Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The Cell is the basic unit of life that helps attain the functions and structures of different
organisms. Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
The single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes
(pro = before; karyon– = nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu = true).
Cellular structure determines which group an organism belongs to.
All cells share four common components: (1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; (2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like
region within the cell in which other cellular components are found; (3) DNA, the genetic material of
the cell; and (4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from
eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cell

Description Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

1. Do they have DNA? YES YES

2. Do they have a nucleus? NO YES

3. Do they have ribosomes? YES YES

4. Do they have mitochondria? NO YES

5. Fungi NO YES

6. Amoeba YES NO

There are many different types of cells. For example, in you there are blood cells and skin cells
and bone cells and even bacteria. Here we have drawings of bacteria and human cells. However, all
cells - whether from bacteria, human, or any other organism - will be one of two general types. In fact,
all cells other than bacteria will be one type, and bacterial cells will be the other. And it all depends on
how the cell stores its DNA.
As the name implies, unicellular organisms are made up of a single cell. They are the oldest
form of life, with fossil records dating back to about 3.8 billion years ago. Bacteria, amoeba,
Paramecium, archaea, protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi are examples of unicellular
organisms. These unicellular organisms are mostly invisible to the naked eye, hence, they are also
referred to as microscopic organisms. Most of the unicellular organisms are also prokaryotes.
Some of the examples of unicellular organisms are: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium,
Plasmodium, Nostoc, Salmonella (Prokaryotic unicellular organisms) Protozoans, Fungi, Algae
(Eukaryotic unicellular organisms)
Organisms that are composed of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms.
Multicellular organisms are almost always eukaryotes. However, bacteria can form large interlinked
structures such as colonies or biofilms but these can’t be classified as multicellular organisms. Some of
the examples of multicellular organisms are vertebrates and invertebrates, all angiosperms,
gymnosperms and higher land plants.
 There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living cells: the nucleus. The nucleus of a
cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains, and
protects, most of the cell's DNA. Based on whether they have a nucleus, there are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the cytoplasm rather than
enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are found in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, like the
one shown in the. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. They were the first type of organisms to
evolve and are still the most
The figures below are common examples of prokaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, and they are
found mainly in multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes, and they range from
fungi to people (animal kingdom).
Eukaryotic cells also contain Eukaryotic cell
other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific
job in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide energy to the cell, and organelles
called vacuoles store substances in the cell. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than
prokaryotic cells can. This allows eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes, the
organelle where proteins are made, are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells. The figure below shows an example of a
eukaryotic cell.
 Plant and Animal Tissues
In the case of eukaryotes, particularly plants and animals, they can attain multicellularity. Higher organisms
achieve this multicellularity via differential gene expression and cytoplasmic determinants, morphogens and many other
epigenetic factors. In higher animals such as fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and other vertebrates, there
are major types of cells found in their body. These are somatic cells (body cells) and germinal cells (sex cells). Somatic
cells are diverse in the body of an organism; examples are neurons, epithelial cells, liver cells, somite and much more.
Somatic cells play a physiological role in the overall function of the organism. Sperm and egg cells represent germinal
cells, which are essential for reproduction

Plant tissue Facts

Plant tissue is divided into Meristematic and Permanent tissues, and furthermore, this permanent plant tissues
is divided into simple and complex one .
Meristematic tissue which is responsible for the making of new cells by mitosis. Meristematic tissue contains
actively dividing cells that result in formation of other tissue types (e.g. vascular, dermal or ground tissue)
Permanent tissue which is incapable of cell division. The permanent tissues in a plant are those tissues that
contain non-dividing cells. The cells are also modified to perform specific functions in the plants. The cells of the
permanent tissue are derived from the meristematic tissue. Permanent tissue cells may be living or dead.
Permanent tissues are made of cells that are produced by the meristems and are formed to various shapes and
sizes depending on their intended function in the plant. Sometimes the tissues are composed of the same type of cells
throughout, or sometimes they are mixed.

Tissues form organs which combine to allow organisms to exist. A tissue is a group of cells, in
close proximity, organized to perform one or more specific functions. Histology is the study of cells,
tissues and organs as seen through the micro- scope. It also includes cellular detail down to the
molecular level that can be observed using an electron microscope.

Plant and animal cells have structures related to their functions. Plant tissues are broadly divided
into Dividing or Meristematic and Permanent tissues. Animal tissues are made up of epithelial,
connective, muscle and nerve tissue.

PLANT TISSUES
As for all animals, your body is made of four types of tissue: epidermal, muscle, nerve, and connective
tissues. Plants, too, are built of tissues, but not surprisingly, their very different lifestyles derive from
different kinds of tissues. All three types of plant cells are found in most plant tissues.

Three Major Types of Plant Tissues

Plant Tissues can be classified by following ways.

I. On the basis of the part of plant they are present.

1. Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. You can
think of the epidermis as the plant’s skin. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its
environment. Epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called cuticle, which coats, waterproofs, and
protects the aboveground parts of plants. Cuticle helps prevent water loss, abrasions, infections, and
damage from toxins.

This tissue includes several types of specialized cells. Pavement cells, large, irregularly shaped
parenchymal cells which lack chloroplasts, make up the

majority of the epidermis. Within the The epidermis of Arabidopsis shows epidermis, thousands of
pairs of both pavement cells (A) and stomata

made of sclerenchyma guard cells (B), bean-shaped sclerenchyma guard which control water loss
and gas

cells swell and shrink by osmosis to open and close stomata, tiny pores which control the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide gases and the release of water vapor. The lower surfaces of some leaves
contain as many as 100,000 stomata per square centimeter.

Epidermis - the exchange of matter between the plant and the environment. (a) the epidermis on
above ground organs (leaves and stems) is involved with gas exchange. (b) the epidermis on below
ground organs (roots) is involved with water and ion uptake

2. Ground tissue makes up much of the interior of a plant and carries out basic metabolic
functions. Ground tissue in stems provides support and may store food or water. Ground tissues in
roots may also store food.

3. Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. Your body was able to grow from a
single cell to perhaps 100 trillion cells because, 21 days after fertilization, a tiny heart began to pump
blood throughout your tiny self – and it hasn’t stopped since. The blood it pumps carries water,
oxygen and nutrients to each one of your trillions of cells, and removes CO2 and other wastes. Of
course plants don’t have hearts, but they do have vessels that transport water, minerals, and
nutrients through the plant. These vessels are the vascular tissue, and consist of xylem and phloem.
Xylem and phloem are packaged together in bundles, as shown in Figure on the right.

Bundles of xylem and phloem run through the ground

tissue inside this stalk of celery. What function do these

tissues serve?
II. On the basis of kind of cells they contain

Permanent Plant Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissues Parenchyma Tissue
1. They are living cells, polygonal, round or irregular in shape. The cells have thin cell walls.
2. Have large intercellular spaces in between the cells.
3. Forms the basic ground tissue and stores food.
4. When the cells contain chlorophyll, they can carry photosynthesis and are called chlorenchyma.
5. In aquatic plants they contain air cavities to help the plant to remain afloat, there they are called
aerenchyma.
6. In stems and roots they may store nutrients.
7. Some plants with parenchyma tissues are the Caladium and Taro plants.

Collenchyma Tissue
1. They are living cells, round, oval and elongated in shape. The cells have cell walls thickened
unevenly at the corners.
2. Have little or no intercellular spaces as the corners of cell walls are thickened with pectin.
3. Present below the epidermis in leaves and stems.
4. They give mechanical support to the plant.
5. Can carry photosynthesis if chlorophyll is present.
6. Celery and Banana are some plants with Collenchyma tissue.

Sclerenchyma
1. They are dead cells, long and narrow cells, appear angular in the cross section. The cells have
highly thick cell walls.
2. Cells do not have intercellular spaces as the cell walls are thickened with lignin. Lignin is like a
strong cement that binds the cells together. Often there is no space and cytoplasm left in the
cells.
3. Present in the vascular bundles in xylem and phloem in stem, roots and in the veins of leaves.
Also present in the hard seed coat covering.
 4. Provide strong mechanical support, rigidity and flexibility to the plant.
5. Cells are dead but are connected through the pits, pits are places where lignin is absent.
6. Coconut and palm trees are plants with Sclerenchyma tissue.

Complex Permanent Tissues Vascular Tissues

The vascular tissues are specialized to transport food, water and minerals. They consist of long, narrow
cells arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. There are two different types of vascular tissues, called xylem
and phloem. Both are shown in figure below.
• Xylem is vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to stems
and leaves. This type of tissue consists of dead cells that lack end walls between adjacent
cells. The side walls are thick and reinforced with lignin, which makes them stiff and
waterproof.

• Phloem is vascular tissue that transports food (sugar dissolved in water) from
photosynthetic cells to other parts of the plant for growth or storage. This type of tissue
consists of living cells that are separated by end walls with tiny perforations, or holes.

ANIMAL TISSUES
 The animal cells are grouped together to form animal tissues. These tissues vary in
their structure, function, and origin. The animal tissues are divided into epithelial, connective,
muscular and nervous tissues. Let us have a glimpse of each type of animal tissue in detail.
Types of Animal Tissue

The different types of animal tissues include:

1. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues form the protective covering and inner lining of the body and organs. These tissues were
the first to evolve during evolution and were first formed during embryonic development. They develop
from the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm of the embryo.
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
Following are the important characteristics of epithelial tissues:
1. These can be single-layered or multi-layered.
2. The tissues have the power to regenerate.
3. These are held together by gap junctions, tight junctions, zonula adheren, desmosomes, or
interdigitating.
4. The plasma membrane of these cells is specialized into flagella, cilia, and microvilli.
The epithelial tissues Classification of Epithelial Tissues can be classified as:

Classification Function
Sensory epithelium To perceive stimuli
Glandular epithelium Secretes chemicals
Pigmented epithelium Imparts colour in retina
Absorptive epithelium For absorption

2. Connective Tissue
Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal cells of the embryo. They support and bind other tissues
in the body. These are made up of three components:
• Intercellular Matrix: It is made up of mucopolysaccharide, specifically hyaluronic acid.
• Cells: The major cells include fibroblasts, adipocytes, plasma cells and mast cells.
• Fibres: Connective tissues are made up of three types of fibres, namely, collagen fibre, elastic fibre,
and reticular fibre.
The connective tissues perform the following functions:
 1. They attach organs and tissues together.
2. They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
3. They help in repairing tissues.
4. They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
5. The organs also help in defence.
Classification of Connective Tissues
The connective tissues are classified as follows:

Classification Function

Connective Tissue Proper Provides support and protection to the

body
Vascular Tissue Transport of materials in the body
Skeletal Tissue It supports the body and gives it proper
shape and form

3. Muscular Tissue
The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the embryo. It is classified into three types:
• Cardiac muscle - (involuntary in action, with striations) – ex. walls of the heart.
• Smooth muscle ((involuntary in action, have no striations) – ex. found on the walls of hollow visceral
organs like intestines, stomach, liver, lungs, pancreas.
• Skeletal muscle (voluntary in action, with striations) – ex. muscles attached to the bones, tendons,
nerves, joints.

Muscular tissue performs the following functions:

1. It helps in movement and locomotion.
2. It supports the bones and other structures.
3. It is responsible for peristalsis and parturition.

Classification of Muscular Tissue

The muscular tissue can be classified as:

Classification Function
Cardiac It helps in blood circulation and keeps the heart pumping
Smooth These help in peristalsis and other involuntary functions of the body.

Skeletal Provide support, help in movement and maintain homeostasis

4. Nervous tissue

This type of tissue makes up the peripheral and the central nervous system. It develops from the
ectoderm of the embryo. It possesses the ability to initiate and transmit the nerve impulse. Its main
components include:
• Neurons – These are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. It comprises an axon,
cell body and dendrites.
 • Neuroglia – These are special cells found in the brain and spinal cord. They provide support to the
neurons and fibres.
• Neurosecretory Cells – These function as endocrine organs. They release chemicals from the axons
directly into blood.

PLANT TISSUE vs. ANIMAL TISSUE

Plant Tissue Animal Tissue

In plants, dead supportive tissues are In multicellular animals living tissues

more abundant as compared as to are more common as compared to
living tissues. dead tissues.

They require less maintenance energy They require more maintenance

as they are autotrophic and can make energy as they are heterotrophic and
their own food. have to move in search of food.

There is a differentiation of tissues into Such differentiation is absent in

meristematic and permanent tissues, animals as their growth is uniform
which are localized in certain regions of
plants based on their dividing capacity

Due to the activity of meristematic Animals do not show growth after

tissue plants continue to grow reaching maturity. Reparative growth
throughout life. is, however present.

Organization of plants tissues is simple Organization of animal tissues is

complex with the development of
more specialized and localized organs
and organ systems.

Tissue organization is meant Tissue organization is targeted

for towards high mobility of animals.
stationary habit of plants