BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES

Unconscious Movement 100 101

Reflex actions Additional relay
KEY
Reflexes are split-second responses neurons send
signal to brain Motor neuron Signals to spinal cord
to danger that we do not have to learn sends signal Signals to muscle
or even think about; the body reacts to muscle
Signals to brain
automatically. Reflex actions involve the to contract

same muscles that are used in voluntary 5

4

SPINAL
CORD
movements, but the initial, instantaneous Receptors in
response does not involve the brain.
skin detect heat 1
Instead, the signal from the sensory
3 MU
from flame
SC
nerves travels to the spinal cord, which LE
triggers a response that travels along the 2
motor nerves. Additional signals are sent
Relay neurons Sensory neurons
to the brain afterward, to encode the in spinal cord send signal to
memory in case the danger recurs. generate response spinal cord STIMULUS

Bypassing the brain

OUR NEURONS AND Reflexes involve a simple neural
response called the reflex arc.
NERVE PATHWAYS CHANGE Receptors in the skin and muscles
send a danger signal along sensory
CONSTANTLY IN RESPONSE neurons to the spinal cord; there, relay
neurons synapse with motor neurons
TO EXPERIENCES to trigger a fast response.

DEVELOPING COMPETENCE
Anyone learning a new skill passes
through several stages. Beginners have
Movement Ball coming
to work hard to acquire competence.
sequence toward player
begins
With practice, neural pathways
develop until the learner can perform
Primary motor area plans well without thinking about it.
and executes movement
Unconscious
Premotor competence
area plans Performing skill
movement is automatic

MOTOR Conscious
CORTEX competence
VISUAL Able to use skill,
CORTEX but only with effort

Conscious
incompetence
Aware of skill needed
but lacking proficiency
Planning Conscious action
3 The brain combines real-time 4 By the time the player becomes Unconscious
visual information and stored programs conscious of acting, the movement incompetence
for movement sequences to create a sequence is well underway. The action Unaware of skill needed
plan of action. This is first rehearsed in is most likely to be effective if the and lack of proficiency
the premotor area and then sent to the person has sufficient skill, stored
primary motor cortex. knowledge, and information.
Mirror Mirroring movement

Neurons
Some scientists suggest that mirror neurons may play
a role in learning how to imitate movement. In this
theory, information on the purpose of an action is
passed to mirror neurons from brain areas such as the
Learning does not just involve prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for analysis.
practicing a new skill—we also Mirror neurons in various motor areas then encode a
simulation of that action, which becomes part of our
learn by watching others. This
own motor programming. We can then go on to use this
kind of learning is thought to “program” if we need to carry out the action ourselves.
involve nerve cells in the brain
Observing an action
called mirror neurons that allow Mirror neurons respond differently to various actions of the
us to experience actions without face and limbs. In particular, neurons in different brain areas
are activated for movements of the body itself, such as chewing,
actually performing them. and those focused on a visible object, such as biting a fruit.

What are mirror neurons?

Mirror neurons are brain cells that fire both when
we perform an action and when we see someone
else performing that action. They were first
discovered in monkeys but have since been found
in humans, too. Most studies have used functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; see p.43),
but one study involved people who had electrodes
implanted into their brains. In this instance, mirror Various motor areas
neuron cells were detected in the supplementary activated, including
motor area, where movement sequences are those linked to
controlling mouth
planned, as well as in the hippocampus, and jaw movements
which governs memory and navigation.
OBSERVER
Where are they?
Mirror neurons Part of parietal
have been found lobe activated by
in several cortical sight of action
areas as well as in targeted at object
structures deeper
within the brain,
such as the
hippocampus.

KEY
Parts of premotor
Premotor area Primary motor area area and Broca’s area
(which plays a role in
Part of Broca’s area Somatosensory area understanding another
person’s movement)
Inferior frontal gyrus Inferior parietal area activated

Supplementary motor area

OBSERVER
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Mirror Neurons 102 103
DO OTHER YAWNING
ANIMALS HAVE
Mirror neurons may play a role
MIRROR NEURONS? in “contagious yawning”—the
impulse to yawn when we see
Mirror neurons were first
someone else yawning. FMRI
discovered in macaque scans of people who watched
monkeys. They have also videos of someone else yawning
showed activity in the right
been found in some birds,
inferior frontal gyrus, an area
such as songbirds, and associated with mirror neurons.
more recently in rats.

Understanding intention
Mirror neurons are activated in different ways
when we see others performing particular actions,
Watching a body movement
suggesting they could play a role in decoding
1 Watching a person perform an intention. Watching similar actions observed in
action not linked to an object, such as different contexts—such as watching someone
chewing, activates the premotor area
in the observer. This is an area that is
pick up a cup either to drink from it or to clean it
linked to rehearsing planned up—triggers different levels of neural activity in
sequences of action. It also the inferior frontal gyrus; an area of the brain that
activates areas in the primary
motor area associated with
directs our attention to objects in our environment.
mouth and jaw movements.
0.7
Strong
0.6 response from
0.5 mirror neurons
ACTION WITH 0.4
Neural activity

DRINKING

NO OBJECT 0.3
0.2

CLEANING
0.1
0
Weak response
–0.1
from mirror
Watching action –0.2
2 on an object –0.3
neurons

Watching an action directed Time

at an object, such as a person
biting into a fruit, activates Intention and brain activity
similar areas of the motor cortex. Activity in the brain is greater when a person watches someone
However, mirror neurons also lift a cup to drink rather than when they watch someone pick it
fire in an additional area, the up to clear it away. Some scientists suggest this may be because
parietal cortex, which is involved drinking has a greater biological function than cleaning.
in interpreting sensory
input as well as providing
information about the
body’s position.
THE BRAIN WAVES OF
MUSICIANS COME INTO
ACTION WITH
AN OBJECT
SYNC WHEN THEY
PLAY TOGETHER
COMMUNICATION
Emotions
Emotions are physiological responses to HORMONES THAT TRIGGER
external events, shaped by experience, EMOTIONAL RESPONSES ARE
that are accompanied by distinctive ABSORBED IN 6 SECONDS
feelings. They evolved to push us away
t a n ce Aw
e
from danger and toward reward. ep

c
Ac
Basic emotions ty t io n
e ni ira
er m
Research suggests that there are four

Ad
physiologically distinct conscious feelings:
lief
anger, fear, happiness, and sadness. t io n Re
is fa c
Aspects of these combine and allow

t
Sa
us to feel a range of emotions. Broadly,
emotions are positive or negative usion u st
experiences, which vary in intensity. nf isg
Co

D
Different emotional states are associated p ation
ici
with particular physiological changes

t
ie t y

An
nx
that affect how a person behaves and
A
thinks. For example, we view the world
e
differently when we are relaxed and pr i s
ur
when we are afraid. This coordination

S
of physiology, behavior, and thought Joy
with feeling is what makes us adapt FE
R A
our behavior in response to events. GE

R
AN

Emotions
Other emotional experiences stem from the four
key ones. A recent study found there may be 27
types of emotional experiences, some of which are
shown here. Certain emotions lie along gradients,
such as moving from anxiety to fear to horror.

WHY DO WE CRY?
Only humans cry, and nobody is certain
why we do it—especially given that both
sadness and joy can evoke tears. Crying
serves an interpersonal function,
signaling that we are in emotional
distress to evoke appropriate
social responses. It is also
cathartic, enabling full
emotional engagement
and processing that is
SS

good for mental health.

SAD

E
PIN
NE

SS
AP

H
 COMMUNICATION
Emotions 106 107
The anatomy of emotion Low levels
Brain produces
In response to a stimulus, the brain initiates hormonal majority of of serotonin
changes that, in turn, trigger physiological changes SEROTONIN hormones in brain
that prime us to respond in appropriate ways to the relating to
happiness
current emotional state. Heart rate changes, altered Mildly increased
blood flow to the muscles, and sweating are associated bodily feelings
Heart rate around neck
with heightened emotions. These changes can be felt
decreases and chest
consciously, increasing the emotional intensity.
Low levels
of serotonin
Happiness and sadness Large amount produced
Serotonin, dopamine, of serotonin
oxytocin, and endorphins produced by
are hormones that affect large intestine
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE our happiness profoundly.
OF LAUGHTER? Emotions are felt across
Feeling of
Sensations
the body, with different of decreased
emotions felt in different well-being
The relaxation that results reported all
limb activity
places. The effects of
from a bout of laughter serotonin are shown here. over body

inhibits the biological fight-

or-flight response. KEY
Positive feelings reported

Negative feelings reported

HAPPINESS SADNESS

Unconscious emotions
For primitive automatic responses, such as the
fight-or-flight reflex, speed is critical. Emotionally Sensory
cortex Hippocampus
charged stimuli presented too fast to be consciously Sensory information The hippocampus
perceived can evoke emotional responses and transmitted to the processes consciously
sensory cortex is extensively perceived information to
activate the amygdala. These initial responses form memories. It also
processed toward conscious
shape how the cortex processes information. The perception and integrated compares incoming signals
amygdala is involved in emotional memory that with stored information. to previous memories to
This takes time. adjust emotional
may be automatically activated in the future. responses.

SLOW AND ACCURATE ROUTE

Two routes
Conscious processing
of emotions involves
integrating sensory
Thalamus Amygdala information with stored
Hypothalamus
Incoming The amygdala memories and reasoned
Signals from the
information is relayed instantly assesses the evaluations of a situation—
amygdala trigger
to the amygdala for quick emotional importance of this is the “slow and
hormonal changes and
assessment and action and incoming information accurate route.” In contrast,
output to the autonomic
also to cortical areas where content and rapidly sends unconscious responses, via
nervous system to prime the
it enters conscious signals to other areas for the “quick and dirty route,”
body to respond to
awareness. QUICK immediate bodily action. happen much faster. The
emotional stimuli.
AND DIRTY prefrontal cortex is
ROUTE important in conscious
emotional regulation.
 Hypothalamus
Fear and Anger
Thalamus
Fear and anger trigger the release of hormones in the body
that prepare us to deal with threats. In the modern world,
however, long-term anxiety can cause overactivation of the
Amygdala
sympathetic nervous system and lead to health problems.
Visual cortex

Fight or flight
When we see a possible threat, visual Responding to danger
information travels to our amygdala, Signals travel to the thalamus and amygdala,
which triggers the hypothalamus to produce
a tiny part of the brain that processes fight-or-flight hormones. A slower, conscious
emotion. The amygdala sends a signal pathway involving the cortex also assesses the
to the hypothalamus, which activates situation (see p.107).
the sympathetic nervous system,
preparing the body to react to danger
(see p.13). The hypothalamus also sends
signals to the pituitary and adrenal
glands, which secrete hormones such
as cortisol and adrenaline. The combined Saliva production Pupils dilate
effect of these pathways is to initiate our reduces Our pupils enlarge,
Saliva secretion letting in more light
fight-or-flight reflex, which prepares our slows down when so we can see the
bodies to attack or run away. we are afraid. This threat more clearly.
causes a dry mouth.

Muscles tense Digestion slows Breathing rate rises Heart rate Sweating increases Blood vessels
The muscles in our To avoid wasting This oxygenates our increases Our sweat glands constrict
arms, legs, and energy, digestive muscles, preparing Our heart beats faster are triggered, and Blood flow is
shoulders prepare activity falls. In them for action. But to pump oxygen- we begin to sweat, directed away from
themselves for action. extreme cases, we it can also cause and-nutrient-rich ensuring we remain the surface of the
We may feel tense may vomit to eject symptoms of blood to where it is cool if physical skin, so we may
or “wound up.” undigested food. hyperventilation. needed in the body. exertion is needed. appear pale.
 Immune system Blood sugar spikes Blood flows Bladder
4 PERCENT
activity reduced Sugar stores are to muscles muscles relax OF PEOPLE
In the moment, released from the Blood carries This causes us to
dealing with liver to provide the nutrients and need to urinate, WORLDWIDE HAVE
infections is not muscles with the oxygen to the which rids the
crucial, so the energy they need to muscles, readying body of excess ARACHNOPHOBIA,
immune system shuts work. Fat stores are them to fight or weight and makes
down to save energy. also mobilized. flee from danger. us faster and lighter. A FEAR OF SPIDERS

Angry or afraid? Panic attacks

The bodily reactions to fear and anger are similar. Panic attacks are physical reactions to fear or anxiety. Symptoms include
It is mainly the way we interpret the sensations we a pounding heart; chest pain; rapid, shallow breathing; and sweating.
experience that determines whether we feel afraid Initially, sufferers can think they are having a heart attack. The first step to
or angry. One theory suggests that if we know why a break the cycle is to recognize that you are experiencing a panic attack.
negative event happened, and who was responsible for
it, we will feel angry. If we are unable to figure out Panic attack The trigger
Left unchecked, this can Panic attacks can have a single
the cause, or it is out of our control, we will feel fear. spiral into a full-blown trigger, like a phobia, or
panic attack. Sufferers 6 1 begin without warning,
Context is key may even fear they as stress and anxiety
Whether we react with fear or are dying. build up.
anger to a particular stimulus is
often conditioned by its context. Interpreting
Symptoms
danger
increase
Your brain
You live alone Without being More hormones
construes the
so know there able to figure are released,
Fear and Anger
COMMUNICATION

Fight-or- feelings as
should not be out the cause, and symptoms 5 The panic
flight reflex
YOU LIVE ALONE
cycle
2 danger and
is triggered anyone here. you feel afraid. get worse,
releases fight-or-
increasing
flight hormones.
You are woken anxiety further.
by loud noises
downstairs in Anxiety builds Physical effect
the middle of Unaware of the Physical sensations,
the night. triggers and unsure such as an increase in
You recall your Sensations are why this is happening, 4 3 heart rate, occur in
roommate interpreted as your anxiety increases. response to the hormones.
108 109

was out and anger about

realize she has inconsiderate
LIVE WITH ROOMMATE

come back. behavior.

 ONS CONS
ESSI CIO
US
PR FA
EX

CI
L
CIA

AL
Feelings

E
X FA

Ongoing feelings are

XP
shaped by the senses, MOT
OR

RES
COR OR MOT EX
REFLE

disposition, memories, TEX T

COR

SIONS
body signals, and
EMOTIONAL attention.
CENTER
OF BRAIN

Conscious
Signals intervention
Bodily signals such Analysis of situations
as heart rate, sweating, by the frontal cortex
muscle tension or shapes expectations
relaxation, and and adjusts emotional
trembling all help processing.
shape feelings.

Expressions
Facial expressions
REFLEX SMILE CONSCIOUS SMILE
are both products
and influencers of
emotion—smiling, for
example, elevates
mood.
Motor Motor
neuron neuron
Reflex facial expressions Conscious facial expressions
Emotions generate facial expressions After we have started to experience
without our control. For example, an emotion, we can change our
when we hear good news, we facial expressions to hide or
automatically smile. The amygdala and reinforce our true emotions. Such
other parts of the limbic system initiate action involves conscious
these reflex actions. engagement of the motor cortex.

Conscious
How emotions form
Both reflex and conscious expressions are mediated
by the motor cortex, but reflex ones are signaled to
the motor area directly from the limbic system rather

Emotion
than via the frontal lobes. We can also consciously
modify our physical responses to emotions.

Emotions are felt consciously, and Forming emotions

Emotional responses are complex and dynamic. They
whether they are positive or negative, arise when rapid innate responses to stimuli interact
changeable or constant, they have with detailed analysis. Innate responses evolved as the
major effects on our quality of life. most beneficial reactions to key stimuli. Once such
stimuli have caught a person’s attention, reasoned
Conscious feelings ceaselessly interact
assessment follows. Then, how a person’s emotions
with the unconscious processes that change is shaped by their disposition, past experience,
also shape our emotions. and how they assess multiple streams of information.
 COMMUNICATION
Conscious Emotion 110 111
Emotional reactions
Emotional responses evolve over time,
KEY SEROTONIN
Amygdala
from initial protective responses to more
Primary visual cortex Alongside dopamine and
considered responses. Imagine a friend
Frontal cortex
noradrenaline, serotonin is
leaping out on you: first, you feel shock a neurotransmitter that plays
or fear, but as the brain processes what is Fusiform gyrus (face a key role in regulating mood.
happening, you transition to calm. The recognition area)
Although it is not as simple as
first stage involves attention being grabbed Motor cortex high serotonin equals happiness
and the amygdala responding early to and low equals sad, decreases in
Parietal cortex this molecule are associated with
prime the conscious brain to “expect”
depression and anxiety.
an important perception.
Many antidepressant
Signal travels medications act
Less than 100 milliseconds to motor and by increasing
Sensory information goes to parietal cortex
brain levels
the amygdala, which sends
signals to the parietal cortex and then
of serotonin.
Signal travels
to the motor cortex to produce fast to amygdala
Exercise can
reactions to emotional stimulus, such help, too—for
as when fleeing from danger. example, taking
Signal from a brisk walk
sensory areas
or dancing can
100–200 milliseconds raise serotonin levels.
The information then arrives
in the frontal lobes, where it Recognition
becomes conscious and appropriate pathway
action is planned.
Information
registers in EMOTIONS ARE
frontal cortex
CONTAGIOUS—
350 milliseconds Signal from
frontal lobe to
HUMANS MIMIC
Considered reactions are
then conveyed back to motor cortex EACH OTHER’S
the motor cortex, which signals
appropriate bodily responses. EXPRESSIONS

Emotions versus moods ADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS

Emotions are usually transient— EMOTION POSSIBLE STIMULUS ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
arising from thoughts, activities, or
Challenging behavior from “Fight” reaction prompts dominant and
events that act as cues for adaptive Anger another person threatening stance or action
behaviors. Moods last for hours,
Threat from stronger or “Flight” to avoid threat; or act to socially
days, or even months. For example, Fear dominant person appease the threatening person
emotion might be experiencing a
Backward-looking state of mind and
sudden rush of joy at seeing a Sadness Loss of loved one
passivity, to avoid additional challenge
friend waiting to greet you
Unwholesome object (e.g., rotting Aversion behavior—remove oneself from
compared to a lingering mood of Disgust food or unclean surroundings) the unhealthy environment
sadness or worry after losing a job.
Emotions tend to be expressed in Surprise Novel or unexpected event
Attention on object of surprise maximizes
sensory input that guides reaction
the moment, while moods are not.
Reward Centers Rush of dopamine tells
brain to repeat activity
The brain’s reward system evolved because it helped
us seek out things that are important for our survival. Attention
focused on
Dopamine neurons
activated and project
But if this system is hijacked, it can lead to addiction. activity to other brain areas

Reward pathways
When we do something that is important for our survival,

X
TE
such as eating when hungry, or having sex, neurons that

OR
NUCLEUS

FRONTAL C
trigger the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine are ACCUMBENS
activated in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). These send
signals to an area called the nucleus accumbens—a rush in
dopamine here tells the brain this is a behavior that should SUBSTANTIA
NIGRA
be repeated. Neurons also send signals to the frontal cortex, VTA
which focuses attention on the beneficial activity. TEM
SYS
E YE BIC
ER S LIM
T ENT
LIGH
Stimulus
1 The initial stimulus can originate Route to reward
outside the body, such as the sight of Sensory The reward system starts in the VTA in the
food, or from within, such as falling information midbrain, then passes to the nucleus
glucose levels. registers in accumbens in the basal ganglia and then the
limbic system frontal cortex. Dopamine also travels from
the substantia nigra to the basal ganglia.
This pathway affects motor control.

Urge Desire
2 Dopamine released from the
3 The urge may be registered as
VTA to the nucleus accumbens drives us a conscious desire in the cortex, but
to seek out and work for the reward sometimes it goes undetected, or even
that is linked to the stimulus. opposes our conscious desires.

Reward Learning
5 The reward triggers parts of the
6 If the reward is better than
brain known as “hedonic hot spots” to expected, the brain releases more
release opioid-like neurotransmitters, dopamine, strengthening the connection
giving a sense of pleasure. between stimulus and reward.

Action
4 A region of the frontal cortex
weighs the inputs and decides whether
to seek the reward. The body then
acts to reach it.
 COMMUNICATION
Reward Centers 112 113
Addiction
Most drugs of abuse cause huge amounts of dopamine to build up UP TO 60%
in the reward system—far more than natural rewards like food or
sex. This creates a powerful drive to seek out more of the drug. It
OF ADDICTION
also causes the brain to reduce the number of dopamine receptors, RISK STEMS
so natural rewards no longer give the same sensation. This means FROM GENETIC
the user loses the urge to seek out things like food and social
engagement. Instead, drug cues become powerful triggers for FACTORS
dopamine release, causing intense cravings, even when the user
consciously wants to stop and no longer enjoys the drug.

E
ONS Normal
ES
P Vesicles in nerve
CE dopamine
cell release N release
PRESYNAPTIC
R

RA
neurotransmitters PRESYNAPTIC
AL

NEURON

LE
NEURON
RM

TO
Dopamine
NO

Dopamine

SYNAPSE SYNAPSE

RE
CE RE
PTO CEP
RS TORS
Many receptors Not many receptors

POSTSYNAPTIC POSTSYNAPTIC
NEURON NEURON

Flooded with dopamine Under tolerance

Some drugs of abuse increase dopamine release, while Over time, the brain reduces the number of dopamine
others stop it from being recycled. The buildup in the synapse receptors to counteract the excess. Now, when normal
produces a large response in the brain, triggering the drive amounts of dopamine are released, they have little effect.
to seek out more of the drug. Environmental cues become The user may need bigger and bigger doses of the drug to
linked with the drug and can trigger cravings in the future. feel its effect, and their desire for other rewards decreases.

WANTING VERSUS LIKING

WHY IS JUNK
FOOD SO TASTY? The reward pathway is often called
a “pleasure pathway,” and dopamine
Most junk food contains a “pleasure chemical,” but this is not
lots of sugar, salt, and fat, accurate. Dopamine in the nucleus
accumbens drives “wanting” of a
which trigger our reward
reward, but it is common for addicts
system. This would have to experience strong cravings without
helped us survive when liking the effects of the drug. Pleasure
is likely to be caused by other
food was scarce.
neurotransmitters such as opioids
or endocannabinoids.
Sex and Love
Sexual reproduction is fundamental
to passing on our genes. Multiple
emotions evolved that accompany and DOPAMINE

facilitate this process, which together

can create the feeling of love.
Brain
Love and attraction produces
dopamine
The scientific study of love and sexual
Reward
behavior has identified three primary pathway in
components: attraction, attachment, and lust. brain triggered
Feelings of
These states all occur on different timescales excitement
and involve different regions of the brain and euphoria

producing an array of chemical messengers— SEROTONIN

neurotransmitters and hormones. Lust and
attraction are closely interlinked, and both are
transient, passing in a relatively short time.
Brain
For relationships to last, these states must produces
yield profound attachment, which involves Serotonin
less serotonin
long-term changes to the brain. levels
reduced
Loss of
appetite,
KEY insomnia,
feelings of ADRENALINE
Prefrontal cortex obsession NOR

Hypothalmus

Pituitary gland

Brain produces
noradrenaline
Brain areas
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control early Noradrenaline
hormone-led phases of bonding. The prefrontal cortex then levels increased Energy levels
mediates the emotional control involved in attachment. increased,
heart races,
appetite
THE LOVE DRUG decreased,
insomnia

Oxytocin, which is released by the hypothalamus,

has long been known as the hormone that
induces labor in mammals.
It was then found to be
crucial for mother-offspring
bonding and later to
be central to forming Attraction
long-term attachments Surges of the chemical messengers dopamine
in sexual and social and noradrenaline combine with reduced levels
relationships. of serotonin to produce urgent feelings of
attraction. In an energized state—with racing
heart, sweaty palms, and little appetite—we think
constantly about our lover, craving their company.
 114 115
OXYTOCIN REDUCES Facial symmetry
A person’s face is key to how
ACTIVITY IN THE attractive others find them.
BRAIN’S FEAR CENTER Humans and monkeys prefer
symmetrical faces—symmetry
is an indicator of good health
and genetics. Many species also
OX Y TOCIN favor sexually dimorphic faces,
males preferring feminine faces
and vice versa. These factors
interact: higher facial symmetry
Brain increases a face’s perceived
produces femininity or masculinity.
oxytocin

Oxytocin ORMONES
levels SEX H KEY
increased Feelings of Symmetrical Asymmetrical
bonding and face face
contentment

FEMALE MALE
Hypothalamus Percentage of
triggers people who
production of Increased levels 69% found face 85%
sex hormones of testosterone sex-typical
by testes or and estrogen
ovaries

Increased
Brain libido
produces 31% 15%
vasopressin

Vasopressin
Feelings of European
levels
bonding and When shown composite faces with high
increased
attentiveness or low symmetry, European observers
judged high-symmetry faces to appear
more feminine or masculine.

62% 60%

VASOPRESSIN

Percentage of
37% people who 39%
found face
sex-typical
Attachment Lust
The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin Lust is the primeval urge to engage in
have multiple effects—including making sexual relationships, driven by the sex Hadza
us feel more protective of our object of hormones testosterone and estrogen. Similar results were found in the Hadza
attraction and attentive to their needs. While they increase libido in men and people, an indigenous Tanzanian ethnic
They stimulate long-term bond formation women respectively, they alone do group. This suggests that the link between
but can increase distrust of others. not induce lasting connections. symmetry and attractiveness is universal.
 Early stages of
forming an angry or
disgusted expression
are similar S
R ST S
GE GU NE
AN

D
S

SA
DI
Nose Raised
Brows lowered wrinkled inner brows

Lowered
Lips pressed together Upper lip raised mouth

Anger causes the brows to lower, the Disgust is associated with a wrinkled A sad person turns down the corners of
lips to be pressed together, and the eyes nose with the cheeks and upper lip their lips while raising their inner brows
to bulge. An observer would be wary being raised. The wrinkled nose stops and lowering the outer brow. This
of the person signaling anger. the person from inhaling offensive odors. expression might evoke sympathy.

Universal expressions
Psychologists have found that there are six universal emotions: anger, MICRO EXPRESSIONS
disgust, sadness, happiness, fear, and surprise. Like primary colors,
Micro expressions are tiny,
they combine to give rise to the many emotions we experience. Each
involuntary, and often barely
one is linked to a distinctive facial expression that is similar in every perceptible facial expressions.
culture. Expressions are part biologically and part socially driven. When They last half a second or less,
surprised or fearful, for example, widening the eyes takes in more and the person making them
light to better survey the situation. But other aspects of expressions may be unaware that this form
evolved to convey social signals to members of the same species. of “emotional leakage” is
revealing their true feelings.

Expressions
Expressions are extensions of emotions. They allow
us to communicate our feelings to others and to
infer the thoughts and feelings of people around us.
Psychologists believe there are six basic emotions,
each with an associated expression.
 COMMUNICATION
Expressions 116 117
SS ISE
NE AR PR
PI

FE

R
P

SU
HA

Raised cheeks Raised brows

Eye widening and

other features are
common to early
stages of expressing Jaw dropped
fear or surprise

When we are happy, we raise the The distinctive fearful expression In surprise, people quickly open their
corners of our mouths and also raise includes raised eyebrows, wide eyes, eyes wide and arch their brows, while
our cheeks—the skin under the eyes and the mouth falling open. This signals their lower jaw drops, leaving the
wrinkle, and the eyes are said to sparkle. others to be on high alert. mouth agape.

Motor cortex Motor cortex

Smiling
Frontal cortex
A smile can either be a genuine
expression of positive mood or a
conscious, socially motivated action.
Genuine smiles are unconscious Amygdala
acts that involve different muscle
groups to social smiles. While both
involve a stretched mouth with lips
Signal causes muscles
upturned at the corners, the genuine around mouth to contract
smiling person constricts muscles and pull lips sideways in
that raise the cheeks, producing both types of smiles
“crow’s feet” around the eyes.
Signal causes small muscles
Conscious smiles vary in their exact around eye socket to contract
structure and are used in an array
of social interactions—they can be Genuine smile Conscious smile
socially bonding but also used to The muscular contractions involved in genuine Conscious control of social smiling involves
smiles are triggered by signals from the brain’s activation of the frontal cortex and signals
signal dominance, and people may emotional centers, such as the amygdala, from the motor cortex. The mouth muscles
also smile to mask embarrassment. usually operating without our awareness. contract, but we can’t control the eye muscles.
Body From a resting
HAPPY

Language
point, pupils can
shrink or expand

Body language is nonverbal NORMAL

communication, in which our Iris muscles
contract to
thoughts, intentions, or feelings are enlarge pupil
expressed by physical behaviors
such as body posture, gestures, eye
movements, and facial expressions. DILATED

Nonconscious communication Eye signals

Pupils frequently shift size and can
Social interactions between people involve signal various things. A dilated
complex streams of nonverbal communication pupil may indicate surprise or E
that are processed in parallel to speech. Many attraction. Constricted
SSIV
pupils are associated E
aspects of body language arise instinctively— with negative G GR
eye movements, facial expressions, and emotions such A
posture, for example, all change without as anger.
conscious control. These movements can MORE THAN 50 PERCENT
therefore reveal unspoken intentions. Body OF COMMUNICATION
language is also used to signal social intentions
overtly, such as when blowing a kiss. The IS BASED ON OUR
richness of this communication involves the BODY LANGUAGE
whole body and our brains are attuned to it.

Superior temporal Orbitofrontal

gyrus cortex

DO GESTURES
HAVE THE SAME
MEANING AROUND
THE WORLD?
No, many gestures are
culturally specific. A simple
hand gesture can have
different meanings for
Amygdala different societies.

Brain processes
Processing body language involves areas like the amygdala,
which receives emotional content; part of the superior
temporal gyrus, which responds to seeing human
movement; and the orbitofrontal cortex, which analyzes
meaning. Special cells, called mirror neurons (see pp.102–
103), are also activated when you see someone else moving.
 COMMUNICATION
Body Language 118 119
SAD
Gestures
Most body language is performed unconsciously, but
we have more conscious control over our gestures, which
are movements of the body used to convey meaning.
There are four categories of gestures: symbolic (or
Facial expressions
Facial expressions reveal much about emblematic); deictic (or indexical); motor (or beat); and
a person’s emotions (see pp.116–117). lexical (or iconic). They might be used instead of speech
The eyes and the mouth, in particular, or alongside it for emphasis. Some scientists believe
automatically respond to strong feelings,
although people can consciously change that increasingly complex gestures evolved as the
their expressions to mask emotions. forerunners of speech, which now defines our species.

Symbolic
These are gestures that can be literally translated into
words—for example, waving hello or making the “okay” sign.
They are widely recognized in a given culture but may
DE not be recognized beyond that culture.
FE
Deictic
N
SI

Deictic gestures involve pointing or otherwise

VE

TYPES OF GESTURES

indicating a concrete object, person, or more intangible

item. Used with or without speech, they act like pronouns,
Posture meaning “this” or “that.”
An aggressive posture tends to inflate a person’s
size. It may involve extending the arms, setting
the feet far apart, and protruding the chest. Motor
The same postures may be used to invade This type of gesture is short and tied to speech patterns,
others’ personal space. In contrast, defensive such as moving the hand in time with speech, and is used for
postures are closed—folded arms, for example, emphasis. Motor gestures contain no inherent meaning and
are a classic indicator. are meaningless without accompanying vocalization.

Lexical
These gestures depict actions, people, or objects, such as
miming throwing when telling a story about throwing a ball,
or using your hands to depict an object’s size. They usually
accompany speech but contain meaning independently.

SIGN LANGUAGE
Sign language may appear to Broca’s Motor cortex
be a sophisticated type of area
body language, but it has
more in common with speech.
Studies show that when
people sign, the same brain
areas (see right) light up
as when they speak. Sign
language has grammar, and
each gesture has a specific
meaning, while body language
is interpreted broadly. Auditory area Wernicke’s area
How to Tell if
Someone Is Lying
Separating truth from falsehood depends partly
on knowing a person, so you can judge whether they
are behaving differently from usual. With a confident
and persuasive talker, especially someone you don’t
know, how easy is it to spot a lie?
 120 121

The short answer is, it is difficult. Clues from speech person’s total cooperation. Certain
Traditional telltale signs of lying Speech can be slightly more reliable. parts of the brain are more active
are shifting gaze to avoid eye Hesitation, repeated words or when lying and show up together
contact, folding and unfolding arms, phrases, breaking up sentences, on screen. These include the
shrugging shoulders, and fidgety a change in tone or in speaking prefrontal, parietal, and anterior
hands and feet. However, scientific speed, vagueness, and describing cingulate cortices and the caudate
studies do not support these beliefs. trivial details while avoiding the nucleus, thalamus, and amygdala.
Some honest people are generally main topic—are all strategies to In summary:
nervous and squirmy. In others, give the brain “time to think” and • Be very aware of judging
these signs show someone is figure out which falsehood might be someone you don’t know well.
concentrating on being trustworthy. most believable. This is especially • Don’t rely on time-honored
Polygraph, or “lie detector,” true for persistent liars, who must signs such as fidgeting and
machines—which record pulse and access memory so as not to lack of eye contact.
breathing rates, blood pressure, and contradict themselves as their • Clues from speech, such
sweating—have a dubious history. multiple deceptions become ever as hesitation and repetition,
This is partly due to the stress of more tangled. can be slightly more reliable.
using them. Innocent but anxious A more reliable method involves • In many tests, a simple “gut
people can show up as deceitful, the use of fMRI (see p.43), a feeling” was as successful
while calm, skilled liars pass easily. brain scan that requires the as most other methods.
Morality
Most people living in normal environments develop instinctive
senses of right and wrong. Morality seems to be in part hardwired,
arising from the conjunction of rationality and emotion.

Where do right and wrong come from?

Social norms based on shared morals exist across all cultures, Moral judgment
enabling social cohesion. When making moral decisions, two When we make decisions,
brain systems come into play: a “rational” system that effortfully our emotions play a vital role. KEY
In order to weigh moral
and explicitly weighs the pros and cons of possible actions; and matters, brain areas that
Rational
circuit
a system that rapidly generates emotional, intuitive feelings of are involved in emotional
right and wrong. Interactions between rationality and emotion experience coordinate with Emotional
areas that register facts and circuit
are complex, but studying brain activity while people grapple consider possible actions
with moral dilemmas has identified the key areas involved. and consequences.

Parietal lobe Dorsolateral

Involved in working memory prefrontal cortex
and cognitive control, this area This area integrates rational and
of the cortex provides information emotional information. It may
needed to help us perceive social also counteract the ventromedial
signals, to figure out others’ beliefs area to suppress emotional drives
and intentions—such as whether when dealing with complex moral
an act was aggressive or how a dilemmas that favor cognitive
social context should solutions using memories
affect behavior. Amygdala or other data.

Posterior superior Ventromedial

temporal sulcus prefrontal cortex
This part of the cortex functions EXTERNAL VIEW This area is an important
with the parietal lobe, providing structure for allowing emotional
information to guide moral responses to influence rationalized
intuition and attributing beliefs to moral decisions. In psychopaths,
others and integrating this data connections between this region
with the potential outcomes of and both the amygdala and
actions. It also helps assess Temporal pole reward pathways are
whether a person is The temporal pole functions disrupted.
lying. in both social processing, such
as face recognition and figuring
out the mental states of others,
and in emotional processing. It
may also help combine complex
perceptual inputs with
intuitive emotional
responses.
 COMMUNICATION
Morality 122 123
Altruism
Altruism—when a person acts to benefit another PSYCHOPATHY
at personal cost or risk—involves empathizing
Psychopaths can understand
with another’s distress then acting to help.
morality and can, therefore,
It involves distinct processes. mimic normal social
Brain scans show that acting interactions. This means
altruistically activates the that while they behave
reward pathways (see pp.112– heinously, they remain
113), reinforcing the behavior hard to identify. The
and quelling emotional underlying cause may
be a disconnect between
discomfort. Selflessness is
brain regions linking logical
a distinguishing feature of decision-making and
human behavior and an emotion, leaving them
evolutionary enigma unable to grasp the fallout MIMICKING
given dangers to the altruist. from their behavior. EMOTIONS

Posterior Medial
cingulate cortex frontal gyrus
This region is active when our This region of the brain
environment changes and when is important for decision-
we are thinking about ourselves. It Nucleus making and for choosing
may help assess the seriousness of accumbens between alternative potential
offenses and the appropriate actions. This is especially
response by acting as a hub for the case when there is
integrating intuitions about conflict between
the mental states of multiple options.
others.

INTERNAL VIEW
CAN BRAIN
DAMAGE AFFECT
SEEING SOMEONE MORALITY?
HURT BY ACCIDENT Orbitofrontal
It depends on the area
PRODUCES SIMILAR prefrontal cortex
Activated by watching morally affected. For example, damage
BRAIN ACTIVITY charged scenes, this area
processes emotional stimuli. It aids to regions that link emotion to
AS IF THE VIEWER in representing just rewards and
punishments for observed
moral choice can cause people
WAS HURT behavior and in making to make “coldhearted”
emotionally driven moral decisions.
THEMSELVES choices.
 Learning Learning to talk

a Language Our innate preference for looking at faces helps

newborns focus attention on people talking to them.
Later, making eye contact and following gaze allows
Unlike other species, humans have them to connect the words they hear with what is
a brain with regions dedicated being talked about. As they learn new words, infants
make “overextension” errors by using a single word
to language. Babies are born ready
to label multiple things, for example, by using the
to learn language, acquiring it word “fly” to refer to anything small and dark.
through an interplay between these
specialized areas of the brain and
Timeline of speech
their own unique experiences. The exact timescale for mastering language varies
To learn language, we also have from child to child, but all children progress through
the main stages in a similar order—from cooing and
to interact with other people. babbling to first words and, ultimately, full sentences.

First consonants:
c and g Intonation
SPEAKING

added to sounds,
Cooing (vowels Laughter begins Babbling, e.g., plus more First true
only) from “ba-ba,” “ga-ga” consonants, e.g., spoken words
6 weeks (true syllables) “ma-ma,” “da-da”
(not words)
UNDERSTANDING

Understands 10–12 months

Can distinguish
Prefers sound some common Understands
between vowel Responds to
of mother’s words for simple
sounds and own name
voice objects or instructions, e.g.,
consonants
people “give me the ball”

Throat anatomy Babies start to

changes to make follow their
PREPARING

speech sounds caregiver’s gaze 10–12 months

Prefers looking Begins to Left hemisphere
possible (before and begin to link
at faces understand of brain becomes
this, the need to the words they
(from birth) pointing specialized for
breathe while hear with the
breastfeeding object they are speech
prevents this) looking at

PREBIRTH UP TO 4 4 5 AROUND 6 BY 6–8 9–10 10–11

MONTHS 10–12
 COMMUNICATION
Learning a Language 124 125
The bilingual brain White
ALCOHOL AND LANGUAGE
In the brain of a bilingual speaker, matter
preserved
languages “compete” for attention. in older One study of second-language learners
This provides unconscious practice bilingual looked at whether alcoholic drinks would
RIGHT adults
in ignoring irrelevant information, HEMISPHERE improve speaking and pronunciation by
and studies show that bilinguals reducing self-consciousness. It worked
are better at this than monolinguals. up to a point—but after too many drinks,
Activated
The ability to learn a second region
performance rapidly deteriorated.
language like a native speaker is of gray
matter
usually lost after around four years LEFT BONJOUR, BHLEES
of age, especially with pronunciation. HEMISPHERE ÇA VA? CHIDEVSSSS
The brains of elderly bilinguals Bilingualism areas
show better preservation of white Areas of gray matter (shown in
blue) are activated in bilingual
matter, which may protect them speakers when they switch
from the effects of cognitive decline. between languages.

“Telegraphic”
Multiword, Vocabulary
stage of
sentence-like commonly
One-word stage: Two-word stage utterances of
speech begins: around 3,000
can use single begins, e.g., more than two
e.g., “shoe all words and
words for “mommy eat,” words. Also
wet.” Also use of growing. Also
familiar objects, “daddy bad,” begins to use
“where,” “why,” increasing use
e.g., milk, cat, “big teddy” question words,
and inversion, of grammar, e.g.,
cup (e.g., “where my
e.g., “where did plurals, past
book?”) and Full use
you go?” tenses
negatives (e.g., of language—
“no doing it”) although many
subtleties of
meaning remain
to be mastered
May understand
Can understand
around 50
around five
words. Becomes
times as many
specialized in
words as in
hearing speech
speech
sounds within
vocabulary
own language

AT AROUND 18 MONTHS,
Start to point for
THERE IS A VOCABULARY
themselves,
effectively
EXPLOSION—THE WORD
“asking” for
word names
LEARNING RATE CLIMBS
TO ABOUT 40 A WEEK

AROUND 12 FROM 12 12–18 18 MONTHS 2 YEARS 2–21 ⁄2 3 ONWARD 5

YEARS
The Language
Areas
The human brain, unlike that of any other animal,
Motor cortex
has areas dedicated specifically to language, usually The motor cortex enables the
located in its left hemisphere. The unique ability of physical movements required to
produce language—for example,
humans to communicate using language is thought moving your tongue, lips, and jaw.
The motor cortex is activated when
to be an evolutionary advantage. words that are semantically related to
body parts are heard or spoken. For
example, the word “dance” might
be related to your feet.
Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
The two main language areas are Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
Broca’s area is associated with moving the mouth to articulate
words. When learning new languages, separate parts of Broca’s
area are activated when we speak either our native or non-native
tongue. In Wernicke’s area, words that we hear or read are Speech travels through
understood and selected for articulation as speech. Damage to air as sound waves
this part of the brain can lead people to speak in peculiar ways,
creating sentences that do not make sense.

BRAIN DAMAGE AND

LANGUAGE CHANGES HELLO
There have been cases in which SHWMAE BONJOUR
patients with brain injury appeared
to wake up speaking a different ASALAAM ALAIKUM
language or with a different accent.
Foreign accent syndrome is one
example of such a medical
condition. These cases are rare, and
GUTEN TAG
there have not been sufficient PRIVET OLÁ
scientific studies carried out to
understand them in any detail.
KONNICHIWA
# & @ å HOLA CIAO
ž ø ï ¿ œ
» § ë Speaking and understanding
Processing language is a complex task.
Articulating or decoding even a simple
greeting, such as “hello,” requires several
different areas of the brain to work together.
 COMMUNICATION
The Language Areas 126 127
Aphasia
Aphasia is a medical condition
Supramarginal in which people are unable to
gyrus
Although it is not considered comprehend or produce language,
EX one of the main language areas, read, or write due to damage
RT

the supramarginal gyrus caused to the brain—for example,

CO

works with the angular gyrus

as the result of a trauma, stroke,
R

to perceive and process

TO

language in order to give or tumor. The condition can be

MO

words their meaning.

AL relatively mild or severe. There are
GIN
many types of aphasia (for some
AR S
R AM YRU A examples, see table below). Some
G
BROCA’S UP
N
are named after the brain area
GU
AREA
S

LA
that is affected or the type of
RG

EX E ’S speech produced. However,

RT
YRUS

Y CO ICK aphasia can affect language,

R N
ITO ER E A
AUD W AR reading, and writing in many
different ways, and some of these
difficulties may not fit into one
specific type or category.

TYPES OF APHASIA
Angular gyrus
TYPE SYMPTOMS
The angular gyrus is associated
with complex language.
Global The most severe form of aphasia,
It coordinates auditory, sensual,
causing general deficits in
and visual information to help
comprehension, understanding,
us understand words and concepts.
and production of language.
The angular gyrus allows the
association of particular words
with different images, ideas, Broca’s Speech production is affected
and can be reduced to just a few
or sensations.
words, which may be halting or
Auditory cortex “nonfluent” in their nature.
The auditory cortex is part of
the temporal lobe at the side of Wernicke’s An inability to understand the
the brain. This area processes meaning of words. Speech
auditory information in humans production is unaffected, but
and other vertebrates to enable irrelevant words may be used,
information to be heard. The auditory forming nonsensical phrases.
cortex is divided into sections (see
p.76), which allows humans Anomic Difficulty finding words during
to hear complex sounds, speaking or writing. This can
such as words in lead to vague language, causing
a conversation. significant frustration.

Primary Language capabilities become

progressive slowly, progressively impaired.
This form can be caused by
diseases such as dementia.
THERE ARE AROUND
Conduction A rare form of aphasia that
6,500 DIFFERENT causes difficulty repeating

LANGUAGES SPOKEN phrases, particularly if phrases or

sentences are long and complex.
AROUND THE WORLD
Facial expressions
We constantly use facial expressions
during conversation. As speakers, we
raise eyebrows to emphasize a point
or indicate a question, and as listeners,
we use expressions to show interest
in what is being said. One study looked
at the top reasons for using facial FACIAL SHRUG THINKING EMPHASIS EMPATHIC
expressions in conversation.

KEY
Speaker Both

Listener
QUESTION RETELLING PERSONAL I’M LISTENING
REACTION

ER
E AK
E SP
TH 1 Message idea
The starting point of
a conversation is an idea the
speaker wants to express and
the intention to express it. NO,
THANKS
Formulation
2 The speaker selects the
words with the right meaning TURN TAKING
(semantics) and then puts them
into the right form and order
(syntax) to make sense. For LIKE
example, “Would you like a drink?” WOULD
is a question; “You would like a WOULD YOU
drink” is a statement; and “Like LIKE
you drink a would” is nonsense. YOU
Broca’s area (see p.126) is crucial SEMANTICS SYNTAX
to these two processes.

Articulation
3 To say the message, the
speaker moves the mouth, tongue,
lips, and throat, controlled by the
motor cortex, to form the speech
sounds with the right intonation.

GARDEN PATH SENTENCES

We can be misled if the first part of a message suggests
an idea that is contradicted by the later part. For example:
“The car stopped at the crash scene was soon surrounded
by police.” We initially understand “stopped” to mean
WOULD
something the car did; but when we hear “was soon,” it
becomes clear that the car was stopped by police. We
YOU LIKE
have to revisit the start of the message to make sense of A DRINK?
it. This type of statement is called a garden path sentence.
 COMMUNICATION
Having a Conversation 128 129

Having a Beyond words

We constantly use nonverbal

Conversation
signals alongside speech in
conversation. In addition to adding
emphasis (via facial expressions)
or visual effect (via gestures),
A conversation is a shared endeavor between such signals allow the person
speaker and listener, which involves more than not speaking to have a role in
the conversation partnership,
producing and understanding words. We take turns, encouraging the speaker without
signal understanding, and align our thoughts. interrupting or taking over.

THE ELEMENTS OF CONVERSATION

LIS
TE
NE Looking
Response
R Listeners look at their conversation
4 Now the listener can reply partner much more than speakers
and take their turn as speaker. do. They do this to show interest—
as without this, speakers often
falter. In contrast, speakers look
Message interpretation
3 Usually, listeners add their
intermittently at the listener.

own experience to understand

the message. For example, if we Gestures
are asked “Would you like a We use many types of hand gestures
drink?” at 9 a.m., we may expect (see p.119), including conventional
coffee, but at 9 p.m. it is likely the signs—such as “thumbs up,” pointing,
offer is a different type of drink. and expressive hand movements—to
add emphasis to the message.
Message decoding
2 The listener recognizes words and
makes sense of the message structure “I’m listening” signals
WORD PARSING by analyzing the syntax (parsing). Parsing Listeners use nonverbal sounds and
RECOGNITION includes extracting meaning from the gestures, such as saying “mmm” or
order of the words. For example, “dog nodding, to show they are engaged in
bites man” has the same words but the conversation while not speaking.
different meaning to “man bites dog.”
Wernicke’s area (see p.126) is crucial in
comprehending speech. Turn taking
Conversation requires taking turns,
and we start learning this from
Hearing speech sounds infancy. Conversation partners
1 The speaker’s speech rarely talk over each other, even
sounds are heard via the auditory though the average gap between
pathway in the listener’s brain. turns is only a few tenths of
a second.

Speaking and listening

Speaker and listener swap roles many times in a
conversation—and as speakers, we also monitor our own PEOPLE TALK
speech output. Although both roles involve multiple steps,
it can all happen fast—taking from 0.25 seconds between OVER EACH
having an idea to saying it, and from 0.5 seconds for OTHER LESS
comprehension. Hesitation occurs when speakers need
time to “catch up” with the complex speech planning
THAN 5% OF
and production process. CONSERVATION TIME
 BIRT
H AG
Learning to ON
W
E3
+
read and write A

RD
The ability to read and write Children may
is something that most people start to recognize
start to learn at a young age. symbols when
playing
As our brains develop, we learn
Babies imitate
important reading and writing sounds that
skills. By the time we reach adults make
adulthood, we can read on average
200 words per minute. Reading
requires several areas of the
brain and body to work together.
For example, when you read, your
eyes need to recognize the word
on a page and your brain then
processes what that word says. Making sounds Recognizing symbols
1 Babies make sounds that imitate 2 Children begin to understand what
Writing uses the brain’s language adults but often aren’t recognizable as words. symbols mean when they are in text. They
areas (see pp.126–127), visual areas, This is the foundation for learning to develop use the visual cortex and memory to
and motor areas concerned with language skills. Babies see and process facial translate symbols that they see into sounds.
expressions using the visual cortex and other As children grow, they connect these sounds
manual dexterity to make the areas. They then learn to associate sounds with the meanings of words and start to
necessary hand movements. and facial expressions with things in the world. relate language to written text.

Reading WHAT CAUSES

DYSLEXIA?

and Writing Research suggests that children

with dyslexia have problems
understanding the sounds
Our brains are hardwired for speech, but the
letters make, but dyslexia is
ability to read and write is not innate. We have
also found in cultures where
to start training our brains as babies to develop
symbols represent an idea
these complex skills. rather than a sound.

DYSGRAPHIA
Dysgraphia is the inability to write SPEED READERS
tHisIsaS eNT E
clearly. It can be the symptom of ncEw
riT
ARE ABLE TO
some brain conditions, such as
Parkinson’s disease, that affect fine tENbY
sOMEonEwItHdYs READ MORE
GRap
motor skills. Writing may be wobbly
and indistinct or completely mangled.
HiA THAN 700
WORDS PER
MINUTE
 COMMUNICATION
Reading and Writing 130 131
AG AG AG
E5 E1 E1
+ 1+ 3+

As fine motor
skills advance,
Reading writing becomes
We increasingly
to a child more fluent
read text on
helps them
screens and type
relate sounds
words on
and text
keyboards

Beginning to read Expanding vocabulary Continuing to learn

3 Reading aloud can improve a child’s 4 As we grow older, we experience 5 As adults, we continue to learn and
reading ability. Listening to a story activates more of the world around us so we learn and practice our reading and writing skills. Our
the auditory cortex to hear the words, which see new things, adding to our vocabulary. vocabulary is constantly being extended.
are then processed by the frontal lobe. Comprehension, the ability to understand Learning to read and write is just the start
Picture books help children practice relating how to use words, requires every lobe of of the story. The whole brain is required to
words to images, and asking them to join in the brain (see p.30) and the cerebellum to maintain language skills, and good brain
reading builds vocabulary and comprehension. successfully comprehend and use language. health is vital to both reading and writing.

Dyslexia ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE

Dyslexia takes various forms,
affecting people’s ability to read or The alphabetic principle is the idea
write, or both. It is thought that up that individual letters or groups of
to one in five people have dyslexia. letters represent sounds when they
A full neurological explanation of are spoken aloud. The alphabetic
Nondyslexic brain reading principle has two parts:
the causes of dyslexia has not yet Broca’s area helps form and articulate
been achieved. Studies have speech. The parietal-temporal cortex works
1. Alphabetic understanding
suggested that particular to analyze and understand new words. The
occipital-temporal area forms words and aids Learning that words are made
structures of the brain function in meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. up of letters that represent the
differently in dyslexia (see right). sounds made when speaking
As children with dyslexia typically Increased Less these letters aloud.
struggle with their reading abilities, activity activity
it is difficult to determine whether 2. Phonological recoding
the developing brain impacts the Understanding how strings of
letters in written words combine
dyslexia or if the dyslexia itself has
to make sounds, which enables
an impact on the developing brain. spelling and pronunciation.

Dyslexic brain reading

KEY
Broca’s area is activated to form and articulate
Parietal-temporal Inferior frontal words, but the parietal-temporal and occipital–
gyrus (Broca’s temporal areas are less active. Broca’s area
Occipital-temporal area) can be overactivated to compensate for the
lack of stimulation of the other regions.
MEMORY,
LEARNING,
AND THINKING
 What Is Memory?
Our memory allows us to learn from experience and shapes us as
individuals. Memory is not a single discrete brain function; there
are several types, involving different brain areas and processes.

Memory in the brain Types of memories

Memory includes instinctive processes that you are unaware of, as To better understand how it works,
well as the more obvious parts that allow you to remember what you scientists break memory down into
had for lunch yesterday or your boss’s name. Each type of memory a number of types. Many of these
uses a range of different brain areas. Scientists used to think the rely on different networks within
hippocampus was vital for all new memories to form, but now it the brain, although there is also
is thought this is the case only for episodic memories. Other types a lot of overlap between the brain
of memories use other areas, which are spread all around the brain. areas involved in each category.

Caudate nucleus Frontal lobe is Cingulate cortex may Putamen

is associated with involved in working be involved in is involved
memories of and episodic memory memory retrieval in learning
instinctive skills procedural skills

Parietal lobe is
Mammillary body important for
is involved in spatial memory
episodic memory
Thalamus helps
Short-term
Olfactory bulb links direct attention
memory
to the amygdala Short-term memory is very
so smells are Hippocampus
turns experience limited—storing only around 5–9
potent triggers for items, but this varies between
emotional memories into episodic
memory individuals and for different types
of information. To keep something
Temporal lobe in short-term memory, we often
Brain areas holds general repeat it to ourselves, but if we
Memory areas often relate to the knowledge are distracted, we instantly
information stored. Memories of forget it.
movement, for example, use the Amygdala is vital for Cerebellum is
motor cortex. Limbic areas, linked to forming emotional vital for “muscle
emotion, are also involved in memory. memories memories”

Nonassociative Simple classical Priming and

learning conditioning perceptual learning
When you are repeatedly exposed Made famous by the Russian In priming experiments, you are
to the same stimulus, such as a light, physiologist Ivan Pavlov and his shown a word or picture so quickly
a sound, or a sensation, your response dogs, in classical conditioning, you don’t consciously “see” it—but
changes. For example, when you come repetition causes something neutral to it can still affect your behavior.
home, you smell dinner cooking, but be linked with a response. An example For example, someone primed with
gradually the smell seems to fade. is your mouth watering as you enter the word “dog” will recognize the
This is known as habituation, one a cinema lobby, as you have word “cat” faster than a
form of nonassociative learned to expect popcorn in completely unrelated word
learning. that environment. such as “tap.”
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
What Is Memory? 134 135
WORKING MEMORY

Memory systems To multiply 50 x 20, you must

manipulate the numbers stored 50 x 20
Memory is split into two main
types: short- and long-term in short-term memory. This
TO DO
memory. Short-term memories are uses a process called working
fleeting, but important information memory. Working memory
can be passed over to long-term ability is one of the best 5 x 20 = 100
memory for storage. Long-term 100 x 10 =
memories may last a whole lifetime predictors of success in
school for young children. 1,000
and are further divided into
several different types WORKING
of memories.

Long-term
memory
Our long-term memory allows us
to store a—theoretically—almost
infinite number of memories for most
of our life. Long-term memories are
stored as distributed networks of
neurons spread out across the outer
layer of the brain, the cortex.
Recalling the memory sparks
the network to fire again.

Nondeclarative Declarative
(implicit) (explicit)
Nondeclarative memories are Declarative memories can be told
unconscious so cannot be passed to someone else. They are conscious
from person to person using words. and sometimes learned through
You might try, for example, to explain repetition and effort, although others
to someone how to tie their shoe can be stored without awareness of
laces or ride a bike, but they would the process. They include memories
probably still fail or fall off of events that have happened
the first time they attempted in your life (episodic) and
to do it for themselves. facts (semantic).

Procedural Episodic Semantic

Skills or abilities, such as riding Episodic memories might be Semantic memories are
a bike or dancing, are termed recalling a big event like your 18th factual—meaning they are things
procedural memories. When first birthday or something mundane like that you know rather than things
learned, they require concentration yesterday’s breakfast. These are things that you remember. For example,
and conscious effort but over time you actually remember happening: these might include recalling the
they become habit. Often called recalling an episodic memory capital of France or the first three
“muscle memory,” procedural is almost like reliving the event. digits of Pi. Semantic memory relies
memories are actually stored The hippocampus is vital for on a large network of brain areas
in a brain network involving storing new episodic and may not involve the
the cerebellum. memories. hippocampus at all.
How a
Memory Forms MEMORY TRACES
Scientists have recently been able to
pinpoint a precise memory trace in
When networks of neurons in the brain are someone’s brain. In general, memories
repeatedly activated, changes in the cells tend to be stored near the area of the
strengthen their connections, making it easier brain that relates to how they were
formed. For example, memories for
for each to activate the next (see pp.26–27). This voices would be near the language
process is known as long-term potentiation. centers, and things that you have
seen are stored, at least partly,
near the visual cortex.

Strengthening connections
When you repeatedly activate a group of neurons—by practicing a
skill or revising facts, for example—they begin to change. This is how AUDITORY
we form long-term memories (see p.135) in a process called long-term CORTEX
potentiation, which depends on various mechanisms taking place
in brain cells. The first (presynaptic) neuron makes more VISUAL
neurotransmitters release when the signal reaches it, and the second CORTEX
inserts more receptors into its membrane. This speeds up transmission
Memories of sounds
at the synapse. Something like driving a car, which seems complex are stored partly in or
when you start, can become effortless as the neural pathways involved near auditory cortex
become more efficient. If this paired activation is repeated enough, new
dendrites can grow, linking the two neurons via new synapses, giving
the message alternative pathways and helping it travel even faster. NG
NI
AR
Electrical signal
LE travels along axon
MORE THAN 100 DIFFERENT of sending neuron
RE
FO

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
BE

HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED

AX
Nerve cell in ON
hippocampus fires a
signal to a receiving cell Action potential
triggers release of
neurotransmitter
SY
NA
PS
E

Second Vesicle containing

NERVE CELL nerve cell neurotransmitters
BODY DE
ND
AX

RI
TE
ON

SYNAPSE
Firing together
Long-term potentiation
occurs across the brain but
has been best studied in the Before learning, only a weak connection exists between
hippocampus. Electrical signals 1 neurons. One action potential (pulse of electrical current)
travel along a neuron’s axon to from the first cell releases only a small amount of neurotransmitters,
the synapse, where chemical and this may or may not be enough to activate the next neuron,
messengers are released. which has just a few receptors.
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
How a Memory Forms 136 137
Emotional memories
When something strongly emotional happens, whether that is good or bad,
KEY
stress chemicals such as adrenaline and noradrenaline are released. These
Neurotransmitter
make it easier for long-term potentiation to occur with fewer repetitions.
This explains why emotionally arousing memories are stored more rapidly Phosphate
in the brain and why they are easier to recall than nonemotional memories.
Action potential in
Changes presynaptic neuron triggers
triggered in neurotransmitter release
hippocampal
neurons Neurotransmitter
released
Noradrenaline
released by neurons Phosphates guide
in locus coeruleus, receptors to insert
located in pons themselves next to synapse
HIPPOCAMPUS
LOCUS
Hormone released Strong connection
1 Noradrenaline released
COERULEUS 2 An enzyme adds
Neuron is
primed for
PO

by neurons originating in the phosphate groups to receptors

connection
NS

locus coeruleus triggers a cascade in the postsynaptic neuron. This

of changes within cells in makes it easier for more receptors
the hippocampus. to be inserted in the cell membrane,
so the connection is strengthened Action potential
and the memory forms easily. triggered easily

NG NG
RNI Repeated activation causes NI More neurotransmitters
EA more neurotransmitters
AR produced and
to be released released
E
L

RL
G
RIN

TE
AF
DU

More Strong
receptors connection
move to allows
membrane signal to
surface pass quickly

More receptors
on receiving
cell

Action potential
triggered in
second neuron

Both neurons firing repeatedly at the same time causes a Now, a single action potential causes the release of
2 chemical cascade within the second cell (see p.26), which 3 more neurotransmitters, carrying the message quickly
makes it more sensitive to the neurotransmitter, and causes extra and efficiently across the synapse, where it is received by
receptors to migrate to the edge of the synapse. A signal travels many receptors. This makes it easier for the second neuron
back to the first cell, telling it to produce more neurotransmitters. to be activated, sending its electrical signal onward.
Storing Memories CO
R TEX

After being encoded by the hippocampus, memories are

consolidated and transferred to the cortex for long-term
storage. These memories are formed by strengthening
connections, a process called long-term potentiation

X
TE
(see pp.136–137).

OR
LC
TA
Storage in the cortex WHY DO I

ON
To transfer memories for long-term

FR
FORGET WHERE I

PRE
storage, the hippocampus repeatedly LEFT MY KEYS?
activates a network of connections
in the cortex. Each activation Often, things we “forget”
strengthens connections until they actually weren’t stored
are secure enough to store the as memories in the first
memory. It was thought that place, because we weren’t
memories formed first in the
paying attention when
hippocampus, with the cortical
memory trace forming later, but we did them.
recent research in mice suggests
that they may form simultaneously,
although the cortical memory is Memory bank
initially unstable. Repeated Memories are stored as networks
reactivation of the network of connections in the cortex. The
number of neurons here creates
somehow “matures” the cortical a near infinite amount of possible
memory, meaning we can use it. combinations—in theory, long-
term memory is virtually unlimited.

N
ATIO
ING OLID
Consolidation ARN NS
LE CO
This storage process, known as Study Sleep
consolidation, happens mainly 1 When you learn something new, 2 While you sleep, new
while we sleep. During this time, your brain takes in that information and information is consolidated. The
forms new connections, or strengthens memory becomes less reliant on
your brain is not processing synapses that already exist. the hippocampus and less likely
information from the outside to be affected by interference
world so it can carry out these from other inputs or brain injury.
housekeeping tasks. Memories
are sorted, prioritized, and the
gist extracted. They are also
linked with older memories,
already in storage. This makes
it easier to retrieve important
memories in the future. Studies
have shown it is better to take a
nap after learning something
new than it is to keep studying!
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
Storing Memories 138 139
A certain combination of
Memory stored in cortex neurons fires repeatedly
2 Networks across the cortex to consolidate memory
store memories for things that M
happened less recently. Different

EM
types of memories might be stored

OR
in various combinations of regions.

Y TR
X
E

ACE
RT
CO
RY
SON
SE
ATO
SOM

AUDITORY
CORTEX
Synapses strengthen,
storing memory as
a trace
US
AMP
HIPP
OC HIPPOCAMPAL
INJURY CAN MAKE
CO AL

Memory encoded by hippocampus

EX

1 FORMING NEW
SU
RT

Experiences are registered by the

VI

hippocampus, and some of them—those that are

destined to become memories—are encoded LONG-TERM
there. Long-term potentiation alters connections
between neurons in the hippocampus to create
MEMORIES
a memory. This area is vital for new memories. IMPOSSIBLE

L
RIE
VA PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
T
RE
Remember If you learn something just once, over time that memory
3 When you wake up, the memory trace will fade as the connections weaken. The more times
of what you learned is stored more you practice or revise something, the stronger those
securely. It has also been linked to other connections between neurons become and the more likely
facts, making it easier to recall, and you you are to remember it in the future.
may find that you
understand the
underlying KEY
Strength of memory trace

concepts better.
Rest

Study

Time
Recalling a Memory
Recalling a memory is not the passive process we once
thought, like playing back a recording on your phone.
Instead, our brain actively reconstructs our experience from
the information it has stored. This introduces the opportunity
for mistakes, meaning our memories can change over time. Nerve-cell connection
activated during recall

Memory in the cortex

1 Each time we recall a
long-term memory, the network of
cortical neurons storing it is activated.
This strengthens the connections
between the cells, so it is less likely Neuron in cortex
to be forgotten in the future.

Nerve-cell connection
strengthens

Strong emotions
make it easier for Cortex
connections to
strengthen
RY
MEMO
ED
Strong connections OR
2 If we do not recall a memory ST
frequently, the connections between
the cells will weaken and the memory
HOME DATES
will fade. Memories associated with LIF
strong emotions, however, are less
E

likely to decay with time.

Reactivating a memory
When we recall a memory, we activate
the same network of neurons that
fired during the original experience, IONSHIP TRIPS
bringing it back to mind. While being LAT S
RE
recalled, the memory enters a flexible,
or labile, state. This means that once
we have finished thinking about that
memory, it must be reconsolidated Stored memories
Most memories are stored
and stored again. If new information long-term in the cortex, but
is presented while the memory is you can’t point to the area for
labile, it can be stored alongside old your 18th birthday, for example.
Each memory is represented
information. This allows memories to by a network of neurons,
be changed and updated. spread across the brain.
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
Recalling a Memory 140 141
False memories
When a memory is reconsolidated,
True memory
new information is stored with old. 1 Scientists asked participants to watch
But when we next recall the memory, clips of car accidents. After each clip, they had
it is impossible to tell which is which. to describe what happened and answer
questions. This meant they were recalling
This means we can end up with and reactivating
false memories. Just talking about the memory.
an event can change our memory of
it, so in legal cases, witnesses must
be questioned carefully, to avoid
contaminating their memories.

WHAT IS 2 New information

Some participants were asked about the cars’
DÉJÀ VU? speed when they “contacted” each other, while
others were asked about the speed when
The feeling of déjà vu the cars “smashed.” The first group
might arise because we rated the cars as slower than
the second group.
recognize something in
an environment but cannot
recall what. This gives
a vague feeling
of familiarity. NEW INFORMATION
STORED WITH OLD
TIME LATER

ATI
VAC ONS False memory recalled
3 One week later, subjects recalled the video again
and were asked whether there was any broken glass (there
was not). Significantly more people in the “smashed”
group “remembered” broken glass. The
words used had changed their
memory of the event.

HD
BIRT AYS

RECALL VERSUS RECOGNITION

It is much easier to recognize something
as familiar when we are shown it than it
is to recall the details without any input.
For example, we all know what a quarter
looks like, but could you draw one
from memory?
How to Improve
Your Memory
Once we understand learning and recall, research
shows that we can find ways to boost these
processes and improve our memories. Some of the
best memory techniques, such as the memory
palace, are actually some of the oldest.
Often, when we “forget” external—such as the scent of
something, we haven’t stored it freesias taking you back to your
properly in the first place. To avoid wedding day. The memory palace
this, we must process information technique uses associations and
deeply—paying full attention to triggers to help recall long lists
what we are learning, thinking of information in order.
about it, and seeing how it links Probably the most important
to other things we already know. thing we can do for our memories
Once stored, we need to make is get enough sleep. If we are tired,
sure the information stays put, by our focus and attention suffer, and
practicing or repeating whatever the brain just isn’t in the right state
we are trying to learn. The more to learn. Sleep is also vital after
often we activate pairs of neurons learning for memories to be
together, the stronger that consolidated, sorted, and stored.
connection becomes and the more Here is a quick recap of how
likely we are to remember it in the to boost your memory:
future. The spacing of repetitions is • Process the information deeply.
important, too—it is better to revise • Rehearse it regularly.
for 10 minutes a day for six days • Use cues and associations.
than one hour on a single day. • Get plenty of sleep.

The power of cues and rest

There are techniques we can use to
help recall information, and many
Using a memory palace
of them rely on cues. These triggers Imagine you are walking through somewhere
can be internal, such as mnemonics, familiar, such as your house. At strategic points,
which provide the first letters of a visualize objects relating to the words you
hope to remember, such as the items on a
list of items, cuing recall of the shopping list. To recall the list, simply “walk”
items themselves. Or they can be the route again – the objects act as triggers.
142 143
Why We Forget
There are many theories to explain why we forget things.
Some scientists think that all our memories remain in our Memory trace
brains but that we sometimes lose the ability to access them. exists in brain;
often, blockage is
Our memories may also interfere with one another. later released and
memory can
be recalled
Forgetting in the brain Y Y
OR OR
There are many conditions that

M
M

ME
ME
cause us to forget (see pp.146–147).
Broadly, there are two possibilities
for what happens in the brain when
we do. The simplest idea is that
over time memories fade away;
information is lost as the trace that
was formed is no longer there. But
evidence for this is hard to come by, Memory cannot
as other factors could be involved. be accessed or
brought to mind,
Most of us have experienced the
perhaps giving
struggle to remember information a “tip of the
that later pops into your head for no L tongue” feeling
CAL
reason—this suggests memories RE
Y
can still exist but be inaccessible.
OR

This could be because other similar

MEM

memories are interfering with them,

or because there is no cue in our
environment to prompt that recall.
It is not known whether the
nerve-cell connections of a memory
disappear or if they still exist but
we are unable to access them.

WHY DO I FORGET
WHAT I WENT
UPSTAIRS FOR?
Leaving a room changes the
environmental cues that help
us remember. When you Memory retrieved Failure to retrieve
When we recall If recall is unsuccessful, it
go back to where you were, something, we must may be that the memory
the memory often reactivate the network is still in the cortex,
of neurons that stores it. we are just unable to
reactivates. If this is successful, access it (above). Or
we remember the connections may have
fact or event. been lost (see right).
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
Why We Forget 144 145
Interfering memories
Our brains experience interference, particularly when information ACTIVE FORGETTING
is similar. Learning new information can block recall for old, and
old information can also affect new. These problems might arise Forgetting seems passive,
but you can choose to forget.
because the wrong memory trace is activated when you go to recall
In one study, subjects’
the information, blocking access to the right one. Or it may be that prefrontal cortices—involved
old information can disrupt consolidation of new, and if successful, in suppression—were activated
the new memory may actually replace the old one. when they were told to forget
a specific word.

Proactive
interference
Old memories may
disrupt new ones. BONJOUR, HOLA,
For example, when ÇA VA? ¿CÓMO
starting to learn ESTÁS? Prefrontal
Spanish, you may cortex
experience interference
from French words
learned as a child.
WE MAY BE LESS
LIKELY TO RECALL
Retroactive INFORMATION WE
interference
If you later went to BONJOUR, HOLA, CAN FIND EASILY
speak French and ÇA VA? ¿CÓMO ESTÁS?
instead spoke Spanish, ONLINE; THIS IS THE
that would be new
memories disrupting GOOGLE EFFECT
the recall of old ones.

S S S
NTH AR ADE
O YE C
DE
M

Storage Memory fades Losing a memory

1 Long-term memories are stored 2 If months or years pass before you 3 One theory for forgetting is that
in the cortex as networks of connections. recall a memory, it may begin to fade. synapses that are not in use become weaker
These form and strengthen over weeks or Without reactivation, connections between and are eventually pruned away, taking that
months. Recalling a memory activates it, nerve cells are not strengthened. Specific memory with them. The longer a memory
strengthening the synapses and making details about special events, such as the food is inactive, the more likely it is to be lost
the memory easier to retrieve later. you ate at your wedding, may be forgotten. through this process.
Memory
Problems
Retrograde amnesia
People often forget moments before
an accident, but they can lose weeks,
or even years. Some memories,
especially older ones, return slowly.
Memory problems increase with age, and dementia
affects one in six people over 80. Sometimes, brain Anterograde amnesia
People with anterograde amnesia are
damage, stress, or other factors can cause us to unable to form new memories. They
remember who they are and retain
experience an inability to remember (amnesia). memories from before the damage.

Transient global amnesia

Amnesia This is a sudden episode of memory
If someone suffers a brain injury that damages the hippocampus and loss, typically lasting a few hours.
There are no other symptoms or
surrounding areas, it can cause amnesia. There are two main types, obvious cause.
depending on whether the patient forgets memories they had stored
Infantile amnesia
before the incident (retrograde amnesia) or is unable to form new
Infantile amnesia refers to the fact
memories (anterograde amnesia). There are also cases of amnesia that people usually cannot retrieve
without any obvious signs of damage, for example, after experiencing memories of situations or events
before the age of two to four years.
a psychological trauma. Drugs and alcohol can cause temporary
amnesia, although this can become permanent if large amounts are Dissociative amnesia
used over a long period. It is also possible to suffer anterograde and This can be triggered by stress or
psychological trauma. Patients forget
retrograde amnesia at once, particularly if there is significant damage days or weeks around the trauma or,
to the hippocampus. This condition is called global amnesia. in rare “fugue states,” who they are.

Aging and memory

As we age, it is normal to experience memory
BY THE TIME PEOPLE
lapses and encounter more difficulty learning new REACH THEIR 80s, THEY
things. Focusing attention and ignoring distractions
becomes harder, and you may forget everyday
MAY HAVE LOST AS MUCH
things, such as why you went upstairs, more often. AS 20 PERCENT OF THE
These experiences differ from the symptoms of NERVE CONNECTIONS
dementia (see p.200), which can include getting lost
in your own house or forgetting a partner’s name. IN THEIR HIPPOCAMPUS

Losing trust in memory Using memory less Memory getting worse

1 Older adults often begin 2 Brain abilities are like muscles, getting 3 Not exercising your memory can cause a
doubting their memories, seeing normal stronger with use. Writing things down or vicious cycle of cognitive decline. Encouraging
lapses as a sign of worsening abilities. looking them up instead of exercising your older adults to use their memory, by providing
This can lead them to rely on it less. memory could make it worse. feedback showing it still functions well, may help.
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
Memory Problems 146 147
A curious case
Henry Molaison (1926–2008) was
an American assembly line worker WHAT IS
suffering from severe epileptic
seizures. In 1953, he underwent FRON
“SHELL SHOCK”?
surgery to remove sections of his TA
L
medial temporal lobe, including The expression was coined

LO
both hippocampi, to treat severe during World War I to describe

B E
epilepsy. This controlled his
seizures, but he forgot several an effect thought to be caused
years before the surgery
and developed anterograde
by the sound of exploding

MPUS
amnesia. He could retain new shells. Soldiers were, in fact,
declarative memories (see
suffering from PTSD, brought

CA
p.135) only for a few seconds O
but could learn new skills. HIPP on by the trauma of war.
CE

Large areas
RE

of medial temporal lobe BE

LLU
removed from brain M
in each hemisphere

VIEW FROM BELOW

Other memory problems

Many things affect memory, from short-term stress to life events, POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS
such as having children. Memory changes can be linked to changes
DISORDER
in our neurochemistry. For example, cortisol is released when we
worry and hormones surge in a pregnant woman around the time Normally when we store memories, the
of birth. Lifestyle changes such as sleep deprivation also play a role. emotion fades over time, so we recall past
events without reliving them. In post-
CAUSE EXPLANATION traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), sufferers
Stress Moderate, short-term stress can make it easier to form fail to dissociate memory from emotion,
memories, but it becomes harder to recall facts you have and intrusive memories bring the fear
already learned. This may explain why the feeling of “going flooding back. These memories can be
blank” during an examination is so common.
activated by sights or sounds, and often
Anxiety Long-term or chronic stress, such as is experienced the patient is unaware of their triggers.
by people with anxiety disorders, can damage the
hippocampus and other memory structures of the brain,
causing memory problems.

Depression Depression can impact the short-term memory and cause

people to have difficulty recalling details of events they have
experienced. Healthy people tend to remember positives
better than negatives. In depression, this is reversed.

“Baby brain” Pregnant women may experience mild decline in a range of

cognitive abilities, although these are likely to be noticeable
only to the women themselves. After the baby is born, sleep
deprivation can worsen memory problems.
Special Types
of Memories Posterior hippocampus,
involved in spatial navigation

Although a few children exhibit remarkable skills,

most people with exceptional memory are not born
that way. Instead, they use special techniques and
lots of practice, sometimes leading to physical
changes in their brains.

Training exceptional memories

Scientists studying trainee London taxi drivers as they
learned “the Knowledge” (a huge network of roads and Hippocampal
Anterior
structures
landmarks) found that the volume of the subjects’ Our two hippocampi—
hippocampus
posterior hippocampi increased as their ability to one on each side of
navigate improved. This could occur due to the birth the brain—are vital for
learning and memory.
of new neurons or the growth of existing dendrites (see They can be divided
p.20). However, the taxi drivers performed worse than into posterior (back)
control subjects in memory tests not involving London and anterior (front),
with the posterior portion
landmarks. This suggests memory is finite, and particularly important for
improving one area may come at the expense of others. spatial navigation.

S
NT
Savant syndrome VA FLASHBULB MEMORIES
SA

People with mental disabilities 10%

ALL

sometimes demonstrate incredible People often remember where

ACQUIRED
abilities in one specific area, often they were when receiving
related to memory. This is called emotional news, and the memory
CONGENITAL
savant syndrome. Many savants are 90%
seems extremely vivid and
autistic, but the syndrome can also detailed. These are called flashbulb
be triggered by severe head trauma. memories. However, studies have
shown that we are as likely to be
Some savants can calculate the day
TS mistaken about these snapshots as
of the week for any given date. AN we are about any other memories.
AV
Others remember everything they
S
CON NITAL

read or can paint detailed pictures 21%

of scenes they have seen only once.
GE

FEMALE
Scientists think these talents may
develop because of savants’
MALE
extreme focus and interest in one 79%
area. There is also evidence they
see the world as building blocks, By genetics and gender
not whole pictures, by accessing One database of savants, as reported by their
parents or caregivers, found that the vast
perceptual information most of us majority (90 percent) are born with the
are not consciously aware of. condition, and of these, most were male.
 MEMORY, LEARNING, AND THINKING
Special Types of Memories 148 149
KEY
Taxi driver’s Taxi driver’s posterior Posterior hippocampus
Posterior hippocampus
hippocampus hippocampus returns to original size
increases in volume

Before training, taxi drivers

have hippocampi with
regions of normal size
Same size Changing anatomy Returning to normal
1 At the start of the study, scientists
2 The trainee taxi drivers who passed
3 The brains of retired taxi drivers look
scanned the brains of the participants to “the Knowledge” had larger posterior much more like those of the control group.
measure the size of their hippocampi. There hippocampi than the control group, or the This suggests that the changes to the
were no differences between the trainee taxi trainees who failed. Some studies found that hippocampus revert once taxi drivers stop
drivers and the control group. the front of their hippocampi was smaller. using “the Knowledge” on a daily basis.

“Photographic” memory
There is no such thing as photographic memory—no one can literally CAN PEOPLE
recall pages of text or images as if they were really in front of them. The REMEMBER
closest is eidetic memory, which occurs in 2–10 percent of children. After EVERYTHING?
looking at an image, “eidetikers” continue to “see” it in their visual field,
until it gradually fades or disappears as they blink.
A perfect memory does
not exist, but a few people
Picture imperfect
Studies have shown that eidetic images are not have superior autobiographical
perfect. Children may not manage to remember memory, giving them
all the letters in a word they were shown, or
they may invent details, for example, “recalling” exceptional recall for
something in a picture that was not really there. events during
their lives.

MEMORY
PEOPLE WITH
Sometimes, people
with an eidetic memory INCREDIBLE RECALL
vividly recall details that
were not present in the FOR FACES ARE
original scene, such as
the color of this roof CALLED SUPER
PHOTOGRAPH CHILD RECOGNIZERS
Intelligence Network implicated
in hypothesis testing—an
integral component
of intelligence
There are many theories about how intelligence
evolved, what it actually constitutes, and which
factors are key to high intelligence.

What is intelligence? 1 Acquire

Intelligence is our ability to acquire Information
is gathered through
information from our surroundings, various experiences,
incorporate that information into understood, and
a knowledge base, and then apply retained for
processing.
it to new situations and contexts.
While there are many models for
how human intelligence evolved,
language and social living
undoubtedly played a role as this 2 Process
New
enabled knowledge to be passed
information is
on from generation to generation. critically analyzed,
The evolution of human intelligence compared with
existing knowledge Frontal lobe houses
has led to our success as a species,
and placed in context. large-scale networks
enabling us to adapt to and inhabit associated with
almost all environments on Earth. intelligence

THERE ARE OVER Theories of intelligence

1,000 HUMAN 3 Apply
Existing
Some studies suggest that connectivity
between the prefrontal and parietal cortices
GENES THAT knowledge is applied
to a new situation or
and small areas of neurons (networks) is the
key to high intelligence (above). Other
HAVE BEEN LINKED problem, as opposed explanations (right) have also been put
to being repeated forward, suggesting that intelligence is related
TO INTELLIGENCE from memory. to connectivity across the brain as a whole.

Types of intelligences Naturalist Existential

Recognizes features of plants Uses observations, insight,
Intelligence is often spoken of in a
and animals and infers insights and knowledge to explain the
broad sense, but there is a theory based on what is known about external world and the role
that multiple intelligences exist. the natural world. of humans in it.
It recognizes that people may have
the capacity to acquire and apply
Musical Interpersonal
knowledge in specific areas. For Sensitive to rhythm, pitch, Sensitive to people’s moods,
example, someone may struggle tone, melody, and timbre and feelings, and motivations.
with solving math problems but applies this to playing and Applies this to relationships
composing music. and helping groups function.
can reproduce a piece of music after
hearing it only once. Some argue
this theory supports a more Logical–mathematical Bodily–kinesthetic
realistic definition of intelligence, Quick with numbers and easily Uses heightened body
quantifies things. Figures out awareness, coordination,
while critics claim that these problems systematically and and timing to master physical
“intelligences” are merely aptitudes. thinks critically about issues. activities such as sports.