism and in studying learning, but also in using
animals in psychology experiments. Thorndike was able to create a theory of learning based on his
research with animals. He was the first in psychology where the subjects were nonhumans. Thorndike was
interested in whether animals could learn tasks through imitation or observation.
Connectionism presents a cognitive theory based on simultaneously occurring, distributed signal activity
via connections that can be represented numerically, where learning occurs by modifying connection
strengths based on experience. Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals
and humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory to education including
mathematics, spelling and reading, measurement of intelligence and adult learning.
Thorndike’s Laws of learning
1.     Law of effect
An individual's response to a specific situation followed by a reward will eventually make those responses
stronger. Therefore, the responses become habits when the individual is presented with that particular
situation again. Additionally, if a response deters an individual from achieving a reward, or a “rewarding
state”, then this response becomes weaker.
2.      Law of readiness
A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a goal. If the person is prevented
from achieving this goal, this will cause “annoyance”. First primary law of learning, according to him, is the
‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action
tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of
action.
3.     Law of exercise
Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or sporadic associations become
weaker.
 Implication to Education of Connectionism Theory
·       According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This
approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.
·       A small child learns some skills through trial-and-error method only such as sitting, standing, walking,
running etc. In teaching also, the child rectifies the writing after committing mistakes.
·       In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the
classroom the students should be properly motivated.
·       Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial-and-error method. Practice
helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
·       Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the
children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
·       The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the
effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in
them, if required.

Classical Conditioning Theory

Ivan Pavlov

His Early Life

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist best known in psychology for his discovery of classical
conditioning. During his studies on the digestive systems of dogs, Pavlov noted that the animals salivated
naturally upon the presentation of food.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14, 1849, in the village of Ryazan, Russia, where his father
was the village priest. His earliest studies were focused on theology, but reading Charles Darwin's On the
Origin of the Species had a powerful influence on his future interests.
He soon abandoned his religious studies and devoted himself to the study of science. In 1870, he began
studying the natural sciences at St. Petersburg University.

Pavlov's Career
Pavlov's primary interests were the study of physiology and natural sciences. He helped found the
Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine and continued to oversee the
program for the next 45 years.1
"Science demands from a man all his life. If you had two lives that would not be enough for you. Be
passionate in your work and in your searching," Pavlov once suggested.
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.
The most famous example of classical conditioning was Pavlov's experiment with dogs, who salivated in
response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog
learned to associate the sound with the presentation of the food.
John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was
able to explain all aspects of human psychology.
          Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens unconsciously. When you learn through
classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus. This creates a
behavior.  Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a
learned response
Stages of Classical Conditioning:
1.     Before Conditioning
Before conditioning is when the unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response come into play. This
is the natural response that wasn’t taught.
At this point, the conditioned stimulus is still called the neutral stimulus because it currently has no effect.
2.     During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral
stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger
a conditioned response.
3.     After Conditioning
Once you’ve learned to associate the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned response, it becomes
the conditioned response.
In the after-conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response.
Implication to Education of Classical Conditioning Theory
·       The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before embarking
on another one.
·       Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile with various
strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the teaching learning activities.
·       The teacher can utilize this conditioning method in the classroom for teaching the languages.
·       A teacher can make the use of the conditioning method to eliminate the superstitions of the children.
·       Conditioning may help the child in breaking negative and promoting attitudes. In short, good and
bad habits may be developed in the child through this method of conditioning. Thus, a teacher should
present himself before the children as an ideal.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Skinner is regarded as the Father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s
(1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is
likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends
to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished
(i.e., weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in
a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist Burrhus Frederic Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. Skinner's research and writing quickly made
him one of the leaders of the behaviorist movement in psychology and his work contributed immensely to
the development of experimental psychology. Drawing on his former literary career, Skinner also used
fiction to present many of his theoretical ideas. In his 1948 book Walden Two, Skinner described a fictional
utopian society in which people were trained to become ideal citizens through the use of operant
conditioning.
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that
employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.
  "SKINNER BOX"

             
A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an
animal's behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in
certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
 Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of
a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
Components of Operant Conditioning Theory
1.       Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
Ø  Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive
reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct
reward.
Ø  Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant.
 2.     Punishment
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows.  
Ø  Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable
event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
Ø  Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
Implication to Education of Operant Conditioning Theory
·       The theory suggests the great potentiality of the shaping procedure for behavior modification.
Operant conditioning can be used for shaping behavior of children by appropriate use of reinforcement or
rewards. Behavior can be shaped through successive approximation in terms of small steps
·       Eliminating negative behavior through extinction When a learned response is repeated without
reinforcement, the strength of the tendency to perform that response undergoes a progressive decrease.
Extinction procedures can be successfully used by the class-room teacher in eliminating negative behavior
of students.
·       Operant conditioning has valuable implications for reinforcement techniques in the class-room. The
schools can use the principles of operant conditioning to eliminate the element of fear from school
atmosphere by using positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is perhaps the most widely used
behavioral technique in the school setting.
·       Using operant conditioning can give students immediate feedback about their behavior. When the
teacher rewards positive behavior, other students are more likely to copy that behavior to earn the reward.
The rewarded student is also more likely to repeat that behavior because of the positive feedback.

Behaviorism

The History of Behaviorism

·       Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying
digestion in dogs.
·       Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing an article, Psychology as the
behaviorist views it.
·       Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
·       Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
·       Skinner (1938) wrote The Behavior of Organisms and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning
and shaping.
·       Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
·       B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon
behaviorist principles.
·       Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior begun in 1958.
·       Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior."
·       Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the Social Leaning Theory and Personality development which
combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
·       B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is
an illusion.
 
BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are
learned through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is
simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-
response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. Behaviorists believe
that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
Early work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936).
Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human
produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the
response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. The reflex
Pavlov worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food. The salivation reflex could be
elicited using a second stimulus, such as a specific sound, that was presented in association with the initial
food stimulus several times. Once the response to the second stimulus was “learned,” the food stimulus
could be omitted. Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is only one form of learning behavior studied by
behaviorists.
  Edward Thorndike’s (1898) work with cats and puzzle boxes illustrates the concept of conditioning. The
puzzle boxes were approximately 50 cm long, 38 cm wide, and 30 cm tall (see figure below). Thorndike’s
puzzle boxes were built so that the cat, placed inside the box, could escape only if it pressed a bar or
pulled a lever, which caused the string attached to the door to lift the weight and open the door.
Thorndike measured the time it took the cat to perform the required response (e.g., pulling the lever).
Once it had learned the response he gave the cat a reward, usually food.
Thorndike found that once a cat accidentally stepped on the switch, it would then press the switch faster
in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording how long it took a variety of
animals to escape through several trials, Thorndike was able to graph the learning curve (graphed as an S-
shape). He observed that most animals had difficulty escaping at first, then began to escape faster and
faster with each successive puzzle box trial, and eventually levelled off in their escape times. The learning
curve also suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. His finding
was that cats, for instance, consistently showed gradual learning. 

From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning
(1932).    “Thorndike’s Puzzle Box” by Jacob Sussman is available through Public Domain“
Of the manifold parts of his theory, Thorndike’s Law of Effect remains one of the theories’ most well-
known corollaries.
Law of Effect: If an association is followed by satisfaction, it will be strengthened, and if it is followed  by
annoyance, it will be weakened.
That is, Thorndike believed that an organism would seek to strengthen the association between a stimulus
and response, if that association was perceived to yield satisfaction or pleasure to that organism.
Conversely, an organism would seek to weaken an association between a stimulus and response if it
brought annoyance. Consider a hungry mouse that is rewarded for pressing a lever with food. The
association between the lever press and the food will be strengthened if the reward is perceived to be
pleasurable, which to the hungry mouse, is sure to find the reward highly agreeable. However, if the same
mouse received an electric shock after pressing the lever, the mouse may choose to avoid the lever in
future trials. If the stimulus is not elicited (lever press), there will be no response – the mouse weakens the
association between lever press and the electric shock. The law of effect later was replaced by terminology
coined by later behaviorists, preferring the terms “reinforcement” and “punishment” over “satisfaction”
and “annoyance”.
John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work
occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James
were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of
consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson
preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson
was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach
of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism. A major object of study by
behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism
commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models
could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, “I believe that
everything important in psychology (except … such matters as involving society and words) can be
investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of
rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.”
Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's classic paper,
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the following quote from Watson, who is
often considered the "father" of behaviorism:
 "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

The Little Albert Experiment

Little Albert was a 9-month-old infant who was tested on his reactions to various neutral stimuli. He was
shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey and various masks. And he showed no fear of any of these stimuli.
However, what did startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a steel bar
behind his head. The sudden loud noise would cause "little Albert to burst into tears.
 After seven pairings of the rat and noise Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was
presented without the loud noise. Because of that every time Albert saw a rat  he immediately showed
every sign of fear and  He would cry and he would attempt to crawl away. This process is known as
generalization.
The Little Albert Experiment demonstrated that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A
phobia is an irrational fear that is out of proportion to the danger. In this experiment, a previously unafraid
baby was conditioned to become afraid of a rat.
Over the next few weeks and months, Little Albert was observed and ten days after conditioning his fear of
the rat was much less marked. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction.
However, even after a full month, it was still evident, and the association could be renewed by repeating
the original procedure a few times.
Unfortunately, Albert's mother withdrew him from the experiment the day the last tests were made, and
Watson and Rayner were unable to conduct further experiments to reverse the condition response.

Behaviorism is key for educators because it impacts how students react and behave in the classroom, and
suggests that teachers can directly influence how their students behave. It also helps teachers understand
that a student’s home environment and lifestyle can be impacting their behavior, helping them see it
objectively and work to assist with improvement.

Behaviorism learning theory.

In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate and help
students. Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response to the right stimulus.
Students are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are giving them the information as an
element of stimulus-response. Teachers use behaviorism to show students how they should react and
respond to certain stimuli. This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what
behavior a teacher is looking for. 
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement, students
will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For example, if students
are supposed to get a sticker every time they get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving that
positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected to a
reward for them. 
Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory. Teachers
often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive reinforcement
come to show students why they should continue that behavior. 
Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement can be
motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score is much more
likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a good test score. The
student who receives no praise is experiencing negative reinforcement—their brain tells them that though
they got a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of the test becomes unimportant to them.
Conversely students who receive positive reinforcement see a direct correlation to continuing excellence,
completely based on that response to a positive stimulus.  
Behaviorist teaching strategies.
Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in many ways,
including:
 Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
 Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response,
gradually getting harder with questions to help students.
 Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give
them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.
 Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material and
giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.
 Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can be
in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more. 
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist. Like Watson, Skinner was a
behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. B.F. Skinner called his
particular brand of behaviorism radical behaviourism (1974). Radical behaviorism is the philosophy of the
science of behaviour. It seeks to understand behaviour as a function of environmental histories of
reinforcing consequences. This applied behaviourism does not accept private events such as thinking,
perceptions, and unobservable emotions in a causal account of an organism’s behaviour.
While a researcher at Harvard, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, popularly referred to
as the Skinner box (see figure below), used to measure responses of organisms (most often rats and
pigeons) and their orderly interactions with the environment. The box had a lever and a food tray, and a
hungry rat inside the box could get food delivered to the tray by pressing the lever. Skinner observed that
when a rat was first put into the box, it would wander around, sniffing and exploring, and would usually
press the bar by accident, at which point a food pellet would drop into the tray. After that happened, the
rate of bar pressing would increase dramatically and remain high until the rat was no longer hungry. The
Skinner Box has remained a crucial resource for researchers studying behavior (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Research conducted with the Skinner Box led to the principle of reinforcement, which is the probability of
something occurring based on the consequences of a behavior.
 Application of Instructional Design
·       Students will work for things that bring them positive feelings.
·       Use of a token system can reinforce positive academic performance.
·       Students can utilize the art of repetition so that information remains concrete during the learning
process.
·       Small progressively sequenced tasks ensure that students remain focused during the learning
process.
Example of Application
 A teacher provides a substantial list of practice problems for students to help them learn Algebra.
Stimulus
• The practice problems
Response
• Correct solution to the problem
Learning
• The repetition causes the student to learn Algebra.
How behaviorism impacts learning
This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behavior and describes
several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very
effective– such as in treatments for human disorders including autism, anxiety disorders and antisocial
behavior. Behaviorism is often used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviors.
Implications for Teaching
Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called “skill and drill” exercises to provide the consistent
repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods include question
(stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which questions are of gradually increasing difficulty;
guided practice; and regular reviews of material. Behaviorist methods also typically rely heavily on the use
of positive reinforcements such as verbal praise, good grades, and prizes. Behaviorists assess the degree
of learning using methods that measure observable behavior such as exam performance. Behaviorist
teaching methods have proven most successful in areas where there is a “correct” response or easily
memorized material. For example, while behaviorist methods have proven to be successful in teaching
structured material such as facts and formulae, scientific concepts, and foreign language vocabulary, their
efficacy in teaching comprehension, composition, and analytical abilities is questionable.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing,

modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory
considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and
behavior.
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of  classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.                           
Every teacher has those students. The ones that make the classroom difficult. They speak out of turn, bully
other children, and express many behavioral problems that can bring a teacher to the end of their rope.
Every classroom has students like these, and it can be incredibly frustrating for a teacher to deal with this
all the time. At the root of the problem may be the student lacking guidance in the classroom. 
“The content of most textbooks is perishable, but the tools of self-directedness serve one well over time.”
-Albert Bandura
What is Social Learning?
Social learning is a concept automatically and instinctively applied by humans throughout their lives,
which they implement from childhood in order to find their place in the world and society. Fundamental
beliefs and worldviews, such as gender roles, religion, political views, and self-worth, are initially shaped
through social learning. This happens by observing how those around us react to different opinions.
Main Idea of Social Learning Theory
Social learning is learning by observing other people with the goal of adapting one's behaviour in social
contexts. People typically don't adopt worldviews that make the most logical sense, but we are influenced
to adopt behaviour that earns the least amount of criticism in our unique environment.
It is human nature to want to be accepted by others, so we automatically observe how others behave and
what the consequences are in order to adapt our behaviour. With social learning, we use this technique to
adopt the behaviours with which another person has been successful in order to achieve the desired
result. While social learning is usually associated with learning specific content, it is actually a process that
we naturally use subconsciously every day of our lives.
The term social here refers to the fact that one questions and adjusts one's behaviours based on
observation of other people in a social setting to achieve a desired outcome. Motivation, work ethic, and
learning techniques are examples of observed behaviours you can imitate to achieve a desired result.
Behaviours learned through social environments can have a circular impact and inspire others in the same
social setting.

There are four elements to social learning theory including:

1.    Attention. Children can’t learn if they aren’t focused on the task. Students who see something unique
or different are more likely to focus on it, helping them to learn.
2.    Retention. People learn by internalizing information. We can then recall that information later when
we want to respond to a situation in the same way which we saw. In order to learn from what we see, we
have to retain that information.
3.    Reproduction. We reproduce our previously learned behavior or knowledge when it’s required.
Practicing our response in our head or in actions can improve the way we respond.
4.    Motivation. Motivation is required in order to do anything. Usually our motivation comes from seeing
someone else be rewarded or punished for something they have done. This can motivate us to do or not
do that same thing.
Teachers have found that social modeling and examples are a very powerful tool in education. If children
see positive consequences from an action, they are likely to do that action themselves. And if they see
negative consequences, they are likely to avoid that behavior. Unique, novel, and different situations often
catch a student’s attention and can stand out to them.
If students see other students paying attention, they are more likely to pay attention. So teachers utilize
reward systems and punishments to help students learn from the examples of others. Social learning
theory also has a great root in encouraging self-efficacy by using constructive feedback. Students who get
positive reinforcement have more confidence in themselves and their abilities—this stands out in their
mind and they want to repeat this behavior
History of Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura is considered the father of social learning theory. In the 1960’s he conducted a now-
famous experiment called the Bobo doll experiment that led to his official writings on the social learning
theory in 1977.
The Bobo doll experiment was a group of tests performed from 1961-1963. The experiments involved
studying children’s behavior after they watched an adult act aggressively toward a doll-like toy with a low
center of mass that rocked back after being knocked down. The most important element of the
experiment was seeing how children behaved after seeing the adult get rewarded, punished, or no
consequence for physically abusing the Bobo doll. These experiments helped show how children can be
influenced by learning from the behavior of others. Albert Bandura’s insights focus on behavioral
development of students
Bobo Doll Experiment

The Bobo doll is an inflatable toy about five feet tall, designed to spring back upright when knocked over.
Children were chosen as subjects for the study, because they have less social conditioning; they have also
had less instruction and teaching of the rules of society than adult subjects
 The experiment was conducted between 1961 and 1963 at Stanford University. The participants were
young children from the university’s nursery school. They were separated into three main groups and sent
individually into a playroom with an adult model. One group observed an adult model aggressively
handling a Bobo doll. The second group was shown an adult model passively playing with other toys. The
final group was the control group and thus had no model. 
Children were then primed for mild anger arousal and taken to a playroom filled with many different toys,
some aggressive (such as a toy mallet and the Bobo doll) and some not (such as a tea set or crayons).
Their play was recorded and judged by observers.
Researchers found that children who witnessed the aggressive model were more likely to handle the Bobo
doll aggressively. The boys of the group had an average of 38.2 derivative physical aggressions while the
girls had an average of 12.7.
Boys exhibited more aggression when they viewed a male aggressive model than a female aggressive
model. Specifically, the number of aggressive behaviors displayed by boys averaged 104 (male aggressive
model) compared to 48.4 (aggressive female model). Similar findings were found for the girls, albeit with
less drastic results. Girls averaged 57.7 when they witnessed aggressive female models compared to 36.3
when they witnessed aggressive male models. 
Similar results were found even when children were exposed only to videos of adults playing aggressively
or passively with Bobo rather than being physically present. The Bobo Doll Experiment exemplified that
punishment and rewards weren’t required to learn. People could learn from observation alone. In fact,
much of how we act and behave comes from watching and learning how those around us act and behave.
We’re far less likely to practice what someone preaches than what they actually perform.

Observational Learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the
famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential
models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and
teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and
feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior.  At a later time they
may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a
number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society
deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or
punishment.  If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely
to continue performing the behavior. 
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding
for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior.  Her behavior has been reinforced
(i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative.  If a child wants approval
from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being approved
of is an internal reinforcement.  A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it
desires approval. 
Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally does not
match with an individual's needs.  Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is
that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not
to copy someone’s actions.  A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e.,
models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior
is more likely to repeat that behavior herself.  This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will
have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as
parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify
with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed
behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the
Oedipus complex.  For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s behavior. 
However, during the Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with
Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other person.
Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted, whereas
imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

Advantages of Social Learning

1.     Natural Way to Learn

The most significant advantage of social learning is that everyone uses it naturally every day, consciously
and unconsciously. You don't have to plan it separately or set aside time for it because it happens
automatically over time. In the working world, this means that we observe our colleagues and notice what
they do and how they do it. When a colleague is particularly praised for performance or receives a bonus,
other employees analyse all by themselves what action led to it in order to work towards the same result.
2.     Better skills
These tendencies are great for leverage in organisations. By encouraging sharing thoughts, ideas,
experiences, and best practices, you strengthen your employees’ productivity and skills.
3.     Higher Learning Retention
It is scientifically proven that we only remember 10% from formal learning sources, while the remaining
90% comes from informal sources and social learning. By learning something directly from a person, we
are able to remember it better because we remember things like voice pitch, images, memories, or even a
joke during learning that we associate with learning content.
4.     Lower costs
Bringing employees together to share subject matter expertise costs less than a seminar or learning
content on the same topic.
5.     Productivity and sustainability
When employees know who to ask about a topic, the information spreads, and, over time, a mentoring
network is created within the company. This encourages sharing and reduces the need to learn from other
sources.
6.     Employee retention
Many employees want to continue their education, and they want to share ideas with colleagues. Social
learning enables them to do both, creating stronger bonds with each other at the same time. That, and the
awareness that the company allows or even encourages this type of exchange, increases loyalty.
7.     Better informed
The more frequently employees exchange ideas with their colleagues on a wide range of topics, the more
often they look beyond their horizons. This broadens their perspective and gives them impressions that
help prevent mistakes and increase efficiency.
8.     Collaboration
Learning is not the only thing that is collaborative in this case. Other factors are naturally included as well.
Employees help each other more often, seek advice and help, collaborate better, and learn along the way.
The best time to learn is when you need the knowledge.
9.     Capture Organisational Knowledge
By sharing knowledge within the organisation, there is a greater chance of certain pieces of information
being saved even after crucial employees leave the organisation.
10.  Problem Solving in Real Time
Many employees are looking for learning opportunities in a moment of actual need. The urge to solve a
problem they cannot solve on their own requires collaboration. Usually, the first thing humans will do in
this situation is asking others for their ideas. This is much faster than searching for answers online.
11.  Inclusion of Passive Employees
There are lots of people that are quiet or even afraid to ask questions. Social learning in a context of
learning groups or any other group larger than 2 people makes it easier for introverts to learn by listening
to other people discussing their questions.
12.  Shorter Onboarding Times
Having colleagues showing you around, answering questions, and providing us with useful tips helps us to
get used to a new job and environment much faster than an online course on company culture or
responsibilities.
Disadvantages of Social Learning
Social learning also brings professional and psychological risks, which should be mentioned.
1.     Inner conflicts
Since social learning is based on the idea of adapting what is perceived as successful and positive
behaviour in others, you are learning to behave more like someone else. If you use this tactic too often
and too intensely, it can result in inner conflict if the new behaviours are contrary to your own views. In the
long run, this leads to active internal resistance and prevents any learning process.
2.     Less authenticity
Contrary to what behavioural scientists have feared, social learning does not necessarily affect a person's
personality. In most cases, it would take long-term, repeated imitation to adopt a new behaviour as one's
own or lose one's connection to one's personality. Moreover, people often notice it themselves when
something doesn't feel authentic.
3.     Loss of innovation
Personal thought processes, opinions and views are often neglected, favouring behaviour that promises
the greatest success. However, since new and unconventional ideas tend to bring progress and innovation,
this learning technique should not be used too much.
4.     Unexpected obstacles
Very few people know their limits, strengths and weaknesses really well. It is often not possible to imitate
the behaviour of another because unknown obstacles can arise. This can result in frustration, which leads
to resignation.
5.     Consequences for self-esteem
Most people cannot tell the difference between observation or imitation and a comparison to themselves.
If we compare ourselves with others, we usually compare visible indicators like performance and results.
This leads to frustration and disappointment in most cases. We typically compare ourselves to people who
can do something better than us in order to learn from them. As a result, such a comparison will always be
to our disadvantage. For people without a solid self-esteem, such a thing can have psychological
consequences in the long run. Therefore, care should be taken to distinguish social learning from personal
comparison clearly and to incorporate positive reinforcement.
6.     Self-doubt
If everyone is a teacher and a student simultaneously, there is uncertainty about quality standards, and
there can be self-doubt.
7.     Measuring requires modern solutions
There are few ways to measure social learning apart from content usage unless you use a modern learning
platform.
8.     Negative assumptions
Social media and videos are considered a waste of time and leisure time in many minds.
9.     Necessary intervention
Group discussions need to be led because otherwise, they quickly digress and turn into random private
conversations, losing focus on the topics at hand.
10.  Requirements
Attention, retention, replicability and motivation must be present in each participant for it to work.
  What are the implications for Social Learning Theory on teachers and student learning?
Certainly, this theory can be used to teach positive behaviors to students. Teachers can use positive role
models to increase desired behaviors and thus change the culture of a school. Not only will individual
students benefit from positive role models in and out of the classroom, but the entire class and student
body will do so.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are rooted in social
learning theory. For example, if a teacher is positive with their students and they encourage them, this
positive energy and verbal encouragement, in turn, helps build self-efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities to
succeed in various situations.  Bandura found that a person’s self-efficacy impacts how their tasks, goals,
and challenges are approached. Those individuals with strong self-efficacy view challenges as tasks to
master, develop deep interests in the activities they participate in, form a strong sense of commitment to
activities and interests, and bounce back from disappointments and setbacks easily. However, those with a
weaker sense of self-efficacy tend to avoid challenges, think difficult tasks and situations are beyond their
abilities, think negatively about their failures and outcomes, and lose confidence easily in their abilities.
 Summary:
 Social learning theories emphasizes on changes in behavior and learning through the observation and
imitation of the actions and behaviors in the environment.
 
CONSTRUCTIVISM
What is Constructivism?
Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in
information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).
Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
·       Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema.
·       Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an existing
schema.
For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is always nice to me I
may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. Perhaps, however, I meet a different
person who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may decide to change my
schema to accommodate this person by deciding a friend doesn’t always need to be nice if they have my
best interests in mind. Further, this may make me reconsider whether the first person still fits into my
friend schema.
Proponents of Constructivism
Main Theorists
John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. Bruner (1990)
and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists,
while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructivists.
John Dewey

John Dewey rejected the notion that schools should focus on repetitive, rote memorization & proposed a
method of “directed living” – students would engage in real-world, practical workshops in which they
would demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration. Students should be provided
with opportunities to think from themselves and articulate their thoughts.
Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, “If you have doubts about how
learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities and arrive
at your belief grounded in evidence.”
Jean Piaget

Piaget rejected the idea that learning was the passive assimilation of given knowledge. Instead, he
proposed that learning is a dynamic process comprising successive stages of adaption to reality during
which learners actively construct knowledge by creating and testing their own theories of the world.
Although less contemporary & influential, it has inspired several important educational principles such as:
·       Discovery learning
·       Sensitivity to children’s’ readiness
·       Acceptance of individual differences
·       Learners don’t have knowledge forced on them – they create it for themselves
Jerome Bruner
Influenced by Vygotsky, Bruner emphasizes the role of the teacher, language and instruction. He thought
that different processes were used by learners in problem solving, that these vary from person to person
and that social interaction lay at the root of good learning.
Bruner builds on the Socratic tradition of learning through dialogue, encouraging the learner to come to
enlighten themselves through reflection. Careful curriculum design is essential so that one area builds
upon the other. Learning must therefore be a process of discovery where learners build their own
knowledge, with the active dialogue of teachers, building on their existing knowledge.
Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which
students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. He provides the following
principles of constructivist learning:
·       Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and
able to learn (readiness).
·       Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
·       Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
Lev Vygotsky

Social constructivism was developed by Vygotsky. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was
possible to separate learning from its social context.
Although Vygotsky died at the age of 38 in 1934, most of his publications did not appear in English until
after 1960. There are, however, a growing number of applications of social constructivism in the area of
educational technology.
By the 1980s the research of Dewey and Vygotsky had blended with Piaget’s work in developmental
psychology into the broad approach of constructivism. The basic tenet of constructivism is that students
learn by doing rather than observing. Students bring prior knowledge into a learning situation in which
they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it.
This process of interpretation, articulation, and re-evaluation is repeated until they can demonstrate their
comprehension of the subject.
Consequences of constructivist theory are that:
·       Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively receiving information.
·       Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social context as students and
teachers work together to build knowledge.
·       Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of teaching is to provide
experiences that facilitate the construction of knowledge. 
This last point is worth repeating. A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering information to
students, yet constructivism argues that you cannot directly impart this information. Only an experience
can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge. Therefore, the goal of teaching is to design these
experiences.
Consequences for the classroom
There are many consequences for teaching and the classroom if you adhere to constructivist principles.
The following chart from the Teaching and Learning Resources wiki compares traditional and constructivist
classrooms across several components.

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,
Emphasizes basic skills. beginning with the whole and expanding to
include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly Pursuit of student questions and interests is
valued. valued.

Materials are primarily textbooks and Materials include primary sources of material
workbooks. and manipulative materials.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the

student already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to students. Teachers have a dialogue with students,

Students are recipients of knowledge. helping students construct their own
knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

negotiation.

Assessment is through testing and correct Assessment includes student works,

answers. observations and points of view, as well as
tests. Process is as important as product.

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing

with our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Essential components to constructivist teaching

There are several main components to include if you plan on adhering to constructivist principles in your
classroom or when designing your lessons. The following are from Baviskar, Hartle & Whitney (2009):
·       Elicit prior knowledge
New knowledge is created in relation to learner’s pre-existing knowledge. Lessons, therefore, require
eliciting relevant prior knowledge. Activities include: pre-tests, informal interviews and small group warm-
up activities that require recall of prior knowledge.
·       Create cognitive dissonance
Assign problems and activities that will challenge students. Knowledge is built as learners encounter novel
problems and revise existing schemas as they work through the challenging problem.
·       Apply knowledge with feedback
Encourage students to evaluate new information and modify existing knowledge. Activities should allow
for students to compare pre-existing schema to the novel situation. Activities might include presentations,
small group or class discussions, and quizzes.
·       Reflect on learning
Provide students with an opportunity to show you (and themselves) what they have learned. Activities
might include: presentations, reflexive papers or creating a step-by-step tutorial for another student.
Examples of constructivist classroom activities
·       Reciprocal teaching/learning
Allow pairs of students to teach each other.
·       Inquiry-based learning (IBL)
Learners pose their own questions and seek answers to their questions via research and direct observation.
They present their supporting evidence to answer the questions. They draw connections between their
pre-existing knowledge and the knowledge they’ve acquired through the activity. Finally, they draw
conclusions, highlight remaining gaps in knowledge and develop plans for future investigations.
·       Problem-based learning (PBL)
The main idea of PBL is similar to IBL: learners acquire knowledge by devising a solution to a problem. PBL
differs from IBL in that PBL activities provide students with real-world problems that require students to
work together to devise a solution. As the group works through the challenging real-world problem,
learners acquire communication and collaboration skills in addition to knowledge.
·       Cooperative learning
Students work together in small groups to maximize their own and each other's learning. Cooperative
learning differs from typical group work in that it requires interdependence among group members to
solve a problem or complete an assignment.

Pragmatism
One of the most important schools of philosophy of education is pragmatism. Pragmatism stands
between idealism and materialism a sort of compromise. Its origin can be traced from the Sophists
philosophers of ancient Greece who held that man is the measure of all things.
According to H.S. Thayer (May 2020) the term pragmatism derives its origin “pragma” from a Greek word
meaning to do, to make, to accomplish.
Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is
true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical
consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism teaches that which
is useful — what works in a practical situation — is true; what does not work is false. Truth is thus not
fixed, eternal, absolute and unchangeable. Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that
we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems.
John Dewey was a leading proponent of the American school of thought known as pragmatism.

Dewey rejects the idea of world of absolutes and unchangeable truths. There are no fixed beliefs, said
Dewey. This world is subject to constant change and uncertainty. Knowledge enables man to direct this
change. Knowing and doing are one. Mind and action are one and inseparable. Action is higher than
knowledge. Practice is superior to thought and thought and action are complementary. According to him,
knowledge and thinking are closely associated with action. And, again, knowledge and action are
inseparable. Ideas (knowledge) are not separate from action. Dewey believes that knowledge can never
arise apart from action. Knowledge is acquired only through action. For Dewey, it is through experience
that knowledge takes place.
“Education is living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those
capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his emotion and fulfil his possibilities.” - John
Dewey
Key Ideas of Pragmatism
 The facts can change
-       Pragmatists are always willing to change their minds when new information or circumstances come
about.
Pragmatists are Utilitarian
-       A utilitarian is someone who values things that are useful. If knowledge is not useful in real life, then
it isn’t really all that interesting to a pragmatic person
Experience is King & Social Interaction
-       Everything a pragmatist knows and believes is based on their experiences. A pragmatist is always
taking action and trying things out. Social Interaction is important, John Dewey believed that education
should help young people learn to be better at social interactions.
Thoughts and Action are Interconnected
-       By taking action, you are changing your thoughts.
 Principles of Pragmatism in Education
 1.     Principle Of Utility
-       According to this principle only those subjects, activities and experiences should be included in the
curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child and also meet the future expectations of
adult life as well.
 2.     Principle of Interest
-       According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where the child takes interest are of
four varieties namely:
-        (i) Interest in conversation
-        (ii) Interest in investigation
-        (iii) Interest in construction and
-        (iv) Interest in creative expression
 3.     Principle of Experience
-       It is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All these three should be closely integrated. The
curriculum should consist of such varieties of learning experiences which promote original thinking and
freedom to develop social and purposeful attitudes.
 4.     Principle of Integration
-       Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. Pragmatists want to
construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the changing
society more and more as he/she needs, demands and situation requires.
 Pragmatism as a Method of Teaching
 
Dewey believed that human beings learn through a 'hands-on' approach. He added that reality must be
experienced. From this educational point of view, this means that students must interact with their
environment in order to adapt and learn. Dewey felt the same idea was true for teachers and that teachers
and students must learn together.
Dewey's approach was truly child-centered and his method of teaching is based on the principles of
learning by doing. A child-centered approach to education places the emphasis of learning on the needs
and interests of the child. In Dewey's view, children should be allowed to explore their environments.
 Learning takes place as an interaction between the teacher and the taught. Pragmatism gives priority to
the taught. Similarly, between the thought and action, it gives priority to action. They prefer practical over
theory-based teaching–learning process.
 
 Implication to Education of Pragmatism

 The role of the teacher is this setting would be to serve more as a facilitator than an instructor. In Dewey’s
view, the teacher should observe the interest of the students, observe the directions they naturally take
and then serve as someone who helps develop problem-solving skills.
 Traditionally, a teacher would stand in front of a class. Usually, they are the one who will deliver
information and the only job of the students is to receive information and learning and apply it from
different classroom activities such as written test. In contrast, classroom based on the ideas of John
Dewey. A teacher may only deliver the background content information about certain topics. The students
will work in a group that will explore different concept within the content. You may see different thoughts,
perception, conversation and a lot of collaboration within them.
 The aims of education as formulated by the Pragmatists are the following:
·       To create new values: The Pragmatists do not believe in the theory of any fixed aim of
education. In their opinion, the aim of education is to create new values and the act of teacher is to
help himself develop new values.
·       To enable pupils to gather experience through activity: For the creation of new values, activity
and experience are essential. Education should therefore, provide physical, intellectual, moral and
aesthetic activities as the media for the creation of new values.
·       To help the pupil to adjust with him and the society: The other important aim of education
according to pragmatism is to help the pupil to make adjustment with himself and the society.
·       To help the pupil to reconstruct his experience: Every individual has to solve different types of
complex problems in his life. So the another important aim of education, according to Pragmatism
is to enable the pupil to form such an outlook about life as can help to tackle successfully the
different problems of his life in future,
·       To make all round development of the pupil: All round development of the individual is also
an important aim of education. The individual develops physically, mentally, socially and
aesthetically.
·CONTRIBUTION OF PRAGMATISM TO EDUCATION 
“Activity lies at the centre of all educative process. The basis of all teaching is the activity of the
child” - Foster Education is preparation for life. 
Pragmatism makes a man socially efficient. They believe that the children should not be asked to
work according to predetermined goals. They should rather determine their goals according to
their needs and interests. 
Pragmatism is based on the psychology of individual differences. Pragmatists want education
according to aptitudes and abilities of the individual. Every individual must be respected and
education should be planned to cater his inclinations and capacities. According to pragmatism, the
theory and practice of education is based on two main principles, namely
 (i) Education should have a social function and 
(ii) Education should provide real life experience to the child. 
Broadly, pragmatism and education can be discussed as follows: 
 Every continuous experience or activity is educative and all education in fact, resides in having
such experience. But continuous growth in experience is not the whole education. Education is
something more. It is constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience.
  Pragmatism provides definite aims of education. The student is prepared to live in a society and
learn skills and attitude. 
 The teaching methods are based on learning by doing. The project method is the contribution
of pragmatism to modern education.
  Pragmatism encourages a democratic way to learning through purposeful and co-operative
projects and activities. 
 Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The school is expected to provide learning
experiences that are useful.
  Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers advice us to test everything through
our own experience. 
 The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the education process under pragmatism and
he has to be very alert and watchful.
 PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM 
In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by the
pragmatists. 
1. Principle of Utility: According to this principle only those subjects, activities and experiences
should be included in the curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child and also
meet the future expectations of adult life as well. The subjects are such as Language, Physical well
being, Physical training, Geography, History, Science, Agriculture and Home Science for girls. 
2. Principle of Interest: According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where the
child takes interest are of four varieties namely 
           (i) Interest in conversation 
           (ii) Interest in investigation 
          (iii) Interest in construction and
           (iv) Interest in creative expression. 
Keeping these varieties of interest in view at the primary stage, the curriculum should include
writing, counting, art, craft-work, natural science and other practical work of simple nature.
 3. Principle of Experience: The third principle of pragmatics curriculum is the child’s activity,
vocation and experience. All these three should be closely integrated. The curriculum should
consist of such varieties of learning experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to
develop social and purposeful attitudes. 
4. Principle of Integration: Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and
activities. Pragmatists want to construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the
developing child and the changing society more and more as he/she needs, demands and situation
requires.
 PRAGMATISM AND TEACHER 
In the opinion of pragmatists the duty of the teacher is to create such an environment in the school
where pupils will have to face different problems relating to real life and will take interest in the
solution of those problems. Pragmatism regards teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher. 
The chief function of a pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his pupil and to stimulate them
to find by themselves the solution which will work. The teacher must provide opportunities for the
natural development of innate qualities if the children. His main task is to suggest problem to his
student/pupils and to guide them to find out he solutions.
Topic 3: Principles of Learning

Principles of Learning

Learning principles are guidelines for the ways in which people learn most effectively. The more these
principles are reflected in training, the more effective training is likely to be.

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality  that results from
reinforced practice or experience.

5 principles of learning are;

1. Participation.
2. Repetition.
3. Relevance.
4. Transference.
5. Feedback.

1. Participation
Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the learner. Participation improves
motivation and apparently engages more senses that reinforce the learning process. As a result of
participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning longer.
For example, most people never forget how to ride a bicycle because they actively participated in the
learning process.
The learning activities should be experiential rather than just informational.
Therefore, the trainers should arrange the physical surroundings to facilitate small group interaction and
promote the sharing of ideas.

2. Repetition
An important principle of the learning is to provide the learner with the opportunity for practice and
repetition. To gain the full benefit of training learned behaviors must be overlearned to ensure smooth
performance and minimum of forgetting at a later date.
Proficiency in learning and retaining new skills is improved when individuals visualize themselves
performing the new behavior.

3. Relevance
Learning is helped when the material to be learned is meaningful. The learning should be problem-
centered rather than content centered.
People are motivated to learn when training is immediately relevant to help them solve a current problem.
Learning something just because someone says “it is important” is not as motivating.

4. Transference
Because the training occurs in a special environment, an important question to ask is whether learning will
transfer to the actual job situation.
Transfer of training occurs when trainees can apply the knowledge and skills learned in training course to
their jobs. If the learning in one setting does not transfer to the actual job situation, the training has failed.
Three transfers training situations are possible
(1) Positive transfer of training when the training activities enhance performance in the new situation;
(2) negative transfer of training, when the training activities inhibit performance in a new situation; and
(3) no observable effect of training.

5. Feedback
Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite
for learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their mistakes but also
by providing reinforcement for learning.
Knowledge of results is a positive reinforcement itself. Learning activities have more intrinsic interest if the
feedback is available.
Nevertheless, performance feedback should do more than inform learners whether they were right or
wrong.
Merely informing the trainees that they were wrong is not as effective as telling them why they were
wrong and how they can avoid making mistakes in the future. In general, knowledge of results is an
essential feature of learning, and this knowledge comes after the learner’s response.
The Learner
 The Nature of the Learner
        The learner is an embodied spirit. He is the union of sentient body and a rational soul. His body
experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain. His soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of
intellectual abstraction, self-reflection, and free rational volition. Body and soul exist in mutual
dependence. (Kelly, 1965)
The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner
The learner has the power to see, hear, touch, smell, taste, perceive, imagine, retain, recall, recognize past
mental acts, conceive ideas, make judgment, reason out, feel and choose.
Five Elements of the Learner
1. Ability 
                 The students’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in purposeful activity. It determines
their capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use and application.
 2. Aptitude 
           Aptitude refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity to learn certain
skills.
3. Interest 
                Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong appeal or attraction.
4. Family & Cultural Background 
                Students who come from different socioeconomic background manifest a wide range behavior
due
5. Attitudes 
                Students have unique way of thinking and reacting. Confronted with the same situation in the
learning environment each one would react differently depending on their personal characteristics
Positive Attitudes:
          a. Curiosity
          b. Responsibility
          c. Creativity
          d. Persistence
Individual Differences
Individual Differences
Individual differences are personal traits that separate students from one another during the teaching
and learning process (Simsek, 2020). Learners are unique people who bring a complex collection of factors
to each learning environment, including delicate characteristics that serve as indications of their potential
and a track record of achievement that serves as evidence of prior accomplishments and predictions of
future performance.
Learners have varied learning techniques, approaches, and capacities based on past experience and
genetics. Individuals are born with their particular traits and talents, which they develop over time.
Furthermore, individuals have developed their own preferences for how they like to study and how quickly
they learn as a result of their education and social acculturation. However, these preferences aren't always
helpful in assisting students in achieving their learning objectives. Educators must assist students in
examining their learning preferences and, if required, expanding or modifying them. Another important
element impacting learning outcomes is the interplay between learner differences and curricular and
environmental circumstances. In general, educators must be sensitive to individual variations. They must
also consider how learners perceive different teaching techniques and resources in terms of how well they
accept and adapt to these changes.
 Intelligence
Throughout psychology's history, intelligence has been a contentious issue. Despite the high level of
interest in the issue, there is still a lot of debate regarding what makes up intelligence. Aside from the
difficulty of how to define intelligence precisely, there is still disagreement today over whether reliable
measures are even attainable (Cherry, 2019).
Researchers have offered numerous definitions of intelligence at various times throughout recent history.
While these definitions differ greatly from one theory to the next, contemporary understandings imply
that intelligence is the ability to:
Learn from your mistakes: Knowledge acquisition, retention, and application are all key aspects of
intelligence.
Recognize issues: People must be able to detect potential environmental concerns in order to put their
knowledge to good use.
Solve problems: After that, people must be able to use what they've learned to come up with a practical
solution to a problem they've seen in the world.
Logic, thinking, problem-solving, and planning are some of the mental qualities that make up
intelligence. While intelligence is one of the most studied and investigated issues, it is also one of the
most contentious.
Brief History of Intelligence
In the early twentieth century, a German psychologist called William Stern created the term "intelligence
quotient," or IQ. Psychologist Alfred Binet created the first IQ tests to aid the French government in
identifying students who required extra help in school. Binet was the first to coin the term "mental age,"
which refers to a set of talents that children of a given age possess. Since then, intelligence testing has
been a frequently utilized technique, leading to the development of several more skill and aptitude tests.
However, it continues to stoke debate and controversy over the utility of such testing, potential cultural
biases, and IQ effects and even the very way we define intelligence.
Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence. Here are
some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
General Intelligence
Charles Spearman (1863–1945), a British psychologist, coined the term "general intelligence" or "the g
factor" to express a notion he called "the g factor." Spearman determined that the scores on several
mental aptitude tests were surprisingly comparable after applying a technique known as factor analysis to
evaluate them. People who did well on one cognitive exam were more likely to do well on others, whereas
those who did poorly on one test were more likely to do poorly on others. He came to the conclusion that
intelligence is a general cognitive capacity that can be quantified and stated mathematically.
Primary Mental Abilities
Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955), a psychologist, proposed a different explanation of intelligence.
Thurstone's approach focuses on seven separate basic mental talents rather than considering intelligence
as a single, generic capacity.
1. Associative memory is a term that refers to the ability to remember things. The ability to remember
and recall information
2. The capacity to answer mathematical problems is known as numerical ability.
3. Perceptual quickness refers to the capacity to recognize differences and similarities between things
quickly.
4. Reasoning is the capacity to identify and apply rules.
5. The capacity to visualize relationships in space is referred to as spatial visualization.
6. The capacity to define and comprehend words is known as verbal comprehension.
7. Word fluency is defined as the capacity to create words quickly.
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner's notion of multiple intelligences is one of the more recent concepts to emerge. Gardner
said that the traditional concept of intelligence, which is based on IQ tests, does not fully and correctly
reflect a person's skills. 
Multiple intelligences refer to a theory describing the different ways students learn and acquire
information. These multiple intelligences range from the use of words, numbers, pictures and music, to the
importance of social interactions, introspection, physical movement and being in tune with nature.
Accordingly, an understanding of which type(s) of intelligence a student may possess can help teachers
adjust learning styles, and suggest certain career paths for learners.
Based on talents and abilities valued in different civilizations, his hypothesis postulated eight distinct
intelligences:
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle objects
skillfully. The ability to manipulate both the body and objects with a keen sense of timing is known as
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. These people are able to accurately manipulate objects due to a strong
mind-body union. This can be demonstrated in the form of physical skills, for example, athletes and
dancers, or in precision and steady movement, such as surgeons and crafts people.
Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations,
and desires of others. 
While the ability to communicate effectively with others is common knowledge on the basis of
interpersonal intelligence, it is not merely limited to verbal interactions. People with developed
interpersonal intelligence are also able to read the moods of others. Sensitivity to temperaments and the
ability to communicate nonverbally allow these individuals to understand differences in perspectives.
Because they can often accurately assess the sentiments and motivations of others, these individuals make
good social workers, teachers, and actors.
Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs,
and thinking processes. 
The ability to understand one’s own thoughts is known as intrapersonal intelligence. Individuals who
demonstrate intrapersonal intelligence are acutely aware of their feelings and can show an appreciation
for themselves and other humans. Often misconstrued as “shy,” these people are actually self-motivated
and able to use their understanding to direct the course of their own lives. Philosophers, psychologists
and religious leaders may all show high levels of intrapersonal intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to
discern logically or numerical patterns.
Sometimes misconstrued as simply the ability to calculate mathematical equations, logical-mathematical
intelligence is much more than that. Individuals with this developed intelligence demonstrate excellent
reasoning skills, abstract thought, and the ability to infer based on patterns. They are able to make
connections based on their prior knowledge and are drawn to categorization, patterning, and relationships
between ideas. With experiments and strategy games as two coveted activities, it would make sense that
possible careers would include a scientist, a mathematician, and a detective.
Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre.
The ability to acutely reflect on sounds is demonstrated by those who possess musical intelligence. These
people are able to distinguish between specific pitches, tones and rhythms that other may miss. Someone
with musical intelligence is often a sensitive listener, and can reflect or reproduce music quite accurately.
Musicians, conductors, composers, and vocalists all demonstrate keen musical intelligence. As young
adults, we can witness these people humming or drumming to a self-directed rhythm. Musical intelligence
is also closely related to mathematical intelligence, as they share a similar thinking process.
Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other objects in
nature.
A sensitivity to features in the natural world is most closely tied to what is called naturalist intelligence.
The ability to distinguish between living and non-living things was notably more valuable in the past when
humans were often farmers, hunters or gatherers. Nowadays, this intelligence has evolved to more
modern-day roles such as a chef or a botanist. We still carry traces of naturalist intelligence, some more so
than others, which is evident by our preferences for certain brands over others.
Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and
rhythms of words.
The ability to express oneself using words and language is known as verbal-linguistic intelligence. This
intelligence is unique because it is the most commonly shared human ability. It allows us to apply
meaning to words and express appreciation for complex phrases. Through reading, writing and sharing
stories orally, we are able to marvel at our use of language. We see examples of this skill in journalists,
poets, and public speakers
Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and
abstractly.
Visually artistic people are known to demonstrate spatial intelligence. These abilities include manipulating
images, graphic skills, and spatial reasoning – anything that would include more than two dimensions.
They may be daydreamers or like to draw in their spare time, but also show an interest in puzzles or
mazes. Careers directly linked to spatial intelligence include many artistic vocations, for example, painters,
architects or sculptors, as well as careers that require the ability to visualize, such as pilots or sailors.
 The multiple intelligence theory can draw students back into learning. Using the different intelligences to
teach a concept allows each of your diverse learners a chance to succeed at learning. The learner with
strength in the visual-spatial intelligence will do well with drawing and puzzles. By applying the theory of
multiple intelligences in the classroom, educators take into consideration the different types of learners
they might have in their class, reinforce all types of intelligences in every student, and allow for an
individual learning process that will ultimately enable each learner to utilize his or her specific abilities and
demonstrate learning.
Presenting topics using the theory of multiple intelligences, that is using different pathways and tools to
study information, can have a very positive effect on our students’ learning experience. Incorporating for
example, role play, collaborative work, picture puzzles or field trips allows for a learning experience that
will not only allow different types of learners to learn but will enrich every individual’s understanding of
the topic.
 Triarchic Intelligence Theory
"Mental activity oriented toward purposeful adaptation to, selection, and molding of real-world settings
important to one's existence," according to psychologist Robert Sternberg.
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much more than a single, universal ability, he stated that
certain of Gardner's intelligence kinds should be considered unique abilities rather than intelligence types.
Sternberg presented a concept he called "successful intelligence," which he divided into three parts:
Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems
Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment
Multiple Intelligence
Human intelligence, according to Howard Gardner (1993), has three components: a set of abilities that
allows an individual to solve real-life issues; the capacity to identify or create difficulties that allows an
individual to learn new things; the ability to produce a successful product or provide a service that is
valuable in one's culture
Linguistic intelligence, often known as "word smart," is the capacity to think in words and to
communicate and comprehend complex concepts through language. Poets, journalists, and good public
speakers use it.
The capacity to compute, quantify, analyze arguments and hypotheses, and utilize reasoning is referred to
as logical-mathematical intelligence, or "number smart." Mathematicians, scientists, and detectives
use it.
The ability to handle things and employ a range of physical abilities is known as bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, or "body smart." Athletes, dancers, doctors, and artisans use it.
The capacity to think in two and three dimensions is referred to as spatial intelligence. Sailors, pilots,
sculptors, artists, and architects all use them.
The ability to identify pitch, rhythm, and tone is known as musical intelligence, or "music
smart." Composers, conductors, musicians, vocalists, and sensitive listeners all use this technique.
The ability to generate meaning and order in the natural environment is known as natural intelligence, or
"nature smart." Biologists, naturalists, outdoor educators, bird watchers, and nature
photographers/artists are among the people who use it.
vii. Interpersonal intelligence, often known as "people intelligence," is the capacity to comprehend and
communicate successfully with others. Teachers, social workers, performers, and politicians all use it.
Intrapersonal Intelligence, often known as "self-awareness," is the ability to comprehend oneself,
including one's thoughts and feelings. Psychologists, spiritual leaders, and philosophers all use it.
Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to understand, use,
and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize
with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict. Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger
relationships, succeed at school and work, and achieve your career and personal goals. It can also help you
to connect with your feelings, turn intention into action, and make informed decisions about what matters
most to you.
Emotional intelligence is commonly defined by four attributes:

1. Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your
emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to changing
circumstances.
2. Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and
behavior. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence.
3. Social awareness – You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and concerns of
other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize the power
dynamics in a group or organization.
4. Relationship management – You know how to develop and maintain good relationships,
communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and manage conflict.

Why is emotional intelligence so important?

As we know, it’s not the smartest people who are the most successful or the most fulfilled in life. You
probably know people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially inept and unsuccessful at work or
in their personal relationships. Intellectual ability or your intelligence quotient (IQ) isn’t enough on its own
to achieve success in life. Yes, your IQ can help you get into college, but it’s your EQ that will help you
manage the stress and emotions when facing your final exams. IQ and EQ exist in tandem and are most
effective when they build off one another.
Emotional intelligence affects:
Your performance at school or work. High emotional intelligence can help you navigate the social
complexities of the workplace, lead and motivate others, and excel in your career. In fact, when it comes to
gauging important job candidates, many companies now rate emotional intelligence as important as
technical ability and employ EQ testing before hiring.
Your physical health. If you’re unable to manage your emotions, you are probably not managing your
stress either. This can lead to serious health problems. Uncontrolled stress raises blood pressure,
suppresses the immune system, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes, contributes to infertility,
and speeds up the aging process. The first step to improving emotional intelligence is to learn how to
manage stress.
Your mental health. Uncontrolled emotions and stress can also impact your mental health, making you
vulnerable to anxiety and depression. If you are unable to understand, get comfortable with, or manage
your emotions, you’ll also struggle to form strong relationships. This in turn can leave you feeling lonely
and isolated and further exacerbate any mental health problems.
Your relationships. By understanding your emotions and how to control them, you’re better able to
express how you feel and understand how others are feeling. This allows you to communicate more
effectively and forge stronger relationships, both at work and in your personal life.
Your social intelligence. Being in tune with your emotions serves a social purpose, connecting you to
other people and the world around you. Social intelligence enables you to recognize friend from foe,
measure another person’s interest in you, reduce stress, balance your nervous system through social
communication, and feel loved and happy.
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. Some
researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it's
an inborn characteristic.
The ability to express and control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and
respond to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which you could not understand when a friend was
feeling sad or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer to this ability as emotional intelligence,
and some experts even suggest that it can be more important than IQ in your overall success in life.
⊹       In layman terms, Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the capability of a person to manage and control the
emotions, not just of themselves but even of the people around him.
⊹       Emotional Intelligence is the capability of individuals to recognize their own emotions and those of
others, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, use emotional information to
guide thinking and behavior, and manage/ adjust emotions to adapt to environments or achieve one’s
goal.
How Emotional Intelligence Is Measured
A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence. Such tests
generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.
Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score. On such
tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a
statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might describe the
statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing their skills.
Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.
If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional, here are two
measures that might be used:

 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)  is an ability-based test that

measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed
to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
 Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)  is based on an older instrument known as
the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer
ratings of that person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is designed to
evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong leaders.

Components
Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence including emotional
perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to
manage emotions.
Perceiving emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In many
cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.
Reasoning with emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive
activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things
that garner our attention.
Understanding emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If
someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and
what it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that they are dissatisfied with
your work, or it could be because they got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that
they've been fighting with their partner.
Managing emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional
intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as
responding to the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.
The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at the lower
levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve
perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement and involve
regulating emotions.
Emotional Intelligence has Three Major Models:
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s EI Ability model 1990

 
Emotional Intelligence –Mayer, Salovey, Caruso

 The early theory of emotional intelligence described by Salovey and Mayer  explained that EI is a
component of Gardner’s perspective of social intelligence.
 Their study was Similar to the so-called ‘personal’ intelligences proposed by Gardner, EI was said to
include an awareness of the self and others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). One aspect of Gardner’s
conception of personal intelligence relates to ‘feelings’ and this aspect approximates what Salovey
and Mayer conceptualize as EI (Salovey & Mayer, 1990

“Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist
thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
promote emotional and intellectual growth”.
 Salovey, Mayer and Caruso called their model an “ability” model.
Ability-based- To create emotions into a positive behavior and to promote intellectual growth.
They identified four “branches” as the:
(a)               the ability to perceive emotions accurately, expressing emotions
(b)                the ability to use emotions to facilitate thought, integrating emotions into thought
processes
(c)   the ability to understand emotions, knowing the relations between emotions, between emotions
and circumstances, and transitions among emotions
(d)               the ability to manage emotions, managing emotions to moderate negative emotions and
enhance positive emotions
Goleman’s EI Performance model
 
 
Goleman’s EI Performance Model 1995

 According to Goleman, EI is a cluster of skills and performance-based, which are focused on four
capabilities: self-awareness, relationship, management, and social awareness.
 A second popular model is Goleman’s “performance-based” model.

1. Self-awareness. The ability to recognize and understand personal moods and emotions and drives, as
well as their effect on others.  self-awareness include self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, and a self-
deprecating sense of humor. Self-awareness depend on one's ability to monitor one's own emotion state
and to correctly identify and name one's emotions.
2. Self-regulation. The ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods, and the propensity to
suspend judgment and to think before acting. include trustworthiness and integrity; comfort with
ambiguity; and openness to change.
3.Motivation: People with high EI tend to be more positive and optimistic in their approach. This include
trustworthiness and integrity; comfort with ambiguity; and openness to change.
4. Empathy. The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people. A skill in treating people
according to their emotional reactions. include expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural
sensitivity, and service to clients and customers. (In an educational context, empathy is often thought to
include, or lead to, sympathy, which implies concern, or care or a wish to soften negative emotions or
experiences in others.)
5. Social skills. Proficiency in managing relationships and building networks, and an ability to find
common ground and build rapport. social skills include effectiveness in leading change, persuasiveness,
and expertise building and leading teams.
Bar-On’s EI Competencies Model
 
Bar-On’s EI competencies model 1997

 Bar-On's conceptual model describes an array of interrelated emotional and social competencies
that determine how effective individuals are at understanding and expressing themselves,
understanding others and interacting with them as well as coping with daily demands and
challenges.
 Reuven Bar-On’s approach also was more inductive. Beginning with clinical work on life
adjustment, he identified a set of skills that seemed to help people cope with demands and
pressures.
 Competencies- A standard framework in workforce to promote positive work environment and
behavior to achieve success and goals.

 So Bar-On’s EI model has 15 subscales

15 Subscales of EI Competency Model
Self-Perception:                               
-Self-Regard
-Self-Actualization
-Emotional Self Awareness
Self-Expression:
-Emotional Expression
-Assertiveness
-Independence
Interpersonal:
-Interpersonal Relationships
-Empathy
-Social Responsibility
Decision Making:
-Problem Solving
-Reality Testing
-Impulse Control
Stress Management:
-Flexibility
-Stress Tolerance
-Optimism
These are the sample behavior of persons with low emotional intelligence.
·       They become argumentative even with small things
·       They don’t listen because they don’t understand others opinions and often feel that they are always
right
·       They blame others on their failures and mistakes and don’t give encouragement to other people.
·       They get easily mad even in simple things.
 
“There is an old-fashioned word for the body of skills that emotional intelligence represents: character”.
-Daniel Goleman, 1995
 This simply means that character of a person is way better than intelligence.
leadership is ultimately about motivating and empowering people and teams, a lack of emotional
intelligence is a formidable barrier to progress. Emotional intelligence, therefore, is a necessary ingredient
not only for becoming an effective leader, but for developing them as well.
 
Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to a range of competing and contested theories that aim to account for differences in
individuals' learning. Many theories share the proposition that humans can be classified according to their
'style' of learning but differ in how the proposed styles should be defined, categorized, and assessed.
Neil Fleming has been a learner and a teacher.  His main research interest has been in how people learn
and how they use their modality preferences in their communication.  His full-time teaching was divided
between secondary, teacher education and university (Lincoln University, New Zealand) with ample
recognition of his teaching and research prowess in those three sectors. For the past twenty years he has
been facilitating active workshops on a variety of topics in North America, Asia and Europe travelling there
in spring and fall. He has been the main author of the VARK books available online on this website.
Recently he has been in demand for work with customer service applications of the VARK principles in
business educational environments. He has also been working with elite sports coaches on a learning-
styles approach to coaching individuals and teams. Apart from managing the interesting contacts with the
VARK website he has frequent grandchildren duties, has two beehives on his urban property, tends his
collection of 80 heritage roses and makes solid wood furniture as hobbies.   

•                Fleming introduced an inventory in 1987 that was designed to help students and others learn
more about their individual learning preferences.
•                The idea of individualized learning styles started in the 1970s and since then has greatly
influenced education. Neil Fleming’s VARK model is one of the common and widely used frameworks
today. Fleming’s learning styles are categorized into visual, auditory, reading-writing and kinesthetic.
•                There are many different ways of categorizing learning styles, but Neil Fleming's VARK model is
one of the most popular. 
 
VARK Learning Styles
 The acronym “VARK” is used to describe four modalities of student learning that were described in a 1992
study by Neil D. Fleming and Coleen E. Mills. These different learning styles visual, auditory,
reading/writing and kinesthetic were identified after thousands of hours of classroom observation. The
authors also created an accompanying questionnaire for educators to give to students to help them
identify and understand their own learning preferences.
 Visual Learners
Students who best internalize and synthesize information when it is presented to them in a graphic
depiction of meaningful symbols are described as visual learners. They may respond to arrows, charts,
diagrams, and other visualizations of information hierarchy, but not necessarily to photographs or videos.
Because visual learners tend to be holistic learners who process information best when it is presented to
them as a robust whole rather than piecemeal, they tend to see positive educational outcomes when they
are presented with summarizing charts and diagrams rather than sequential slides of information.
 Auditory Learners
Auditory (or aural) learners are most successful when they are given the opportunity to hear information
presented to them vocally. Because students with this learning style may sometimes opt not to take notes
during class to maintain their unbroken auditory attention, educators can erroneously conclude that they
are less engaged than their classmates. However, these students may simply have decided that notetaking
is a distraction and that their unbroken attention is a more valuable way for them to learn.
Auditory learning is a two-way street: Students who fall into this modality often find success in group
activities where they are asked to discuss course materials vocally with their classmates, and they may
benefit from reading their written work aloud to themselves to help them think it through.
 Reading/Writing Learners
Students who work best in the reading/writing modality demonstrate a strong learning preference for the
written word. This includes both written information presented in class in the form of handouts and
PowerPoint slide presentations as well as the opportunity to synthesize course content in the completion
of written assignments. This modality also lends itself to conducting research online, as many information-
rich sources on the internet are relatively text heavy.
Reading/writing-oriented students should be encouraged to take copious notes during classroom lectures
to help them both process information and have an easier time recalling it later.
Kinesthetic Learners
Kinesthetic learners are hands-on, participatory learners who need to take a physically active role in the
learning process to achieve their best educational outcomes. They are sometimes referred to as “tactile
learners,” but this can be a bit of a misnomer; rather than simply utilizing touch, kinesthetic learners tend
to engage all of their senses equally in the process of learning. Because of their active nature, kinesthetic
learners often have the most difficult time succeeding in conventional classroom settings. Some educators
have found success encouraging kinesthetic learners to utilize flashcards for subjects like math and English
to make rote memorization into an interactive experience. These students also often thrive in scientific
subjects with lab components, as the skills-based, instructional training that occurs in these settings
engages them in productive ways.
 To expand on Fleming’s model, let’s have a look at Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory
– the seven learning styles.
                                        7 Learning Styles
When people identify the learning style that suits them best, they tend to stick with it. However, research
has shown that the most effective study comes from blending different learning styles together.
 Visual Learning
 

Do you need to draw things out?

Are you constantly doodling? If you find it easier to understand something if it is in a diagram, you are
probably a visual learner. Knowledge or concept maps use visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts,
thoughts or ideas, and the relationships between them. These are a great tool for visual or spatial learners
as you can draw connections or use color coding to group ideas.
By representing information spatially and with images, students are able to focus on meaning, reorganize
and group similar ideas easily, and utilize their visual memory to learn. Visual learners often pursue careers
such as architecture, engineering, project management, or design.
 Verbal Learning

Do you love words and writing?

People who find it easier to express themselves by writing or speaking can be regarded as a verbal learner.
You love to write and read. You like to play on the meaning or sound of words such as tongue twisters,
rhymes and so on. You’re familiar with the definitions of many words and regularly try to learn more
meanings of new words.
Techniques used by verbal learners involve mnemonics, scripting, role playing and anything that involves
both speaking and writing. Verbal learners often pursue public speaking, writing, administration,
journalism or politics.
Techniques used by verbal learners are reciting information out loud, writing your own notes and
highlighting the key points. Having a passion for words, writing, tongue twisters, rhymes, may indicate that
this learning style is for you.
Aural Learning
 

Do you dislike reading?

If you need someone to tell you something out loud to understand it, you are an auditory learner. You
depend on hearing the information to fully understand it, rather than just reading it from a book. Group
discussions are a great way for auditory learners to grasp new ideas.
Auditory learners have the aptitude to notice audible signals like changes in tone, or pitch to name a few.
For example, when memorizing a phone number, an auditory learner will say it out loud first and take note
of how it sounded to remember it. Aural learners often pursue careers such as musician, recording
engineer, speech pathologist, or language teacher.
Aural learning involves using sound and music. Auditory learners develop understanding and memory by
hearing and listening. If you find it easier to understand spoken instructions rather than reading, aural
learning will benefit you.
 Physical Learning

Are you a hands-on type of person?

In this style, learning happens when the learner carries out a physical activity, rather than listening to a
lecture or watching a demonstration. Those who prefer kinesthetic learning are called ‘do-ers’ and much
prefer hands on learning. Kinesthetic learners make up about five percent of the population.
Kinesthetic learners are often interested in careers such as emergency services, safety representative,
physical education, or entertainment (such as acting or dance).
Physical learning involves using your body and sense of touch to learn. Physical learners learn by doing,
touching, moving, building, and are described as a ‘hands-on”. If you find it difficult to sit still for long
periods of time, chances are you’re a physical learner.
 Logical Learning

Are you great with numbers?

When you like using your brain for logical and mathematical reasoning, you’re a logical learner. You easily
recognize patterns and can connect seemingly meaningless concepts easily.  Logical learners often lean
towards classifying and grouping information to help them further understand it.
You excel in numbers and are fine with doing complex calculations such as basic trigonometry off the top
of your head! Logical learners could pursue careers in fields such as scientific
research, accountancy, bookkeeping or computer programming.
Logical learners often learn by asking a lot of questions. Logical learners want to understand the whole
picture. They are natural thinkers who learn by classifying, categorizing, and thinking abstractly about
patterns & relationships etc.
Social Learning
Are you a people person?
Other learners prefer social or interpersonal learning. If you’re at best in socializing and communicating
with people, both verbally and non-verbally, this is what you are, a social learner.
Social learners prefer to learn in groups rather than on their own, and like generating ideas by
brainstorming with others. If you like taking part in group sports and prefer social activities than doing
things on your own, you may be a social learner.
People often come to you to listen and ask for advice. They do because of the apparent sensitivity you
have to their feelings, moods and even motivations. You listen well and empathize with what others are
thinking and going through.
Social learners may pursue counseling, teaching, training and coaching, sales, politics, and human
resources among others.
Solitary Learning
Do you prefer working alone?

You have a solitary style if you are more private, independent and introspective. Your concentration is at
its best when you focus on your thoughts and feelings without the distraction of others.
Authors and researchers often have a strong solitary learning style. However, having a good solitary
grounding is evident for many top performers in a range of fields. Being able to learn introspectively
works well with some of the more dominant learning style discussed above.
Solitary learners tend to be more independent and introspective, spending a lot of time on their own,
enjoying their own company. If you enjoy spending time alone, keeping a journal and engaging in self-
analysis to gain a deeper understanding of yourself, you may be a solitary learner.
 
Others, in contrast, believe there are many more than four types of learning styles. Psychologist Scott
Barry Kaufman, in his 2018 Scientific American  article, wrote that the number of learning styles proposed
varies from 3 to 170! You can read his article here. A word of warning about Dr. Kaufman’s article, though.
It’s highly critical of the learning styles model.
While maintaining a healthy bit of skepticism, along with an open mind, here are eight learning styles as
proposed by some scholars:
1. Visual (spatial) Learners
For many people, definitely, the “eyes have it.” These people prefer it when information is visually
presented. Rather than detailed written or spoken information, such students respond better to:

 Charts, graphs, or tables

 Pictures and photographs
 Visual aids, such as projectors
 Information that is organized visually (e.g., color-coded categories)
 Metaphors that take advantage of visualizing (e.g., “The battlefield was a sea of death”)
2. Aural (audio) Learners
Others seem to respond more favorably to sound and are able to remember more when they listen to
information. These learners benefit a lot from lessons that involve listening and speaking. When reading, it
often helps them to do it aloud. Some ideas to improve their learning experience include:

 Music (which may help by providing an emotional connection)

 Rhymes spoken out loud
 Audiobooks when appropriate

3. Physical (tactile) Learners

For some, the most effective educational approach involves physical interaction with things. This is a real
“hands-on experience” that emphasizes a type of “learning by doing,” rather than merely sitting and
listening to a teacher explain concepts. This is the “kinesthetic”, or K in the VARK model mentioned earlier.
There are several good methods of reaching students who prefer this learning style:

 Use exercises that get pupils out of their seats

 Allow them to draw as an activity
 Get them to perform an experiment or role-play
 Incorporate activities that involve acting or dancing
 Introduce puzzles or other physical objects they can handle

4. Verbal Learners (aka Linguistic Learners)

Here, the key is not so much whether the information is spoken or written. Rather, these types of students
simply enjoy making use of the language itself. Like aural learners, verbal ones enjoy rhymes and
wordplay. Here are some strategies for best promoting learning among these individuals:

 Encourage group discussions

 Assign topics for class presentations
 Give them role-plays with interesting scenarios
 Promote flexibility related to learning new vocabulary

5. Logical (analytical) Learners

While aural learners may benefit from forming an emotional connection with sound, logical learners look
for patterns and trends in what they learn. They search for the connections, and the reasons and results.
Teachers can best motivate them by using lessons that:

 Introduce questions that demand interpretation and inference

 Present material requiring problem-solving abilities
 Encourage them to reach conclusions based on facts and reasoning

6. Social Learners (aka Linguistic Learners)

These students prefer educational lessons that involve participation with others. In addition to enjoying
the social interaction, they appear to gain more insight this way. To help these learners, some good
approaches are:

 Use group activities

 Incorporate role-playing
 Encourage students to ask others question and share stories

7. Solo Learners
In contrast to social learners, there are students who prefer to study alone. When by themselves, these
individuals thrive. To assist this style of learner, teachers may:

 Use exercises that focus on individual learning and problem-solving

 Ask students to keep personal journals
 Acknowledge their individual accomplishments

8. Natural/ Nature Learners

Finally (at least for this article), there are those learners who do best when interacting with Mother Nature.
They seem to respond best to a more peaceful, natural type of learning. In many ways, they are similar to
physical, tactile learners. The main difference is they prefer to do their “hands-on” learning outside. Some
ideas for bringing out the best in these students include:

 Do “hands-on” experiments
 Conduct some classes outdoors
 Use examples from nature in explanations

The Takeaway
Whatever your take on how valid it is to gear teaching styles to one of eight learning styles (or 170, for
that matter!), there is merit in acknowledging that approaches to learning vary. Knowing this allows
educators to search for the most effective ways to reach certain students, particularly those with
behavioral or learning difficulties. At the very least, it opens the door for a thorough discussion and
exploration of educational methods and techniques that could help.
Conclusion
To summarize, despite the lack of substantial evidence supporting the success of these learning styles,
they remain widely popular and are still used in schools throughout the country. According to this Wired
article “Parents, understandably, like to think that their children are receiving a tailored education.
Teachers, also understandably, like to think that they are sensitive to each child’s needs, and many are
clearly motivated to find out more about how to fulfil this ideal.” However, while there is still value in
tailoring teaching methods based on the content and intended audience, attempting to strictly organize
individuals into specific styles is not likely to be helpful, and could even prevent them from developing
more rounded learning skills.
Jarrett goes on to describe how “learning is improved (for most everyone) by combining different activities
such as drawing alongside more passive study.” While it is not as useful as once thought for categorizing
learners, the 7 learning styles theory may still be of some use in making both teachers and learners alike
aware of a greater variety of learning techniques and methods.