A 

thermographic camera, sometimes called a FLIR or infrared camera less specifically, is a

device that forms an image using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that forms an
image using visible light. Instead of the 450–750 nanometer range of the visible light camera,
infrared cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm (14 µm).

Contents
 [hide]

1 Theory of operation
2 Types
o 2.1 Cooled infrared detectors
o 2.2 Uncooled infrared
detectors
3 Thermographer training and
certification
4 Applications
5 Specifications
6 See also

[edit]Theory of operation
Infrared energy is just one part of the electromagnetic spectrum that encompasses radiation
from gamma rays, x-rays, ultra violet, a thin region ofvisible light, infrared, terahertz
waves, microwaves, and radio waves. These are all related and differentiated in the length of
their wave (wavelength). All objects emit a certain amount of black body radiation as a function
of their temperatures. Generally speaking, the higher an object's temperature is, the more
infrared radiation as black-body radiation it emits. A special camera can detect this radiation in a
way similar to an ordinary camera does visible light. It works even in total darkness because
ambient light level does not matter. This makes it useful for rescue operations in smoke-filled
buildings and underground.

Images from infrared cameras tend to be monochromatic because the cameras are generally
designed with only a single type of sensor responding to single wavelength range of infrared
radiation. Color cameras require a more complex construction to differentiate wavelength and
color has less meaning outside of the normal visible spectrum because the differing
wavelengths do not map uniformly into the system of color vision used by humans. Sometimes
these monochromatic images are displayed inpseudo-color, where changes in color are used
rather than changes in intensity to display changes in the signal. This is useful because
although humans have much greater dynamic range in intensity detection than color overall, the
ability to see fine intensity differences in bright areas is fairly limited. This technique is
called density slicing.

For use in temperature measurement the brightest (warmest) parts of the image are customarily
colored white, intermediate temperatures reds and yellows, and the dimmest (coolest) parts
blue. A scale should be shown next to a false color image to relate colors to temperatures. Their
resolution is considerably lower than of optical cameras, mostly only 160x120 or 320x240
pixels. Thermographic cameras are much more expensive than their visible-spectrum
counterparts, and higher-end models are often deemed as dual-use and export-restricted.

In uncooled detectors the temperature differences at the sensor pixels are minute; a 1 °C
difference at the scene induces just a 0.03 °C difference at the sensor. The pixel response time
is also fairly slow, at the range of tens of milliseconds.

Thermal imaging photography finds many other uses. For example, firefighters use it to see
through smoke, find persons, and localize hotspots of fires. With thermal imaging, power
linemaintenance technicians locate overheating joints and parts, a telltale sign of their failure, to
eliminate potential hazards. Where thermal insulation becomes faulty, building
constructiontechnicians can see heat leaks to improve the efficiencies of cooling or heating air-
conditioning. Thermal imaging cameras are also installed in some luxury cars to aid the driver,
the first being the 2000 Cadillac DeVille. Some physiological activities, particularly responses, in
human beings and other warm-blooded animals can also be monitored with thermographic
imaging. Cooled infrared cameras can also be found at most major astronomy
research telescopes.

Thermographic image of a ringtailed lemur

Thermographic image of a snake around an arm

Thermographic image of several lizards

[edit]Types

Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types: those with cooled infrared image
detectors and those with uncooled detectors.

[edit]Cooled infrared detectors

Cooled detectors are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case
or Dewar and cryogenically cooled. The cooling is necessary for the operation of the
semiconductor materials used. Typical operating temperatures range from 4 K to just below
room temperature, depending on the detector technology. Most modern cooled detectors
operate in the 60 K to 100 K range, depending on type and performance level. Without cooling,
these sensors (which detect and convert light in much the same way as common digital
cameras, but are made of different materials) would be 'blinded' or flooded by their own
radiation. The drawbacks of cooled infrared cameras are that they are expensive both to
produce and to run. Cooling is power-hungry and time-consuming. The camera may need
several minutes to cool down before it can begin working. The most commonly used cooling
systems are rotary Stirling engine cryocoolers. Although the cooling apparatus is comparatively
bulky and expensive, cooled infrared cameras provide superior image quality compared to
uncooled ones. Additionally, the greater sensitivity of cooled cameras also allow the use of
higher F-number lenses, making high performance long focal length lenses both smaller and
cheaper for cooled detectors. An alternative to Stirling engine coolers is to use gases bottled at
high pressure, nitrogen being a common choice. The pressurised gas is expanded via a micro-
sized orifice and passed over a miniature heat exchanger resulting in regenerative cooling via
the Joule–Thomson effect. For such systems the supply of pressurized gas is a logistical
concern for field use.

Materials used for cooled infrared detection include photodetectors based on a wide range

of narrow gap semiconductors including:

 indium antimonide (3-5 μm)

 indium arsenide
 mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) (1-2 μm, 3-5 μm, 8-12 μm)
 lead sulfide
 lead selenide

Infrared photodetectors can be created with structures of high band gap semiconductors such
as in Quantum well infrared photodetectors.

A number of superconducting and non-superconducting cooled bolometer technologies exist.

In principle, superconducting tunneling junction devices could be used as infrared sensors

because of their very narrow gap. Small arrays have been demonstrated. Their wide range use
is difficult because their high sensitivity requires careful shielding from the background radiation.

Superconducting detectors offer extreme sensitivity, with some able to register individual
photons. For example ESA's Superconducting camera (SCAM). However, they are not in
regualr use outside of scientific research.

[edit]Uncooled infrared detectors

Thermal imaging camera & screen, photographed in an airport terminal in Greece. Thermal imaging can detect
elevated body temperature, one of the signs of the virus H1N1(Swine influenza).
Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor operating at ambient temperature, or a sensor
stabilized at a temperature close to ambient using small temperature control elements. Modern
uncooled detectors all use sensors that work by the change
of resistance, voltage or currentwhen heated by infrared radiation. These changes are then
measured and compared to the values at the operating temperature of the sensor. Uncooled
infrared sensors can be stabilized to an operating temperature to reduce image noise, but they
are not cooled to low temperatures and do not require bulky, expensive cryogenic coolers. This
makes infrared cameras smaller and less costly. However, their resolution and image quality
tend to be lower than cooled detectors. This is due to difference in their fabrication processes,
limited by currently available technology.

Uncooled detectors are mostly based

on pyroelectric and ferroelectric materials [1] or microbolometer technology. The material are
used to form pixels with highly temperature-dependent properties, which are thermally insulated
from the environment and read electronically.

Ferroelectric detectors operate close to phase transition temperature of the sensor material; the
pixel temperature is read as the highly temperature-dependent polarization charge. The
achieved NETD of ferroelectric detectors with f/1 optics and 320x240 sensors is 70-80 mK. A
possible sensor assembly consists of barium strontium titanate bump-
bonded by polyimide thermally insulated connection.

Silicon microbolometers can reach NETD down to 20 mK. They consist of a thin film vanadium
pentoxide sensing element suspended onsilicon nitride bridge above the silicon-based scanning
electronics. The electric resistance of the sensing element is measured once per frame.

Current improvements of uncooled focal plane arrays (UFPA) are focused primarily on higher
sensitivity and pixel density.

Some of the materials used for the sensor arrays are e.g.: [2]

 vanadium(V) oxide (metal insulator phase change material, for microbolometer arrays)

 lanthanum barium manganite (LBMO, metal insulator phase change material)
 amorphous silicon
 lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
 lanthanum doped lead zirconate titanate (PLZT)
 lead scandium tantalate (PST)
 lead lanthanum titanate (PLT)
 lead titanate (PT)
 lead zinc niobate (PZN)
 lead strontium titanate (PSrT)
 barium strontium titanate (BST)
 barium titanate (BT)
 antimony sulfoiodide (SbSI)
 polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)
[edit]Thermographer training and certification
Aside from test equipment, training is the most important investment a company will make in an
infrared inspection program. Advances in technology have provided infrared equipment that is
user-friendly; however, infrared thermography is not a "simply point and shoot" technology. In
addition to understanding the object or system being inspected, thermographers must also
understand common error sources that can influence observed thermal data. Typically, infrared
training courses should cover the topics of infrared theory, heat transfer concepts, equipment
selection and operation, how to eliminate or overcome common error sources, and specific
applications. Home and business owners who attempt thermal imaging themselves, in an effort
the improve home energy efficiency, often misinterpret the images and may be prompted to
spend on unnecessary improvements. Structural thermal imaging professionals can properly
interpret readings and recommend cost-effective measures to improve building efficiency.

Certification is written proof of qualification, and a well trained thermographer will not only be
trained, but properly certified. ISO 18434 lays down the criteria for certification. This allows for
three levels of thermographers:

 A Level 1 qualified thermographer is "certified to perform industrial thermographic

measurements and basic IR thermography according to established and recognized
procedures ”.
 A Level 2 qualified thermographer is "qualified to perform and/or direct IR thermography
according to established and recognized procedures."
 A Level 3 qualified thermographer is "qualified to perform and/or direct all types of
thermographic measurements and analysis."

To conform to these requirements fully, a Level 1 must:

 Complete at least 40 hours training under an approved program and pass an exam with
at least 75%.
 Work for at least 12 months as an active thermographer.
 Have at least 400 hours of cumulative experience in thermography.
 Submit proof of this.

A Level 2 must:

 Meet all the requirements of a Level 1 thermographer.

 Complete a further 40 hours training under an approved program and pass an exam with
at least 75%.
 Work for at least 24 months as an active thermographer.
 Have at least 1200 hours of cumulative experience in thermography.
 Submit proof of this.

A Level 3 must:

 Meet all the requirements for a Level 2 thermographer.

 Complete a further 40 hours training under an approved program and pass an exam with
at least 75%.
 Work for at least 48 months as an active thermographer.
 Have at least 1920 hours of cumulative experience in thermography.
 Submit proof of this.

There is also a Certification in Building Science Thermography. A CBST has special training in
building diagnostics and the interpretation of the patterning in thermal images used while
investigating building failures.

It is important when hiring thermographers to check their Certification level, and to ensure their
knowledge of your application is sufficient. It is also recommended that thermography
companies have either their own Level 3 thermographer, or that they hire in the services of a
Level 3.

In the USA ASNT certification is mainly used. Similarly, it follows three levels. It must be pointed
out that under the ASNT system, certification is by the employer. This means that
thermographers cannot bring their certification from job to job with them, and it also means that
many one-person consultancy businesses may practice "self certification", which is a major
downfall of this system.

[edit]Applications

Originally developed for military use during the Korean War, thermographic cameras have
slowly migrated into other fields as varied as medicine and archeology. More recently, the
lowering of prices have helped fuel the adoption of infrared viewing technology. Advanced
optics and sophisticated software interfaces continue to enhance the versatility of IR cameras.

 Astronomy, in devices such as the Spitzer Space Telescope

 Night vision
 Firefighting operations
 Military and police target detection & acquisition
 Law enforcement and anti-terrorism
 Predictive maintenance (early failure warning) on mechanical & electrical equipment
 Process monitoring
 Condition monitoring & surveillance
 Automotive applications
 Energy auditing of building insulation and detection of refrigerant leaks
 Roof inspection
 Auditing of acoustic insulation for sound reduction
 Masonry wall structural analysis
 Moisture detection in walls & roofs (and thus in turn often part of mold remediation)
 Chemical imaging
 Medical testing for diagnosis
 Nondestructive testing
 Quality control in production environments
 Research & development of new products
 Pollution effluent detection
 Locating unmarked graves
 Aerial archaeology
 Paranormal investigation
 Search and rescue operations
 Technical surveillance counter-measures
 Quarantine monitoring of visitors to a country
 Flame detector
[edit]Specifications

Some specification parameters of an infrared camera system are:

 Number of pixels
 Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD)
 Spectral band
 Sensor lifetime
 Minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD)
 Field of view
 Dynamic range
 Input power
 Mass and volume
[edit]See also
A thermal imaging camera (colloquially known as a TIC) is a type of thermographic
camera used in firefighting. By rendering infrared radiation as visible light, such cameras
allowfirefighters to see areas of heat through smoke, darkness, or heat-permeable barriers.
Thermal imaging cameras are typically handheld, but may be helmet-mounted. They are
constructed using heat- and water-resistant housings, and ruggedized to withstand the hazards
of fireground operations. While they are expensive pieces of equipment, their popularity and
adoption by firefighters in the United States increasing markedly due to the increased availability
of government equipment grants following the September 11 attacks in 2001.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Construc
tion
2 Usage
3 History
4 See also
5 Referenc
es

[edit]Construction
An MSA Evolution 5000 handheld thermal imaging camera

A thermal imaging camera consists of five components: an optic system, detector, amplifier,
signal processing, and display.[1] Fire-service specific thermal imaging cameras incorporate
these components in a heat-resistant,[2] ruggedized, and waterproof housing.[3] These parts work
together to render infrared radiation, such as that given off by warm objects or flames, into
a visible light representation in real time. The camera display shows infrared output differentials,
so two objects with the same temperature will appear to be the same "color".[4] Many thermal
imaging cameras use grayscale to represent normal temperature objects, but highlight
dangerously hot surfaces in different colors.[5]

Cameras may be handheld[6] or helmet-mounted.[7] A handheld camera requires one hand to

position and operate, leaving only one free hand for other tasks, but can be easily transferred
between firefighters. The majority of thermal imaging cameras in use in the fire service are
handheld models.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology Fire Research division is the lead

government agency developing performance standards for fire service thermal imaging cameras
in the United States, although the U.S. Army Night Vision Laboratory has contributed to the
effort.[1]Preliminary recommendations from the field include visible low-battery warnings, ability
to withstand full immersion in water, and the ability to provide meaningful visual readouts
beyond 2,000°F (~1,100°C).[8]

[edit]Usage
View of a fire apparatus tire through an MSA Evolution 5000 thermal imaging camera

Since thermal imaging cameras can "see" through darkness or smoke, they allow firefighters to
quickly find the seat of a structure fire, or see the heat signature of visually obscured victims.
[9]
 They can be used to search for victims outdoors on a cool night, spot smoldering fires inside a
wall,[10] or detect overheating electrical wiring.[4] Thermal imaging cameras were credited with
saving multiple lives per year though victim identification and removal from low visibility
conditions as early as 1999.[11]

In addition to the ability to see through dense smoke, thermal imaging cameras also can see
materials involved in spontaneous, low level combustion. In one documented instance, a TIC
was used to isolate a smoldering hot spot in a grain storage facility; by isolating and removing
only the affected grain, 75% of the stored crop was saved.[12] In another, Tennessee firefighters
used a thermal imaging camera to detect a hidden fire inside a cinder railroad bed, resulting in
an estimated $500,000 cost avoidance.[13] Thermal imaging cameras have also been reported to
be particularly useful for fighting fires in cellulose insulation,[14] and for ascertaining that a
structure is safe to reenter after a fire has been put out.[15] Ventura County, California firefighters
used their TIC to find a cat which had become sealed inside a walkway during construction.[16]

Prototypes of helmet-mounted thermal imaging cameras were first publicized in 1992,[17] but a

detailed evaluation of their performance in real world situations was not published until 2007.
The model evaluated in 2007 weighed approximately 1.5 lbs, substantially increasing weight
over an unadorned helmet.[7] However, the ability to "use the devices while they were also
pulling hose and carrying tools"[7] was favorably received by firefighters evaluating the product.
Benefits of helmet mounted TICs included that multiple firefighters each observed different
aspects of a fire, while drawbacks included firefighters relaxing safety discipline.[7] In timed
testing, teams of firefighters with helmet-mounted cameras completed search tasks substantially
faster, were less disoriented, and used less air than teams with a single handheld camera, who
in turn fared better than teams with no TIC at all.[7]

A limitation of these and similar devices has been their poor depth perception (the user has a
hard time judging how far away objects are).[18][19] This increases the likelihood that the user will
trip over[18] or run into obstacles, or have other distance-related problems. An additional
limitation of infrared technology is that since materials at the same teperature are shown as the
same color, the display will not depict many details normally viewable in visible light.

[edit]History

While thermal imaging technology has long been in use in specialized law enforcement and
military applications,[4] its acceptance by the fire service has been hampered by the cost of the
cameras. The Seattle Fire Department acquired its first thermal imaging camera in 1997, for a
cost of $16,000.[20] In 2000, the Los Angeles Times called the thermal imaging camera
"[p]erhaps the best advance in fire equipment in the last 25 years—and the most expensive".
[21]
 Fire departments have pursued various sources and methods to fund thermal imaging
cameras including direct budgeting,[6] grants,[9] and charity donations,[22] among others. One fire
chief observed that the same sorts of cost issues plagued SCBA acquisitions during their initial
adoption.[7] In 2001, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) began issuing grants
under the Firefighter Investment and Response Enhancement (FIRE) Act, which provided $100
million to U.S. fire agencies during that fiscal year. Many departments used these funds to
purchase thermal imaging cameras.[23] However, replacing a damaged thermal imaging camera
can be a substantial challenge for a department which acquired the camera outside the normal
budget process.[24]

As departments began acquiring thermal imaging cameras, they were typically assigned to
specialized units, such as heavy rescue and truck companies.[6] Thermal imaging cameras are
routinely assigned to Rapid Intervention Teams, to enable them to more effectively reach and
free trapped firefighters.[25][26] Since 2003, the lack of a properly used thermal imaging camera
has been recognized by NIOSH as an avoidable factor contributing to firefighter injuries and
deaths,[25] and the fact that a thermal imaging cameras not used was cited in a 2005 NIOSH
report as a contributing factor to the 2004 line of duty death of Houston firefighter Kevin Kulow.
[27]
 One of the recommendations of the Charleston Sofa Super Store fire post incident
assessment and review team was "the purchase of a standard model thermal imaging camera
for each engine and ladder company".[28]

[edit]See also
 Flame detector