Instructions: Study and be able to comprehend the concepts provided on the reading material

below which is lifted from General Biology 1. Alternative Delivery Mode. Quarter 1 – Module 4
and 5: Cell Cycle and Cell Division. First Edition, 2020. Department of Education. After which,
accomplish the tasks/activities presented in the Written Work section.

CELL CYCLE
Suppose you scrape your leg while sliding into second base during a softball game.
At first, the wound bleeds, but the blood soon clots and forms a scab. Underneath the
dried crust, cells of the immune system clear away trapped dirt and dead cells. At the
same time, undamaged skin cells bordering the wound begin to divide repeatedly,
producing fresh, new daughter cells that eventually fill the damaged area. Those actively
dividing skin cells illustrate the cell cycle, which describes the events that occur in one
complete round of cell division.
The duration of the cell cycle varies, depending on the cell that is dividing. Some
eukaryotic cells might complete the cycle in as few as eight minutes, while other cells
might take up to one year. For most normal, actively dividing animal cells, the cell cycle
takes 12-24 hours. When you consider all that takes place during the cell cycle, you might
find it amazing that most of your cells complete the cell cycle in about a day.
Growth rates vary widely in different organisms and even in the different tissues
within an organism. You have learned that organisms are composed of cells, which can
either be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, depending on how simple or complex these
organisms are. Prokaryotic cells have similar structures with eukaryotic cells but not
identical, Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and cytoskeleton. Because of
these characteristics, they divide more rapidly than eukaryotic cells.

The cell cycle is a complex sequence of events by which cells grow and divide. It is
divided into four major phases – G1 (Growth Phase 1), S (Synthesis Phase), G2 (Growth
Phase 2), and M (Mitotic Phase). Collectively, the G1, S, and G2 Phases are the interphase
(non-dividing phase), whereas the M or mitotic phase is the cell-dividing phase. In
addition to the basic phases, G0 (resting phase) needs to be mentioned. In the G0 phase,
cells are active and metabolically active, but not divided. This is the state in which the cell
leaves the cell cycle. The phase can be temporary or permanent. An example is a neuron
which has lost its capability to divide as it has achieved the highest differentiation state.
Figure 1. The Cell Cycle. Interphase includes gap phases (G1 and G2), when the cell grows
and some organelles duplicate. During the synthesis (S) phase of interphase, DNA
replicates. Mitosis divides the replicated genetic material between two nuclei. Cytokinesis
then splits the cytoplasm in half, producing two identical daughter cells.

The Stages of Interphase During interphase, the cell grows, develops into a mature,
functioning cell, duplicates its DNA, and prepares for division. Interphase is divided into
three stages as G1, S, and G2 also called Gap1 or Growth Phase 1, Synthesis Phase, and
Gap2 or Growth Phase 2.

Phase Stage Description

Growth Phase 1 Cells increase in size. Organelles are being
(G1) built. DNA synthesis starts.

Interphase Synthesis Cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell

division.
Growth Phase 2 Cells continue to grow, and protein synthesis
(G2) continues in preparation for the division of
its nucleus.

The first stage of interphase, G1, is the period immediately after a cell divides.
During G1, a cell is growing, carrying out normal cell functions, and preparing to replicate
DNA. Some cells, such as muscle and nerve cells, exit the cell cycle at this point and do not
divide again.
The second stage of interphase, S, is the period when a cell copies its DNA in
preparation for cell division. Chromosomes are the structures that contain the genetic
material that is passed from generation to generation of cells. Chromatin is the relaxed
form of DNA in the cell’s nucleus.
 The G2 stage follows the S stage and is the period when the cell prepares for the
division of its nucleus. A protein that makes microtubules for cell division is synthesized at
this time. During G2, the cell also takes inventory and makes sure it is ready to continue
with mitosis. When these activities are completed, the cell begins the next stage of the
cell cycle-mitosis.
In addition to the above basic phases, G0 (resting phase) needs to be mentioned.
This is the state in which the cell leaves the cell cycle. The phase can be temporary or
permanent. An example is a neuron which has lost its capability to divide as it has
achieved the highest differentiation state.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis The stages of mitosis and cytokinesis follow interphase.
Mitosis (M) involves the division of the nucleus and the genetic material. Scientists divide
mitosis into four parts-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, dealt in more
detail in lesson 3 of this module. During M stage, the hereditary material of the parent
cell is given into the daughter cells. This leads to the formation of two daughter cells
containing the identical genetic materials. Since the goal of mitosis is to distribute an
identical set of genetic instructions, that is, one copy of each chromosome to the two
daughter cells, it is logical for DNA replication to occur before mitosis begins. During this
stage, the cell’s nuclear membrane disintegrates, while the DNA condenses, forming two
nuclei. In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm and the two nuclei are distributed into the two
forming daughter cells, which then physically separate. The process differs somewhat
between animal and plant cells. In an animal cell, the first sign of cytokinesis is the
cleavage furrow, a slight indentation around the middle of the dividing cell. A ring of
proteins beneath the cell membrane contracts like a drawstring, separating the daughter
cells. Unlike animal cells, plant cells are surrounded by cell walls. A dividing plant cell
must therefore construct a new wall that separates the two daughter cells. The first sign
of cell wall construction is the cell plate, a structure that appears at the middle of the
dividing plant cell. The cell plate grows and consolidates as vesicles from the Golgi
apparatus deliver cellulose, other polysaccharides, and proteins. The resulting layer of
cellulose fibers embedded in surrounding material makes a strong, rigid wall that gives a
plant cell its shape.

Quality Control Checkpoints Recall the process of starting a car. Many

manufacturers use a unique microchip in the key to ensure that only a specific key will
start each car. This is a checkpoint against theft. The cell cycle also has built-in
checkpoints that monitor the cycle and can stop it if something goes wrong. For example,
a checkpoint near the end of the G1 stage monitors for DNA damage and can stop the
cycle before entering the S stage of interphase. There are other quality control
checkpoints during the S stage and after DNA replication in the G2 stage. Spindle
checkpoints also have been identified in mitosis. If a failure of the spindle fibers is
detected, the cycle can be stopped before cytokinesis. Cell cycle checkpoints are
important regulatory requirements before the cell cycle continues, as shown in Figure 2.
Cell cycle regulators are proteins that function to detect and repair DNA damage and
prevent rapid uncontrolled cell division. The regulations are also dependent on the
signaling relay of the cell. Cyclins are regulatory subunits that do not have a catalytic
function. The cell synthesizes this during the cell cycle. The cyclin- dependent kinases
(CDK), is a catalytic subunit that becomes active only when cyclin is abound to it. The
binding of CDKs and cyclins function together to phosphorylate and stimulate or
deactivate target molecules in the succeeding steps of the cell cycle. Specific types of
cyclin and CDKs and cyclin combination determine specific target molecule (protein).

The G1 Checkpoint The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable
for cell division to proceed. The G1 checkpoint, also called the restriction point (in yeast),
is a point at which the cell commits to the cell division process. External influences, such
as growth factors, play a large role in carrying the cell past the G1 checkpoint. In addition
to adequate reserves and cell size, there is a check for genomic DNA damage at the G1
checkpoint. A cell that does not meet all the requirements will not be allowed to progress
into the S phase. The cell can halt the cycle and attempt to remedy the problematic
condition, or the cell can advance into G0 and await further signals when conditions
improve.

The G2 Checkpoint The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic phase if certain
conditions are not met. As at the G1 checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are
assessed. However, the most important role of the G2 checkpoint is to ensure that all of
the chromosomes have been replicated and that the replicated DNA is not damaged. If
the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the cell cycle is halted, and
the cell attempts to either complete DNA replication or repair the damaged DNA.

The M Checkpoint The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of
karyokinesis. The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint, because it
determines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle
microtubules. Because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of each pair of sister
chromatids are firmly anchored to at least two spindle fibers arising from opposite poles
of the cell.

CELL DIVISION

Conduct a google search about the topic, “Cell Division” and have a
comprehensive reading from that source of literature you have chosen. You may try to
open this url link address, https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kebo110.pdf but be sure to
use this only as reference guide material in answering the questions and tasks in the
written work section.
 Written Work 1.2
Cell Modifications, Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Presented below are sets of tasks or activities you need to accomplish based on the
comprehensive reading you have conducted. Refer to the instructions provided in each set of
tasks.

I-A. Match Me
Identify the cell modifications being described according to their functions. Choose your answer
where the common cell modifications are listed.(2 pts. each correct match pair)

Actin and myosin Flagella

Axons Pili

Dendrites Microvilli

Cilia Root hairs

Enucleated red blood cell Spores

_________1. Hemoglobin-containing, disc-shaped that transports oxygen to the body cells.

_________2. Hair-like structure made of proteins that enable bacteria to adhere to tissue surfaces.
_________3. Cell membrane extensions of an epithelial cell that increase the surface area of cells.
_________4. Thin neuron branch that receives neural messages from other neurons and conducts
the impulses to the cell body.
_________5. Whip-like structure that aids for the propulsion of single cells (facilitates sperm
motility).
_________6. Help in the survival of the organisms during adverse environmental conditions (heat,
high pressure, and stress).
_________7. Filaments of protein that permit the muscle to contract and elongate for organism
activity.
_________8. A neuron extension that transmits messages away from the cell body and toward
another cell.
_________9. Tiny hair-like structures that increase the area available for water absorption and that
of minerals and other nutrients.
_________10. Hair-like projections that can also move an egg cell through the female reproductive
tract.

II. The Cell Cycle.

A. Write a short discussion of the cell cycle with a maximum of 3 sentences. Paraphrase your
answer based on the sources you have read. (5 points)

B. Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the topic.

(2 pts. each)
1. In what stage do most cells spend the majority of their lifetime?
Answer:

2. During what phase of the cell cycle is DNA duplicated?

Answer:

3. What does G1 stand for and what occurs in this cell cycle checkpoint?
Answer:

4. What does G2 stand for and what occurs in this cell cycle checkpoint?
Answer:

5. What does M stand for and what occurs in this cell cycle checkpoint?
Answer:

III. Cell Cycle.

A. Identify by putting a check (/) whether the event/process listed on the 1st column of the
table below is applicable to mitosis or meiosis. (2 points each)

Process/Event Mitosis Meiosis

1.Halves chromosome number

2.Used only for sexual reproduction

3. Produces daughter cells genetically identical to parent

and to each other
 4. Requires one nuclear division

5.Chromosomes synapse and cross over

6.Produces daughter cells genetically different from

parent and each other

7. Formation of gametes

8. Requires two nuclear divisions

9. Produces two daughter nuclei

10. Produces four daughter nuclei

B. Answer the following:

1. Briefly describe what cell division is with a maximum of 3 sentences.(5 pts. )
Answer:

2. Imagine you are a chromosome going through meiosis. Describe what happens to you and
the other chromosomes. (3 pts. )
Answer:

3. What would happen to the chromosome number if mitosis were the only type of cell
division? (3 pts.)
Answer:

4. What would happen without meiosis? (3 pts. )

Answer:

5. At the end of meiosis, how many haploid cells are formed from one cell? (2 pts)

6. Differentiate the following terms (3 pts. each)

a. Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Answer:
b. Diploid vs Haploid
Answer:

c. Somatic vs Gametes
Answer: