DEFINITIONS OF MATHS?

Mathematics has no generally accepted definition. [6][7] Aristotle defined mathematics as "the science of quantity" and
this definition prevailed until the 18th century.[42] In the 19th century, when the study of mathematics increased in
rigor and began to address abstract topics such as group theory and projective geometry, which have no clear-cut
relation to quantity and measurement, mathematicians and philosophers began to propose a variety of new
definitions.[43] Three leading types of definition of mathematics today are called logicist, intuitionist, and formalist,
each reflecting a different philosophical school of thought. [44] All have severe flaws, none has widespread
acceptance, and no reconciliation seems possible. [44]
An early definition of mathematics in terms of logic was Benjamin Peirce's "the science that draws necessary
conclusions" (1870).[45] In the Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead advanced the
philosophical program known as logicism, and attempted to prove that all mathematical concepts, statements, and
principles can be defined and proved entirely in terms of symbolic logic. A logicist definition of mathematics is
Russell's "All Mathematics is Symbolic Logic" (1903). [46]
Intuitionist definitions, developing from the philosophy of mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer, identify mathematics with
certain mental phenomena. An example of an intuitionist definition is "Mathematics is the mental activity which
consists in carrying out constructs one after the other." [44] A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some
mathematical ideas considered valid according to other definitions. In particular, while other philosophies of
mathematics allow objects that can be proved to exist even though they cannot be constructed, intuitionism allows
only mathematical objects that one can actually construct. Intuitionists also reject the law of excluded middle—a
stance which forces them to reject proof by contradiction as a viable proof method as well.[47]
Formalist definitions identify mathematics with its symbols and the rules for operating on them. Haskell
Curry defined mathematics simply as "the science of formal systems". [48] A formal system is a set of symbols,
or tokens, and some rules on how the tokens are to be combined into formulas. In formal systems, the
word axiom has a special meaning different from the ordinary meaning of "a self-evident truth", and is used to refer
to a combination of tokens that is included in a given formal system without needing to be derived using the rules of
the system.
A great many professional mathematicians take no interest in a definition of mathematics, or consider it undefinable.
[6]
 There is not even consensus on whether mathematics is an art or a science. [7] Some just say, "Mathematics is
what mathematicians do."
ETYMOLOGY
The word mathematics comes from Ancient Greek μάθημα (máthēma), meaning "that which is learnt",[36] "what one
gets to know", hence also "study" and "science". The word for "mathematics" came to have the narrower and more
technical meaning "mathematical study" even in Classical times. [37] Its adjective is μαθηματικός (mathēmatikós),
meaning "related to learning" or "studious", which likewise further came to mean "mathematical".
HISTORY OF MATHS

The history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The first abstraction, which is
shared by many animals,[14] was probably that of numbers: the realization that a collection of two apples and a
collection of two oranges (for example) have something in common, namely quantity of their members.
As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples
may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.
Evidence for more complex mathematics does not appear until around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and
Egyptians began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for building
and construction, and for astronomy.[17] The most ancient mathematical texts from Mesopotamia and Egypt are from
2000–1800 BC.[18] Many early texts mention Pythagorean triples and so, by inference, the Pythagorean
theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and
geometry.[19] It is in Babylonian mathematics that elementary
arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) first appear in the archaeological record. The
Babylonians also possessed a place-value system, and used a sexagesimal numeral system [19] which is still in use
today for measuring angles and time.
Beginning in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of
mathematics as a subject in its own right with Greek mathematics.[21] Around 300 BC, Euclid introduced
the axiomatic method still used in mathematics today, consisting of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof. His
textbook Elements is widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time. [22] The greatest
mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse.[23] He developed formulas
for calculating the surface area and volume of solids of revolution and used the method of exhaustion to calculate
the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, in a manner not too dissimilar from
modern calculus.[24] Other notable achievements of Greek mathematics are conic sections (Apollonius of Perga, 3rd
century BC),[25] trigonometry (Hipparchus of Nicaea (2nd century BC),[26] and the beginnings of algebra (Diophantus,
3rd century AD).

CONTIBUTION OF HINDU-ARABIC MATHEMATICANS IN BRIEF

The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today,
evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic
mathematics.[28] Other notable developments of Indian mathematics include the modern definition and approximation
of sine and cosine,[28] and an early form of infinite series. During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th
and 10th centuries, mathematics saw many important innovations building on Greek mathematics. The most notable
achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra. Other notable achievements of the Islamic
period are advances in spherical trigonometry and the addition of the decimal point to the Arabic numeral system.[29]
[30]
 Many notable mathematicians from this period were Persian, such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar Khayyam and Sharaf
al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.
During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe. The
development of calculus by Newton and Leibniz in the 17th century revolutionized mathematics. [31] Leonhard
Euler was the most notable mathematician of the 18th century, contributing numerous theorems and discoveries.
[32]
 Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss,
[33]
 who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix
theory, number theory, and statistics. In the early 20th century, Kurt Gödel transformed mathematics by publishing
his incompleteness theorems, which show in part that any consistent axiomatic system—if powerful enough to
describe arithmetic—will contain true propositions that cannot be proved. [34]
Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and
science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today.

WHY SHOULD WE STUDY MATHS?

While it may seem like math problems like the ones above have no real use in life, this
couldn’t be farther from the truth!  Math is incredibly important in our lives and, without
realizing it, we use mathematical concepts, as well as the skills we learn from doing math
problems every day.  The laws of mathematics govern everything around us, and without a
good understanding of them, one can encounter significant difficulties in life.

Read on to learn a few reasons that math is a powerful and incredibly useful tool.

1. Learning math is good for your brain

Research conducted by Dr. Tanya Evans of Stanford University indicates that children who
know math can recruit certain brain regions more reliably, and have higher gray matter
volume in those regions, than those who perform more poorly in math.  The brain regions
involved in higher math skills in high-performing children were associated with various
cognitive tasks involving visual attention and decision-making.  While correlation may not
imply causation, this study indicates that the same brain regions that help you do math are
recruited in decision-making and attentional processes.

2. Math helps you tell time

“I’m late, I’m late for a very important date.” – White Rabbit from the movie Alice in
Wonderland.  Don’t let your ignorance of math make you like the White Rabbit! A recent
study indicated that 4 out of 5 children living in Oklahoma City can’t read the hands on an
analog clock to tell time.  Knowing math, and particularly fractions, can help you better tell
time.  While analog clocks may eventually become obsolete, don’t let your ability to tell time
become outdated!  Use your knowledge of fractions to help you tell time on analog clocks
that have an hour, minute, and (sometimes) second hand.

3. Math helps you with your finances

Math can be helpful for balancing your budget because you will have a good understanding
of how to make sure that your costs are less than the money you have.  Balancing one’s bank
account, for example, is an important life skill that requires math in order to subtract
balances.  People who know math are therefore less likely to go into debt because they did
not know how much money they had versus how much money they spent.

4. Math makes you a better cook (or baker)

With knowledge of math, for example, you can quickly deduce that a half-cup of flour is the
same thing as eight tablespoons of flour.  This skill can prove handy if you find that your half-
cup measure is missing.  Likewise, if you are cooking from a recipe that serves four people,
but you need to feed eight people, your math skills tell you that you can simply double all of
the necessary ingredients.  Without math, you may not have enough food (or have too much
food) to feed your guest!

5. Math helps us have better problem-solving skills

Math helps us think analytically and have better reasoning abilities.  Analytical thinking refers
to the ability to think critically about the world around us.  Reasoning is our ability to think
logically about a situation.  Analytical and reasoning skills are essential because they help us
solve problems and look for solutions.  While it may seem far-fetched to believe that solving
the train problem above can help you solve a problem in your life, the skills that you use in
framing the problem, identifying the knowns and unknowns, and taking steps to solve the
problem can be a very important strategy that is applicable to other issues in life.

6. Practically every career uses math in some way.

Obviously, mathematicians and scientists rely on mathematical principles to do the most basic
aspects of their work, such as test hypotheses.  While scientific careers famously involve math,
they are not the only careers to do so.  Even operating a cash register requires that one
understands basic arithmetic. People working in a factory must be able to do mental
arithmetic to keep track of the parts on the assembly line and must, in some cases,
manipulate fabrication software utilizing geometric properties (such as the dimensions of a
part) in order to build their products.  Really, any job requires math because you must know
how to interpret your paycheck and balance your budget.

7. Math is all around us and helps us understand

the world better
To live in a mathematically-driven world and not know math is like walking through an art
museum with your eyes closed.  Learning and appreciating math can help you appreciate
things that you would not otherwise notice about the world.  In reality, math is everywhere!
Don’t believe me?  Read on for some examples of math in nature.
Bees, masters of geometry, use hexagons to build their honeycombs.  The Fibonacci sequence,
a famous sequence of numbers in mathematics, is found throughout nature: in pinecones,
seashells, trees, flowers, and leaves.
The number pi can also be observed all around us.  Pi is a cool number with many unique
properties.  Pi is approximately 3.14, but in reality, it is greater than 3.14, with an infinite string
of numbers after the decimal point. Because pi is, in reality, an infinitely long number, it is
expressed as the Greek letter pi (π).  It cannot be expressed as a fraction; numbers that cannot
be expressed as fractions are said to be irrational.  Pi is also transcendental, which means that
it is non-algebraic; this means that pi cannot be the solution of single-variable polynomial
equations whose coefficients are all integers.  (By definition, all transcendental numbers are
also irrational.)
The number pi can be observed in the shapes of rivers.  The ratio of a river’s length to the
distance from the source to its mouth is called the “meandering ratio.”  The average
meandering ratio of rivers approaches the number pi.  It makes sense that the average
meandering ratio of rivers approaches pi, because rivers tend to bend into loops, which are
circular in nature.  The ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter is also equal to pi.
Now that you know more about pi and about how math governs nature, don’t you feel that
you have a greater command over the mathematical laws of the universe?  It can be
empowering to learn about mathematical principles because it can help make sense of a
world that, oftentimes, does not make much sense.

7. Math can make you more popular

Before you start to disagree with me, think about how great it is to go to dinner with a friend
who can quickly divide a check in their mind to determine how much each person needs to
pay to split the bill.  Your knowledge of fractions can also help you divide a pizza among a few
people.  While math is popularly the realm of nerds, your ability to avoid awkward confusion
and silence as you and your friends try to divide a pizza or a dinner bill is a truly valuable skill. 
Be known as the cool (yes, I said cool) person that knows how to do mental math quickly!

8. Math can help you shop for a good sale

Not only will your quick mental arithmetic skills help you become known as the smart person
who everyone appreciates when the waiter brings the check to your table, your math skills can
also help you shop.  Knowledge of percentages and how to calculate them quickly can help
you save time when shopping at a sale at the mall – for example, to quickly calculate a
discounted price, or to determine whether you’ve been correctly charged when paying for a
shirt at the store.  You don’t need a Ph.D. in math to develop some quick mental arithmetic
skills; they can help you in these and other areas of your life in the long run.

Tip: use the 10 rule while sale-shopping.  If you want to brush up on your math skills to be
a better bargain-hunter, remember this rule: to subtract 10 from a price, you can just move
the decimal place to the left by one digit.  Take, for example, a shirt that has a price of $25.00
and is on sale for an additional 20 off.  You can move the decimal over to the left by one digit
to calculate 10 off – $2.50.  Since 20 off is 2 x 10 off, you can quickly multiply $2.50 x 2 to get
the discount amount – $5.00.  Subtract the discount amount from the original price of the
shirt: $25.00 – $5.00 = $20.00.  You can use the 10 rule to quickly calculate 10 of the price and
multiply it by a factor that can help you estimate price discounts quickly.

10. Math is a universal language

Sure, it’s mostly equations, numbers, and some Greek letters, but math is understood the
same virtually all over the world (and who knows, maybe all over the universe)!  A math
equation doesn’t need to be translated to another language to be understood by someone on
the other side of the planet.  A mathematical law doesn’t change because someone has a
different religion than you or speaks a different language from you.  2 + 2 = 4 in every single
place on planet Earth.  Pretty cool! The universality of math is one of the many things that
makes it such a powerful tool and, indeed, essential life skill.
 In summary, math is not only important for success in life; it is all around us.  The laws of
mathematics are evident throughout the world, including in nature, and the problem-solving
skills obtained from completing math homework can help us tackle problems in other areas of
life.  While many may complain that math is boring or complicated, the truth is that a life
devoid of math means that we go around experiencing the world on a much less interesting
level than we could.

WHO IS A MATHEMATICIAN?

A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to
solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned
with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change. Greek mathematician Archimedes is
widely considered by many to be the "father of mathematics."

FOUNDER AND FATHER OF MATHEMATICS

The founder of mathematics is considered to be Pythagoras who gave the triangular concept or theorem.
In the ancient 6th century B.C, the Greeks started the subject of mathematics only by the Pythagoras
concepts. Later, Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, developed it and so became the FATHER OF
MATHEMATICS.

TOP 20 MATHEMATICIANS ARE-

1.THALES 9. BHASKARA II 17. EULER

2. PYTHAGORAS 10. FIBONACCI 18. GAUSS

3. ZENO 11. NAPIER 19. RAMANUJAN

4. EUCLID 12. DESCARTES 20. NOETHER

5. ARCHIMEDES 13. FERMAT

6. ARYABHATTA 14. PASCAL

7. BRAHMAGUPTA 15. NEWTON

8. AL-KHWARIZMI 16. LIEBNIZ

BEFORE UNDERSTANDING THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS, LET’S UNDERSTAND THE MAIN BRANCHES OF

MATHS. MATHS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO PURE AND APPLIED MATHS.

The main branches of pure mathematics are:

 Algebra
 Geometry
 Trigonometry
 Calculus
 Statistics and Probability
Applied mathematics is the application of mathematical methods by different fields such
as physics, engineering, medicine, biology, business, computer science, and industry.

1. THALES OF MILETUS
Born c. 626/623BC
Thales of Miletus was
a Greek mathematician, astronomer and pre-Socratic Miletus, Ionia, Asia Minor
philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of
the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded
him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition,[1][2] and he is Died c. 548/545 BC (aged c. 78)
otherwise historically recognized as the first individual in Western
civilization known to have entertained and engaged in scientific
philosophy. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the Era Pre-Socratic philosophy
heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is
the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to
geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' theorem. He is the Region Western philosophy
first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been
attributed. Ionian / Milesian
School
naturalism
Geometry
Main interests Ethics
Thales was known for his innovative use of geometry. His
understanding was theoretical as well as practical. For example, he metaphysics
said:
mathematics
Megiston topos: apanta gar chorei (Μέγιστον τόπος· ἄπαντα γὰρ
astronomy
χωρεῖ.)
Notable ideas Water is the arche
The greatest is space, for it holds all things.[45]
Topos is in Newtonian-style space, since the verb, chorei, has the Thales' theorem
connotation of yielding before things, or spreading out to make Intercept theorem
room for them, which is extension. Within this extension, things
have a position. Points, lines, planes and solids related
by distances and angles follow from this presumption.
Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that knowledge in practical ways.
The story is told in Diogenes Laërtius (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the
moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right
triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramid's shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that
moment must have been equal to its height.
This story indicates that he was familiar with the Egyptian seked, or seqed, the ratio of the run to the rise of
a slope (cotangent).[citation needed] The seked is at the base of problems 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60 of the Rhind papyrus — an
ancient Egyptian mathematical document.
More practically Thales used the same method to measure the distances of ships at sea, said Eudemus as reported
by Proclus ("in Euclidem"). According to Kirk & Raven (reference cited below), all you need for this feat is three
straight sticks pinned at one end and knowledge of your altitude. One stick goes vertically into the ground. A second
is made level. With the third you sight the ship and calculate the seked from the height of the stick and its distance
from the point of insertion to the line of sight (Proclus, In Euclidem, 352).

THEOREMS
There are two theorems of Thales in elementary geometry, one known as Thales' theorem having to do with a
triangle inscribed in a circle and having the circle's diameter as one leg, the other theorem being also called
the intercept theorem. In addition Eudemus attributed to him the discovery that a circle is bisected by its diameter,
that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and that vertical angles are equal. According to a historical
Note,[46] when Thales visited Egypt,[17] he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they
would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that
all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as: all straight angles are equal, equals
added to equals are equal, and equals subtracted from equals are equal.

"He himself discovered many propositions and disclosed the underlying principles of many others to his successors,
in some case his method being more general, in others more empirical." [19]
Quotes from Proclus list more of Thales' mathematical achievements:
They say that Thales was the first to demonstrate that the circle is bisected by the diameter, the cause of the
bisection being the unimpeded passage of the straight line through the centre. [19]

[Thales] is said to have been the first to have known and to have enunciated [the theorem] that the angles at the
base of any isosceles triangle are equal, though in the more archaic manner he described the equal angles as
similar.[19]

This theorem, that when two straight lines cut one another, the vertical and opposite angles are equal, was first
discovered, as Eudemus says, by Thales, though the scientific demonstration was improved by the writer
of Elements.[19]

Eudemus in his History of Geometry attributes this theorem [the equality of triangles having two angles and one side
equal] to Thales. For he says that the method by which Thales showed how to find the distance of ships at sea
necessarily involves this method.[19]

Pamphila says that, having learnt geometry from the Egyptians, he [Thales] was the first to inscribe in a circle a
right-angled triangle, whereupon he sacrificed an ox.[19]

In addition to Proclus, Hieronymus of Rhodes also cites Thales as the first Greek mathematician. Hieronymus held
that Thales was able to measure the height of the pyramids by using a theorem of geometry now known as
the intercept theorem, (after gathering data by using his walking-stick and comparing its shadow to those cast by the
pyramids). We receive variations of Hieronymus' story through Diogenes Laërtius,[47] Pliny the Elder, and Plutarch.[19]
[48]
 According to Hieronymus, historically quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, Thales found the height of pyramids by
comparison between the lengths of the shadows cast by a person and by the pyramids. [49]
Due to the variations among testimonies, such as the "story of the sacrifice of an ox on the occasion of the
discovery that the angle on a diameter of a circle is a right angle" in the version told by Diogenes Laërtius being
accredited to Pythagoras rather than Thales, some historians (such as D. R. Dicks) question whether such
anecdotes have any historical worth whatsoever.
Pamphila says that, having learnt geometry from the Egyptians, he [Thales] was the first to inscribe in a circle a
right-angled triangle, whereupon he sacrificed an ox.[19]

In addition to Proclus, Hieronymus of Rhodes also cites Thales as the first Greek mathematician. Hieronymus held
that Thales was able to measure the height of the pyramids by using a theorem of geometry now known as
the intercept theorem, (after gathering data by using his walking-stick and comparing its shadow to those cast by the
pyramids). We receive variations of Hieronymus' story through Diogenes Laërtius,[47] Pliny the Elder, and Plutarch.[19]
[48]
 According to Hieronymus, historically quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, Thales found the height of pyramids by
comparison between the lengths of the shadows cast by a person and by the pyramids. [49]
Due to the variations among testimonies, such as the "story of the sacrifice of an ox on the occasion of the
discovery that the angle on a diameter of a circle is a right angle" in the version told by Diogenes Laërtius being
accredited to Pythagoras rather than Thales, some historians (such as D. R. Dicks) question whether such
anecdotes have any historical worth whatsoever.’
INFLUENCES
Due to the scarcity of sources concerning Thales and the discrepancies between the accounts given in the sources
that have survived, there is a scholarly debate over possible influences on Thales and the Greek mathematicians
that came after him. Historian Roger L. Cooke points out that Proclus does not make any mention of Mesopotamian
influence on Thales or Greek geometry, but "is shown clearly in Greek astronomy, in the use of sexagesimal system
of measuring angles and in Ptolemy's explicit use of Mesopotamian astronomical observations."
Historian B.L. Van der Waerden is among those advocating the idea of Mesopotamian influence, writing "It follows
that we have to abandon the traditional belief that the oldest Greek mathematicians discovered geometry entirely by
themselves…a belief that was tenable only as long as nothing was known about Babylonian mathematics. This in no
way diminishes the stature of Thales; on the contrary, his genius receives only now the honour that is due to it, the
honour of having developed a logical structure for geometry, of having introduced proof into geometry."
PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS

Born c. 570 BC

Samos

Died c. 495 BC (aged around 75)

either Croton or Metapontum

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Pythagoreanism

Main Ethics
interests Mathematics

Metaphysics

Music

Mysticism

Politics

Religion

Notable Communalism
ideas
Metempsychosis

Musica universalis
2. Pythagoras of Samos  (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)  was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and the eponymous
[a] [b]

founder of Pythagoreanism. His political and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and
influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, Western philosophy. Knowledge of his life
is clouded by legend, but he appears to have been the son of Mnesarchus, a gem-engraver on the island
of Samos. Modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but they do agree
that, around 530 BC, he travelled to Croton in southern Italy, where he founded a school in which initiates
were sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle.

The teaching most securely identified with Pythagoras is metempsychosis, or the "transmigration of souls", which
holds that every soul is immortal and, upon death, enters into a new body. He may have also devised the doctrine
of musica universalis, which holds that the planets move according to mathematical equations and thus resonate to
produce an inaudible symphony of music. Scholars debate whether Pythagoras developed the numerological and
musical teachings attributed to him, or if those teachings were developed by his later followers, particularly Philolaus
of Croton. Following Croton's decisive victory over Sybaris in around 510 BC, Pythagoras's followers came into
conflict with supporters of democracy and Pythagorean meeting houses were burned. Pythagoras may have been
killed during this persecution, or escaped to Metapontum, where he eventually died.
In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries, including the Pythagorean
theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the five regular solids, the Theory of Proportions, the sphericity of the Earth, and the
identity of the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a
philosopher ("lover of wisdom") [c] and that he was the first to divide the globe into five climatic zones. Pythagorean
ideas on mathematical perfection also impacted ancient Greek art. His teachings underwent a major revival in the
first century BC among Middle Platonists, coinciding with the rise of Neopythagoreanism. Pythagoras continued to
be regarded as a great philosopher throughout the Middle Ages and his philosophy had a major impact on scientists
such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton. Pythagorean symbolism was used throughout
early modern European esotericism, and his teachings as portrayed in Ovid's Metamorphoses influenced the
modern vegetarian movement.

No authentic writings of Pythagoras have survived, [5][6][7] and almost nothing is known for certain about his life.

METEMPSYCHOSIS

Although the exact details of Pythagoras's teachings are uncertain, [94][95] it is possible to reconstruct a general outline
of his main ideas.[94][96] Aristotle writes at length about the teachings of the Pythagoreans, [97][16] but without mentioning
Pythagoras directly.[97][16] One of Pythagoras's main doctrines appears to have been metempsychosis,[98][99][68][100][101]
[102]
 the belief that all souls are immortal and that, after death, a soul is transferred into a new body. [98][101] This teaching
is referenced by Xenophanes, Ion of Chios, and Herodotus. [103][98] Nothing whatsoever, however, is known about the
nature or mechanism by which Pythagoras believed metempsychosis to occur. [104]

Mysticism
Another belief attributed to Pythagoras was that of the "harmony of the spheres",[113][114] which maintained that the
planets and stars move according to mathematical equations, which correspond to musical notes and thus produce
an inaudible symphony.
Pythagoras was said to have practiced divination and prophecy.[117] In the visits to various places in Greece—
Delos, Sparta, Phlius, Crete, etc.—which are ascribed to him, he usually appears either in his religious or priestly
guise, or else as a lawgiver.

NUMEROLOGY

According to Aristotle, the Pythagoreans used mathematics for solely mystical reasons, devoid of practical
application.[123] They believed that all things were made of numbers.[124][125] The number one (the monad) represented
the origin of all things[126] and the number two (the dyad) represented matter.[126] The number three was an "ideal
number" because it had a beginning, middle, and end[127] and was the smallest number of points that could be used
to define a plane triangle, which they revered as a symbol of the god Apollo.[127] The number four signified the four
seasons and the four elements.[128] The number seven was also sacred because it was the number of planets and
the number of strings on a lyre,[128] and because Apollo's birthday was celebrated on the seventh day of each month.
[128]
 They believed that odd numbers were masculine,[129] that even numbers were feminine,[129] and that the number
five represented marriage, because it was the sum of two and three. [130][131]
Ten was regarded as the "perfect number"[123] and the Pythagoreans honored it by never gathering in groups larger
than ten.[132] Pythagoras was credited with devising the tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows which add up to
the perfect number, ten.[119][120] The Pythagoreans regarded the tetractys as a symbol of utmost mystical importance.
[119][121][120]
 Iamblichus, in his Life of Pythagoras, states that the tetractys was "so admirable, and so divinised by those
who understood [it]," that Pythagoras's students would swear oaths by it. [133][93][121][120] Andrew Gregory concludes that
the tradition linking Pythagoras to the tetractys is probably genuine. [134]
Modern scholars debate whether these numerological teachings were developed by Pythagoras himself or by the
later Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus of Croton.[135] In his landmark study Lore and Science in Ancient
Pythagoreanism, Walter Burkert argues that Pythagoras was a charismatic political and religious teacher, [136] but that
the number philosophy attributed to him was really an innovation by Philolaus. [137] According to Burkert, Pythagoras
never dealt with numbers at all, let alone made any noteworthy contribution to mathematics. [136] Burkert argues that
the only mathematics the Pythagoreans ever actually engaged in was simple, proofless arithmetic,[138] but that these
arithmetic discoveries did contribute significantly to the beginnings of mathematics.
The so-called Pythagoreans, who were the first to take up mathematics, not only advanced this subject, but
saturated with it, they fancied that the principles of mathematics were the principles of all things.

— Aristotle, Metaphysics 1–5, c. 350 BC

ATTRIBUTED DISCOVERIES

Although Pythagoras is most famous today for his alleged mathematical discoveries, [122][196] classical historians
dispute whether he himself ever actually made any significant contributions to the field. [138][136] Many mathematical and
scientific discoveries were attributed to Pythagoras, including his famous theorem,[197] as well as discoveries in the
fields of music,[198] astronomy,[199] and medicine.

IN MATHEMATICS

Since at least the first century BC, Pythagoras has commonly been given credit for discovering the Pythagorean
theorem,[201][202] a theorem in geometry that states that "in a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is
equal [to the sum of] the squares of the two other sides" [203]—that is,a 2+b 2=c 2 . According to a popular legend, after
he discovered this theorem, Pythagoras sacrificed an ox, or possibly even a whole hecatomb, to the gods.[203]
[204]
 Cicero rejected this story as spurious [203] because of the much more widely held belief that Pythagoras forbade
blood sacrifices.[203] Porphyry attempted to explain the story by asserting that the ox was actually made of dough.[203]
The Pythagorean theorem was known and used by the Babylonians and Indians centuries before Pythagoras, [205][203]
[206][207]
 but it is possible that he may have been the first one to introduce it to the Greeks. [208][206] Some historians of
mathematics have even suggested that he—or his students—may have constructed the first proof.[209] Burkert rejects
this suggestion as implausible, [208] noting that Pythagoras was never credited with having proved any theorem in
antiquity.[208] Furthermore, the manner in which the Babylonians employed Pythagorean numbers implies that they
knew that the principle was generally applicable, and knew some kind of proof, which has not yet been found in the
(still largely unpublished) cuneiform sources.[f] Pythagoras's biographers state that he also was the first to identify
the five regular solids[122] and that he was the first to discover the Theory of Proportions.
IN MUSIC
According to legend, Pythagoras discovered that musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations
when he passed blacksmiths at work one day and heard the sound of their hammers clanging against the anvils.[210]
[211]
 Thinking that the sounds of the hammers were beautiful
and harmonious, except for one, [212] he rushed into
Born c. 495 BC
the blacksmith shop and began testing the hammers. [212] He
then realized that the tune played when the hammer struck
Elea
was directly proportional to the size of the hammer and
therefore concluded that music was mathematical. [212]

[211]
 However, this legend is demonstrably false,[213][121][211] as
Died c. 430 BC (aged around 65)
these ratios are only relevant to string length (such as the
string of a monochord), and not to hammer weight. Elea or Syracuse
IN ASTRONOMY
In ancient times, Pythagoras and his Era Pre-Socratic philosophy
contemporary Parmenides of Elea were both credited with
having been the first to teach that the Earth was spherical,
[214]
 the first to divide the globe into five climactic zones, Region Western philosophy
[214]
 and the first to identify the morning star and the evening
star as the same celestial object (now known as Venus).
School Eleatic school
3. ZENO OF ELEA

Main interests Metaphysics, Ontology

Notable ideas Zeno's paradoxes

Zeno of Elea (/ˈziːnoʊ ... ˈɛliə/; Greek: Ζήνων ὁ Ἐλεάτης; c. 495 – c. 430 BC[1]) was a pre-
Socratic Greek philosopher of Magna Graecia and a member of the Eleatic School founded
by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of the dialectic.[2] He is best known for his paradoxes,
which Bertrand Russell described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".
WORKS--
Although many ancient writers refer to the writings of Zeno, none of his works survive intact. The main sources on
the nature of Zeno's arguments on motion, in fact, come from the writings of Aristotle and Simplicius of Cilicia.[17]
Plato says that Zeno's writings were "brought to Athens for the first time on the occasion of" the visit of Zeno and
Parmenides.[6] Plato also has Zeno say that this work "meant to protect the arguments of Parmenides", [6] was written
in Zeno's youth, stolen, and published without his consent. [6]
According to Proclus in his Commentary on Plato's Parmenides, Zeno produced "not less than forty arguments
revealing contradictions",[18] but only nine are now known.
Zeno's book of forty paradoxes was, according to Plato [8]:-
... a youthful effort, and it was stolen by someone, so that the author had no opportunity of
considering whether to publish it or not. Its object was to defend the system of Parmenides by
attacking the common conceptions of things.
Proclus also described the work and confirms that [1]:-
... Zeno elaborated forty different paradoxes following from the assumption of plurality and
motion, all of them apparently based on the difficulties deriving from an analysis of the continuum.
In his arguments against the idea that the world contains more than one thing, Zeno derived his
paradoxes from the assumption that if a magnitude can be divided then it can be divided infinitely
often. Zeno also assumes that a thing which has no magnitude cannot exist. Simplicius, the last
head of Plato's Academy in Athens, preserved many fragments of earlier authors including
Parmenides and Zeno. Writing in the first half of the sixth century he explained Zeno's argument
why something without magnitude could not exist [1]:-
For if it is added to something else, it will not make it bigger, and if it is subtracted, it will not
make it smaller. But if it does not make a thing bigger when added to it nor smaller when
subtracted from it, then it appears obvious that what was added or subtracted was nothing.
Although Zeno's argument is not totally convincing at least, as Makin writes in [25]:-
Zeno's challenge to simple pluralism is successful, in that he forces anti-Parmenideans to go
beyond common sense.
There is no motion because that which is moved must arrive at the middle of its course before it
arrives at the end.
In order the traverse a line segment it is necessary to reach its midpoint. To do this one must reach
the ¼  point, to do this one must reach the 1/8  point and so on ad infinitum. Hence motion can
never begin. The argument here is not answered by the well known infinite sum-
½ + ¼ + 1/8 +…. = 1
On the one hand Zeno can argue that the sum ½ + ¼ + 1/8 +…. never actually reaches 1, but more
perplexing to the human mind is the attempts to sum ½ + ¼ + 1/8 +…. backwards. Before traversing a unit distance
we must get to the middle, but before getting to the middle we must get ¼ of the way, but before we get ¼
of the way, we must reach 1/8 of the way etc.  This argument makes us realise that we can
never get started since we are trying to build up this infinite sum from the "wrong" end. Indeed
this is a clever argument which still puzzles the human mind today.
The most famous of Zeno's arguments is undoubtedly the Achilles. Heath's translation
from Aristotle's Physics is:-
... the slower when running will never be overtaken by the quicker; for that which is pursuing must
first reach the point from which that which is fleeing started, so that the slower must necessarily
always be some distance ahead.
Most authors, starting with Aristotle, see this paradox to be essentially the same as the Dichotomy.
Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called reductio ad absurdum, literally
meaning to reduce to the absurd. Parmenides is said[citation needed] to be the first individual to implement this style of
argument. This form of argument soon became known as the epicheirema. In Book VII of his Topics, Aristotle says
that an epicheirema is "a dialectical syllogism". It is a connected piece of reasoning which an opponent has put
forward as true. The disputant sets out to break down the dialectical syllogism.
Zeno is also regarded as the first philosopher who dealt with the earliest attestable accounts of mathematical infinity.
PARADOXES OF ZENO
Zeno's paradoxes have puzzled, challenged, influenced, inspired, infuriated, and amused philosophers,
mathematicians, and physicists for over two millennia. The most famous are the arguments against motion
described by Aristotle in his Physics, Book VI.[22] They are  designed
to show that any assertion
opposite to the monistic teaching of Parmenides leads to contradiction and
absurdity. Parmenides had argued from reason alone that the assertion that
only Being is leads to the conclusions that Being (or all that there is) is (1) one
and (2) motionless. The opposite assertions, then, would be that instead of only
the One Being, many real entities in fact are, and that they are in motion (or
could be). Zeno thus wished to reduce to absurdity the two claims, (1) that the
many are and (2) that motion is.

 Aristotle, on the other hand, gave capsule statements of Zeno’s arguments on

motion; and these, the famous and controversial paradoxes, generally go by
names extracted from Aristotle’s account: the Achilles (or Achilles and the
tortoise), the dichotomy, the arrow, and the stadium.

The Achilles paradox is designed to prove that the slower mover will never be
passed by the swifter in a race. The dichotomy paradox is designed to prove that
an object never reaches the end. Any moving object must reach halfway on a
course before it reaches the end; and because there are an infinite number of
halfway points, a moving object never reaches the end in a finite time. The arrow
paradox endeavours to prove that a moving object is actually at rest. The stadium
paradox tries to prove that, of two sets of objects traveling at the same velocity,
one will travel twice as far as the other in the same time.

If, in each case, the conclusion seems necessary but absurd, it serves to bring
the premise (that motion exists or is real) into disrepute, and it suggests that the
contradictory premise, that motion does not exist, is true; and indeed, the reality
of motion is precisely what Parmenides denied.
 

Achilles and the tortoise

 

The dichotomy
 

The arrow
 

The moving rows

 4. EUCLID of alexandria
Euclid (/ˈjuːklɪd/; Ancient Greek: Εὐκλείδης – Eukleídēs, pronounced [eu̯.kleː.dɛːs]; fl. 300 BC), sometimes
called Euclid of Alexandria[1] to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often
referred to as the "founder of geometry"[1] or the "father of geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the
reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of
mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of
its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century.[2][3][4] In the Elements, Euclid deduced the theorems of
what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works
on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour.
The English name Euclid is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης, which means "renowned,
glorious".
ELEMENTS
Although many of the results in Elements originated with
earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was Born Mid-4th century BC
to present them in a single, logically coherent framework,
making it easy to use and easy to reference, including a
Died Mid-3rd century BC
system of rigorous mathematical proofs that remains the
basis of mathematics 23 centuries later. [17]
Euclidean geometry
There is no mention of Euclid in the earliest remaining copies Known for
of the Elements. Euclid's Elements

Proclus provides the only reference ascribing the Elements to Euclidean algorithm

Euclid.
List of topics named after Euclid
Although best known for its geometric results,
the Elements also includes number theory. It considers the Scientific career
connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne
primes (known as the Euclid–Euler theorem), the infinitude of Fields Mathematics
prime numbers, Euclid's lemma on factorization (which leads
to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic on uniqueness of prime factorizations), and the Euclidean algorithm for
finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.
The geometrical system described in the Elements was long known simply as geometry, and was considered to be
the only geometry possible. Today, however, that system is often referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it
from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries discovered in the 19th century.
FRAGMENTS
The Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29 (P. Oxy. 29) is a fragment of the second book of the Elements of Euclid, unearthed
by Grenfell and Hunt 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. More recent scholarship suggests a date of 75–125 AD.[19]
The fragment contains the statement of the 5th proposition of Book 2, which in the translation of T. L. Heath reads:[20]
If a straight line be cut into equal and unequal segments, the rectangle contained by the unequal segments of the
whole together with the square on the straight line between the points of section is equal to the square on the half.

OTHER WORKS
In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same
logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions.

 Data deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems; the subject
matter is closely related to the first four books of the Elements.
 On Divisions of Figures, which survives only partially in Arabic translation, concerns the division of
geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios. It is similar to a first-century AD
work by Heron of Alexandria.
 Catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and
spherical concave mirrors. The attribution is held to be anachronistic however by J J O'Connor and E F
Robertson who name Theon of Alexandria as a more likely author.[21]
 Phaenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is quite similar to On the Moving
Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC.

 Optics is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective. In its definitions Euclid follows the Platonic
tradition that vision is caused by discrete rays which emanate from the eye. One important definition is the
fourth: "Things seen under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less, while those
under equal angles appear equal." In the 36 propositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an
object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed
from different angles. Proposition 45 is interesting, proving that for any two unequal magnitudes, there is a point
from which the two appear equal.
Lost works
Other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost.

 Conics was a work on conic sections that was later extended by Apollonius of Perga into his famous work on
the subject. It is likely that the first four books of Apollonius's work come directly from Euclid. According to
Pappus, "Apollonius, having completed Euclid's four books of conics and added four others, handed down eight
volumes of conics." The Conics of Apollonius quickly supplanted the former work, and by the time of Pappus,
Euclid's work was already lost.
 Porisms might have been an outgrowth of Euclid's work with conic sections, but the exact meaning of the
title is controversial.
 Pseudaria, or Book of Fallacies, was an elementary text about errors in reasoning.
 Surface Loci concerned either loci (sets of points) on surfaces or loci which were themselves surfaces;
under the latter interpretation, it has been hypothesized that the work might have dealt with quadric surfaces.
 Several works on mechanics are attributed to Euclid by Arabic sources. On the Heavy and the
Light contains, in nine definitions and five propositions, Aristotelian notions of moving bodies and the concept of
specific gravity. On the Balance treats the theory of the lever in a similarly Euclidean manner, containing one
definition, two axioms, and four propositions. A third fragment, on the circles described by the ends of a moving
lever, contains four propositions. These three works complement each other in such a way that it has been
suggested that they are remnants of a single treatise on mechanics written by Euclid.
 5. ARCHIMEDES
Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/;[2] Ancient Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης Arkhimḗdēs; Doric
Greek: [ar.kʰi.mɛː.dɛ̂ːs]; c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor,
and astronomer.[3] Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the
leading scientists in classical antiquity. Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of
the greatest of all time,[4][5][6][7][8][9] Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts
of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems,
including the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an ellipse, the area under
a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of
revolution, and the area of a spiral.[10][11]
Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi, defining and
investigating the spiral bearing his name, and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very
large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena,
founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with
designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to
protect his native Syracuse from invasion.
Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he
should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which was surmounted by
a sphere and a cylinder, which Archimedes had requested be placed on his tomb to represent his mathematical
discoveries.
Unlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity.
MATHEMATICS
 Archimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through proof by
contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy,
while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion,
and he employed it to approximate the value of π. In Measurement of a Circle he did this by drawing a
larger regular hexagon outside a circle and a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively
doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each
step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such
steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 1/7
(approximately 3.1429) and 310/71  (approximately 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately
3.1416.[58] He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the
circle (πr2). In On the Sphere and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself
enough times will exceed any given magnitude. This is the Archimedean property of real numbers.
In Measurement of a Circle, Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying
between 265/153  (approximately 1.7320261) and 1351/780  (approximately 1.7320512). The actual value is
approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any
explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he
was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the
secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results." [60] It is possible that he
used an iterative procedure to calculate these values.[61]
In The Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line
is 4/3  times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution
to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio 1/4 :
∞

∑ 4−n=1+ 4−1 + 4−2+ 4−3+ …= 43

n=0

If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles
whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64
+ 1/256 + · · · which sums to 1/3 .
In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could
contain. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He
wrote: "There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the sand is infinite in
multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that
which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited." To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a
system of counting based on the myriad. The word is from the Greek μυριάς murias, for the number 10,000. He
proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million) and concluded that the number of
grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8×1063 .
Apocryphal works
Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles.
The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. The scholars T.L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot
have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another
author. The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost. [74]
It has also been claimed that Heron's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was
known to Archimedes.[c] However, the first reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st
century AD.
The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid, and seven of his treatises are known to
have existed only through references made to them by other authors.
Surviving works

 On the Equilibrium of Planes (two volumes)

The first book is in fifteen propositions with seven postulates, while the second book is in ten propositions. In
this work Archimedes explains the Law of the Lever, stating, "Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances
reciprocally proportional to their weights."
Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric
figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.[66]

 On the Measurement of a Circle

This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with
Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes gives
an approximation of the value of pi (π), showing that it is greater than 223/71  and less than 22/7 .

 On Spirals
This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called
the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving
away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity.
Equivalently, in polar coordinates (r, θ) it can be described by the equation
r = a + bθ
with real numbers a and b. This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a
moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician.

 On the Sphere and the Cylinder (two volumes)

In this treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely
the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The
volume is 4/3 πr3 for the sphere, and 2πr3 for the cylinder. The surface area is 4πr2 for the sphere, and
6πr2 for the cylinder (including its two bases), where r is the radius of the sphere and cylinder. The sphere
has a volume two-thirds that of the circumscribed cylinder. Similarly, the sphere has an area two-thirds that
of the cylinder (including the bases). A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes
at his request.

 On Conoids and Spheroids

 This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas
and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids.

 The Quadrature of the Parabola

In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area
enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and
height. He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1/4 .

 (O)stomachion
This is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete
form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be
assembled to form a square. Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued
that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the
shape of a square. Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways. [67] The
number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been
excluded.[68] The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics.
The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient
Greek word for throat or gullet, stomachos (στόμαχος).
[69]
 Ausonius refers to the puzzle as Ostomachion, a
Greek compound word formed from the roots Born 476 CE
of ὀστέον (osteon, bone) and μάχη (machē, fight). The
puzzle is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or Kusumapura (Pataliputra) (present-day Patna,
Archimedes' Box.[70]
India)
[1]

 Archimedes' cattle problem

This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Died 550 CE[citation needed]
Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of
44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel,
Germany in 1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and Academic background
the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes
challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in
the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of Influences Surya Siddhanta
simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more
difficult version of the problem in which some of the
answers are required to be square numbers. This Academic work
version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor [71] in
1880, and the answer is a very large number,
approximately 7.760271×10206544.[72] Era Gupta era

 The Sand Reckoner Main Mathematics, astronomy

In this treatise, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand
that will fit inside the universe. This book mentions interests
the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed
by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about
Notable Āryabhaṭīya, Arya-siddhanta
the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial
bodies. By using a system of numbers based on powers of works
the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of
sand required to fill the universe is 8×10 63 in modern notation.
The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an Notable Explanation of lunar eclipse and solar
astronomer named Phidias. The Sand ideas eclipse, rotation of Earth on its axis, reflection of
Reckoner or Psammites is the only surviving work in which
Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy.[73] light by moon, sinusoidal functions, solution of

single variable quadratic equation, value of π

 The Method of Mechanical Theorems
correct to 4 decimal places, diameter of Earth,

calculation of the length of sidereal year

Influenced Lalla, Bhaskara I, Brahmagupta, Varahamihira

 This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work
Archimedes uses infinitesimals, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small
parts can be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in
formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As with The Cattle
Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes
in Alexandria.
6. Aryabhata

Aryabhata (Sanskrit: आर्यभट, ISO: Āryabhaṭa) or Aryabhata I[2][3] (476–550 CE)[4][5] was the first of the

major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works
include the Āryabhaṭīya (which mentions that in 3600 Kaliyuga, 499 CE, he was 23 years old)[6] and the Arya-
siddhanta.
For his explicit mention of the relativity of motion, he also qualifies as a major early physicist.

Time and place of birth

Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that he was 23 years old 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga, but this is not to
mean that the text was composed at that time. This mentioned year corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was
born in 476.[5] Aryabhata called himself a native of Kusumapura or Pataliputra (present day Patna, Bihar).
WORKS
Aryabhata is the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy, some of which are lost.
His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was extensively referred to in the
Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The mathematical part of
the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry, and spherical trigonometry. It also
contains continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-power series, and a table of sines.
 The text consists of the 108 verses and 13 introductory verses, and is divided into four pādas or chapters:

1. Gitikapada: (13 verses): large units of time—kalpa, manvantra, and yuga—which present a cosmology

different from earlier texts such as Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha (c. 1st century BCE). There is also a table
of sines (jya), given in a single verse. The duration of the planetary revolutions during a mahayuga is given
as 4.32 million years.
2. Ganitapada (33 verses): covering mensuration (kṣetra vyāvahāra), arithmetic and geometric
progressions, gnomon / shadows (shanku-chhAyA), simple, quadratic, simultaneous,
and indeterminate equations (kuṭṭaka).
3. Kalakriyapada (25 verses): different units of time and a method for determining the positions of planets for a
given day, calculations concerning the intercalary month (adhikamAsa), kShaya-tithis, and a seven-day
week with names for the days of week.
4. Golapada (50 verses): Geometric/trigonometric aspects of the celestial sphere, features of
the ecliptic, celestial equator, node, shape of the earth, cause of day and night, rising of zodiacal signs on
horizon, etc. In addition, some versions cite a few colophons added at the end, extolling the virtues of the
work, etc.

Mathematics
Place value system and zero
The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd-century Bakhshali Manuscript, was clearly in place in his work. While
he did not use a symbol for zero, the French mathematician Georges Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was
implicit in Aryabhata's place-value system as a place holder for the powers of ten with null coefficients.[15]
However, Aryabhata did not use the Brahmi numerals. Continuing the Sanskritic tradition from Vedic times, he used
letters of the alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities, such as the table of sines in a mnemonic form.[16]
Approximation of π
Aryabhata worked on the approximation for pi (π), and may have come to the conclusion that π is irrational. In the
second part of the Aryabhatiyam (gaṇitapāda 10), he writes:
caturadhikaṃ śatamaṣṭaguṇaṃ dvāṣaṣṭistathā sahasrāṇām
ayutadvayaviṣkambhasyāsanno vṛttapariṇāhaḥ.
"Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle with a diameter of
20,000 can be approached."[17]
This implies that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is ((4 + 100) × 8 + 62000)/20000 = 62832/20000
= 3.1416, which is accurate to five significant figures.[18]
It is speculated that Aryabhata used the word āsanna (approaching), to mean that not only is this an approximation
but that the value is incommensurable (or irrational). If this is correct, it is quite a sophisticated insight, because the
irrationality of pi (π) was proved in Europe only in 1761 by Lambert.[19]
After Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic (c. 820 CE) this approximation was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's book
on algebra.[

Trigonometry
In Ganitapada 6, Aryabhata gives the area of a triangle as
tribhujasya phalaśarīraṃ samadalakoṭī bhujārdhasaṃvargaḥ
that translates to: "for a triangle, the result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the area." [20]
Aryabhata discussed the concept of sine in his work by the name of ardha-jya, which literally means "half-
chord". For simplicity, people started calling it jya. When Arabic writers translated his works from Sanskrit into
Arabic, they referred it as jiba. However, in Arabic writings, vowels are omitted, and it was abbreviated as jb.
Later writers substituted it with jaib, meaning "pocket" or "fold (in a garment)". (In Arabic, jiba is a meaningless
word.) Later in the 12th century, when Gherardo of Cremona translated these writings from Arabic into Latin, he
replaced the Arabic jaib with its Latin counterpart, sinus, which means "cove" or "bay"; thence comes the
English word sine.[21]

Indeterminate equations
A problem of great interest to Indian mathematicians since ancient times has been to find integer solutions
to Diophantine equations that have the form ax + by = c. (This problem was also studied in ancient Chinese
mathematics, and its solution is usually referred to as the Chinese remainder theorem.) This is an example
from Bhāskara's commentary on Aryabhatiya:
Find the number which gives 5 as the remainder when divided by 8, 4 as the remainder when divided by 9,
and 1 as the remainder when divided by 7
That is, find N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. In general, diophantine
equations, such as this, can be notoriously difficult. They were discussed extensively in ancient Vedic
text Sulba Sutras, whose more ancient parts might date to 800 BCE. Aryabhata's method of solving such
problems, elaborated by Bhaskara in 621 CE, is called the kuṭṭaka (कुट्टक) method. Kuṭṭaka means
"pulverizing" or "breaking into small pieces", and the method involves a recursive algorithm for writing the
original factors in smaller numbers. This algorithm became the standard method for solving first-order
diophantine equations in Indian mathematics, and initially the whole subject of algebra was called kuṭṭaka-
gaṇita or simply kuṭṭaka.[22]

Algebra
In Aryabhatiya, Aryabhata provided elegant results for the summation of series of squares and cubes:
 n (n+1)(2 n+1)
12 +22+ …+n2 =
6

13 +23 +…+n 3=(1+2+ …+n)2

Aryabhata's work was of great influence in the Indian astronomical tradition and influenced several neighbouring
cultures through translations. The Arabic translation during the Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE), was particularly
influential. Some of his results are cited by Al-Khwarizmi and in the 10th century Al-Biruni stated that Aryabhata's
followers believed that the Earth rotated on its axis.
His definitions of sine (jya), cosine (kojya), versine (utkrama-jya), and inverse sine (otkram jya) influenced the birth
of trigonometry. He was also the first to specify sine and versine (1 − cos x) tables, in 3.75° intervals from 0° to 90°,
to an accuracy of 4 decimal places.
In fact, modern names "sine" and "cosine" are mistranscriptions of the words jya and kojya as introduced by
Aryabhata. As mentioned, they were translated as jiba and kojiba in Arabic and then misunderstood by Gerard of
Cremona while translating an Arabic geometry text to Latin. He assumed that jiba was the Arabic word jaib, which
means "fold in a garment", L. sinus (c. 1150).[41]
Aryabhata's astronomical calculation methods were also very influential. Along with the trigonometric tables, they
came to be widely used in the Islamic world and used to compute many Arabic astronomical tables (zijes).
Aryabhatta Knowledge University (AKU), Patna has been established by Government of Bihar for the development
and management of educational infrastructure related to technical, medical, management and allied professional
education in his honour. The university is governed by Bihar State University Act 2008. The inter-school Aryabhata
Maths Competition is also named after him.
7. AL-KHWARIZMI
7. Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī[note 1] (Persian: Muḥammad Khwārizmī ‫;محمد بن موسی خوارزمی‬ c. 
780 – c. 850), Arabized as al-Khwarizmi with al- and formerly Latinized as Algorithmi, was a Persian[3]
[4][5]
 polymath who produced works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography. Around 820 CE he
was appointed as the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.[6]:14
Al-Khwarizmi's popularizing treatise on algebra (The
Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Born c. 780
Balancing, c. 813–833 CE[7]:171) presented the first systematic
solution of linear and quadratic equations. One of his principal Khwarezm[1]
achievements in algebra was his demonstration of how to
solve quadratic equations by completing the square, for which
he provided geometric justifications.[6]:14 Because he was the Died c. 850
first to treat algebra as an independent discipline and
introduced the methods of "reduction" and "balancing" (the
transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an Academic work
equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite
sides of the equation),[8] he has been described as the father[3]
[9][10]
 or founder[11][12] of algebra. The term algebra itself comes Era Medieval era (Islamic Golden Age)
from the title of his book (specifically the word al-jabr meaning
"completion" or "rejoining").[13] His name gave rise to the
Main Mathematics, Geography, Astronomy
terms algorism and algorithm.[14] His name is also the origin of
(Spanish) guarismo[15] and of (Portuguese) algarismo, both interests
meaning digit.
In the 12th century, Latin translations of his textbook on
Notable The Compendious Book on Calculation by
arithmetic (Algorithmo de Numero Indorum) which codified the
various Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional works Completion and Balancing, Book of the Description
number system to the Western world.[16] The Compendious of the Earth, Astronomical tables of Siddhanta
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, translated
into Latin by Robert of Chester in 1145, was used until the
sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text-book Notable Treatises on algebra and Indian numerals
of European universities.
ideas

Influenced Abu Kamil

  He also made important contributions to trigonometry, producing accurate sine and cosine tables, and the
first table of tangents.

CONTRIBUTIONS-
Al-Khwārizmī's contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for
innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led
to algebra, a word derived from the title of his book on the subject, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by
Completion and Balancing".[28]
On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals written about 820, was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–
Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero
Indorum. Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) Algoritmi, led to the term "algorithm".
Some of his work was based on Persian and Babylonian astronomy, Indian numbers, and Greek mathematics.
When, in the 12th century, his works spread to Europe through Latin translations, it had a profound impact on the
advance of mathematics in Europe.
ALGEBRA
The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing (Arabic: ‫الكتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة‬ al-
Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wal-muqābala) is a mathematical book written approximately 820 CE. The book
was written with the encouragement of Caliph al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is replete with
examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and legal inheritance. [30] The term
"algebra" is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations (al-jabr, meaning "restoration",
referring to adding a number to both sides of the equation to consolidate or cancel terms) described in this book.
It provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, [32] and discussed the
fundamental methods of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of terms to the other side of an
equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. [33]
Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six
standard forms (where b and c are positive integers)
 squares equal roots (ax2 = bx)

 squares equal number (ax2 = c)

 roots equal number (bx = c)
 squares and roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c)
 squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx)
 roots and number equal squares (bx + c = ax2)
 by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations al-jabr (Arabic: ‫" الجبر‬restoring" or
"completion") and al-muqābala ("balancing"). Al-jabr is the process of removing negative units, roots and
squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to each side. For example, x2 = 40x − 4x2 is reduced
to 5x2 = 40x. Al-muqābala is the process of bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the
equation. For example, x2 + 14 = x + 5 is reduced to x2 + 9 = x.
 The above discussion uses modern mathematical notation for the types of problems that the book
discusses. However, in al-Khwārizmī's day, most of this notation had not yet been invented, so he had to
use ordinary text to present problems and their solutions. For example, for one problem he writes, (from an
1831 translation)
 If some one says: "You divide ten into two parts: multiply the one by itself; it will be equal to the other taken
eighty-one times." Computation: You say, ten less a thing, multiplied by itself, is a hundred plus a square
less twenty things, and this is equal to eighty-one things. Separate the twenty things from a hundred and a
square, and add them to eighty-one. It will then be a hundred plus a square, which is equal to a hundred and
one roots. Halve the roots; the moiety is fifty and a half. Multiply this by itself, it is two thousand five hundred
and fifty and a quarter. Subtract from this one hundred; the remainder is two thousand four hundred and fifty
and a quarter. Extract the root from this; it is forty-nine and a half. Subtract this from the moiety of the roots,
which is fifty and a half. There remains one, and this is one of the two parts. [30]
 In modern notation this process, with x the "thing" (‫شيء‬ shayʾ) or "root", is given by the steps,
 ( 10− x )2=81 x

100+ x 2−20 x=81 x

x 2+ 100=101 x

p+ q 1
Let the roots of the equation be x = p and x = q. Then = 50 , pq=100 and
2 2
( p+ q) 2 1 1
p−q
2
=
√2 √
−pq = 2550 – 100= 49 2
4

So a root is given by
1 1
x=50 −49 =1
2 2
Perhaps one of the most significant advances made by Arabic mathematics began at this time with the work
of al-Khwarizmi, namely the beginnings of algebra. It is important to understand just how significant this new
idea was. It was a revolutionary move away from the Greek concept of mathematics which was essentially
geometry. Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical
magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave mathematics a whole new development
path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future
development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it
allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.
Al-Khwarizmi's text can be seen to be distinct not only from the Babylonian tablets, but also
from Diophantus' Arithmetica. It no longer concerns a series of problems to be solved, but
an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes
for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study. On the other hand, the idea
of an equation for its own sake appears from the beginning and, one could say, in a generic manner, insofar
as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an
infinite class of problems.
According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khowarizmi represented a
retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the
Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khowarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the
syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in
words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must
have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-
Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers. Nevertheless, the Al-
jabr comes closer to the elementary algebra of today than the works of either Diophantus or Brahmagupta,
because the book is not concerned with difficult problems in indeterminant analysis but with a straight
forward and elementary exposition of the solution of equations, especially that of second degree. The Arabs
in general loved a good clear argument from premise to conclusion, as well as systematic organization –
respects in which neither Diophantus nor the Hindus excelled.

ARITHMETIC
Al-Khwārizmī's second most influential work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in Latin translations but
lost in the original Arabic. His writings include the text kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ('Book of Indian computation' [note 2]), and
perhaps a more elementary text, kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ('Addition and subtraction in Indian
arithmetic').[39][40] These texts described algorithms on decimal numbers (Hindu–Arabic numerals) that could be
carried out on a dust board. Called takht in Arabic (Latin: tabula), a board covered with a thin layer of dust or sand
was employed for calculations, on which figures could be written with a stylus and easily erased and replaced when
necessary. Al-Khwarizmi's algorithms were used for almost three centuries, until replaced by Al-Uqlidisi's algorithms
that could be carried out with pen and paper. [41]
As part of 12th century wave of Arabic science flowing into Europe via translations, these texts proved to be
revolutionary in Europe.[42] Al-Khwarizmi's Latinized name, Algorismus, turned into the name of method used for
computations, and survives in the modern term "algorithm". It gradually replaced the previous abacus-based
methods used in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi's work on arithmetic was responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals, based on the Hindu–
Arabic numeral system developed in Indian mathematics, to the Western world.

TRIGONOMETRY
Al-Khwārizmī's Zīj al-Sindhind also contained tables for the trigonometric functions of sines and cosine.[47] A related
treatise on spherical trigonometry is also attributed to him.[34]
Al-Khwārizmī produced accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents.
8. BHASKARA II
 Bhāskara (1114–1185) also known as Bhāskarācārya ("Bhāskara, the teacher"), and as Bhāskara II to
avoid confusion with Bhāskara I, was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was born
in Bijapur in Karnataka.[1]
 Bhāskara and his works represent a significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical knowledge in
the 12th century. He has been called the greatest mathematician of medieval India. [2] His main
work Siddhānta-Śiromani, (Sanskrit for "Crown of Treatises")[3] is divided into four parts
called Līlāvatī, Bījagaṇita, Grahagaṇita and Golādhyāya,[4] which are also sometimes considered four
independent works.[5] These four sections deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and
spheres respectively. He also wrote another treatise named Karaṇā Kautūhala. [5]
 Bhāskara's work on calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by over half a millennium.[6][7] He is particularly
known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems
and computations. While Newton and Leibniz have been credited with differential and integral calculus, there
is strong evidence to suggest that Bhāskara was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus.
He was perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus. [8]
 On 20 November 1981 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched the Bhaskara II
satellite honouring the mathematician and astronomer.

Born c. 1114 AD

Bijjaragi, Karnataka

Died c. 1185 AD

Chalisgaon (Patnadevi)

Other names Bhāskarācārya

Academic work

Era Shaka era

Discipline Mathematician

Main interests Algebra, Calculus, Arithmetic, Trigonometry

 Notable works Siddhanta-Śiromani, Karaṇa-Kautūhala

The Siddhānta-Śiromani
Līlāvatī
The first section Līlāvatī (also known as pāṭīgaṇita or aṅkagaṇita), named after his daughter, consists of 277 verses.
[5]
 It covers calculations, progressions, measurement, permutations, and other topics.[5]

Bijaganita
The second section Bījagaṇita(Algebra) has 213 verses.[5] It discusses zero, infinity, positive and negative numbers,
and indeterminate equations including (the now called) Pell's equation, solving it using a kuṭṭaka method.[5] In
❑ 61 x2 +1= y 2
particular, he also solved the     case that was to elude Fermat and his European contemporaries
❑
centuries later.[5]

Grahaganita[edit]
In the third section Grahagaṇita, while treating the motion of planets, he considered their instantaneous speeds. [5] He
arrived at the approximation:[12]

sin y ' −sin y ≈ ( y ' − y ) cos y  for y’ close to y , or in modern notation:
d
sin y=cos y
dy
In his words:[12]
bimbārdhasya koṭijyā guṇastrijyāhāraḥ phalaṃ dorjyāyorantaram

This result had also been observed earlier by Muñjalācārya (or Mañjulācārya) in 932, in his astronomical
work Laghu-mānasam, in the context of a table of sines.[12]
Bhāskara also stated that at its highest point a planet's instantaneous speed is zero.
MATHEMATICS

Mathematics
Some of Bhaskara's contributions to mathematics include the following:

 A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways and then cancelling
out terms to get a2 + b2 = c2.[13]
 In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations are explained.[14]
 Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax2 + b = y2).
 Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations (Kuṭṭaka). The rules he gives are (in effect)
the same as those given by the Renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century
 A cyclic Chakravala method for solving indeterminate equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = y. The solution to
this equation was traditionally attributed to William Brouncker in 1657, though his method was more difficult than
the chakravala method.
 The first general method for finding the solutions of the problem x2 − ny2 = 1 (so-called "Pell's equation") was
given by Bhaskara II.[15]
 Solutions of Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x2 + 1 = y2. This very equation was posed
as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, but its solution was unknown in Europe
until the time of Euler in the 18th century.[14]
 Solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown, and found negative and irrational solutions.[citation
needed]

 Preliminary concept of mathematical analysis.

 Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with notable contributions towards integral calculus.[16]
 Conceived differential calculus, after discovering an approximation of
the derivative and differential coefficient.
 Stated Rolle's theorem, a special case of one of the most important theorems in analysis, the mean value
theorem. Traces of the general mean value theorem are also found in his works.
 Calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae. (See Calculus section below.)
 In Siddhanta-Śiromani, Bhaskara developed spherical trigonometry along with a number of
other trigonometric results. (See Trigonometry section below.)
Arithmetic
Bhaskara's arithmetic text Līlāvatī covers the topics of definitions, arithmetical terms, interest computation,
arithmetical and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the shadow of the gnomon, methods to
solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.
Līlāvatī is divided into 13 chapters and covers many branches of mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and a
little trigonometry and measurement. More specifically the contents include:

 Definitions.
 Properties of zero (including division, and rules of operations with zero).
 Further extensive numerical work, including use of negative numbers and surds.
 Estimation of π.
 Arithmetical terms, methods of multiplication, and squaring.
 Inverse rule of three, and rules of 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
 Problems involving interest and interest computation.
 Indeterminate equations (Kuṭṭaka), integer solutions (first and second order). His contributions to this topic
are particularly important,[citation needed] since the rules he gives are (in effect) the same as those given by
the renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century, yet his work was of the 12th century. Bhaskara's
method of solving was an improvement of the methods found in the work of Aryabhata and subsequent
mathematicians.
His work is outstanding for its systematisation, improved methods and the new topics that he introduced.
Furthermore, the Lilavati contained excellent problems and it is thought that Bhaskara's intention may have been
that a student of 'Lilavati' should concern himself with the mechanical application of the method.

Algebra
His Bījaganita ("Algebra") was a work in twelve chapters. It was the first text to recognize that a positive number has
two square roots (a positive and negative square root).[17] His work Bījaganita is effectively a treatise on algebra and
contains the following topics:

 Positive and negative numbers.

 The 'unknown' (includes determining unknown quantities).
 Determining unknown quantities.
 Surds (includes evaluating surds).
 Kuṭṭaka (for solving indeterminate equations and Diophantine equations).
 Simple equations (indeterminate of second, third and fourth degree).
 Simple equations with more than one unknown.
 Indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax2 + b = y2).
 Solutions of indeterminate equations of the second, third and fourth degree.
 Quadratic equations.
 Quadratic equations with more than one unknown.
 Operations with products of several unknowns.
Bhaskara derived a cyclic, chakravala method for solving indeterminate quadratic equations of the form ax 2 + bx + c
= y.[17] Bhaskara's method for finding the solutions of the problem Nx 2 + 1 = y2 (the so-called "Pell's equation") is of
considerable importance.

Trigonometry
The Siddhānta Shiromani (written in 1150) demonstrates Bhaskara's knowledge of trigonometry, including the sine
table and relationships between different trigonometric functions. He also developed spherical trigonometry, along
with other interesting trigonometrical results. In particular Bhaskara seemed more interested in trigonometry for its
own sake than his predecessors who saw it only as a tool for calculation. Among the many interesting results given
by Bhaskara, results found in his works include computation of sines of angles of 18 and 36 degrees, and the now
well known formulae for sin(a+b) and sin(a-b).

Calculus
His work, the Siddhānta Shiromani, is an astronomical treatise and contains many theories not found in earlier
works.[citation needed] Preliminary concepts of infinitesimal calculus and mathematical analysis, along with a number of
results in trigonometry, differential calculus and integral calculus that are found in the work are of particular interest.
Evidence suggests Bhaskara was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus. [17] Bhaskara also goes deeper
into the 'differential calculus' and suggests the differential coefficient vanishes at an extremum value of the function,
indicating knowledge of the concept of 'infinitesimals'.[18]
 There is evidence of an early form of Rolle's theorem in his work

 If f(a)=f(b)=0 then f’(x)=0 for some x with a<x<b.

 He gave the result that if x ≈ y then sin(y) – sin(x)≈ (y – x)cos(y) , thereby finding the derivative of sine,
although he never developed the notion of derivatives. [19]
o Bhaskara uses this result to work out the position angle of the ecliptic, a quantity required for
accurately predicting the time of an eclipse.
 In computing the instantaneous motion of a planet, the time interval between successive positions of the
planets was no greater than a truti, or a 1⁄33750 of a second, and his measure of velocity was expressed in this
infinitesimal unit of time.
 He was aware that when a variable attains the maximum value, its differential vanishes.
 He also showed that when a planet is at its farthest from the earth, or at its closest, the equation of the
centre (measure of how far a planet is from the position in which it is predicted to be, by assuming it is to move
uniformly) vanishes. He therefore concluded that for some intermediate position the differential of the equation
of the centre is equal to zero.[citation needed] In this result, there are traces of the general mean value theorem, one of
the most important theorems in analysis, which today is usually derived from Rolle's theorem. The mean value
theorem was later found by Parameshvara in the 15th century in the Lilavati Bhasya, a commentary on
Bhaskara's Lilavati.
Madhava (1340–1425) and the Kerala School mathematicians (including Parameshvara) from the 14th century to
the 16th century expanded on Bhaskara's work and further advanced the development of calculus in India.

9. FIBONACCI

 Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci (1170–1240 or 1250) was an Italian number theorist. He

introduced the world to such wide-ranging mathematical concepts as what is now
known as the Arabic numbering system, the concept of square roots, number
sequencing, and even math word problems. Known For: Noted Italian mathematician
and number theorist; developed Fibonacci Numbers and the Fibonacci Sequence
 Also Known As: Leonard of Pisa
  Born: 1170 in Pisa, Italy
 Father: Guglielmo
 Died: Between 1240 and 1250, most likely in Pisa
 Education: Educated in North Africa; studied mathematics in Bugia, Algeria
 Published Works: Liber Abaci (The Book of Calculation), 1202 and 1228; Practica
Geometriae (The Practice of Geometry), 1220; Liber Quadratorum (The Book of
Square Numbers), 1225
 Awards and Honors: The Republic of Pisa honored Fibonacci in 1240 for advising
the city and its citizens on accounting issues.
 Notable Quote: “If by chance I have omitted anything more or less proper or
necessary, I beg forgiveness, since there is no one who is without fault and circumspect
in all matters.”
Mathematical Contributions
Fibonacci is considered to be one of the most talented mathematicians of the Middle Ages.
Few people realize that it was Fibonacci that gave the world the decimal number system
(Hindu-Arabic numbering system), which replaced the Roman numeral system. When he was
studying mathematics, he used the Hindu-Arabic (0-9) symbols instead of Roman symbols,
which didn't have zeros and lacked place value.
In fact, when using the Roman numeral system, an abacus was usually required. There is no
doubt that Fibonacci saw the superiority of using Hindu-Arabic system over the Roman
Numerals.

LIBER ABACI
In the Liber Abaci (1202), Fibonacci introduced the so-called modus Indorum (method of the Indians), today known
as the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.[25][26] The manuscript book advocated numeration with the digits 0–9 and place
value. The book showed the practical use and value of the new Hindu-Arabic numeral system by applying the
numerals to commercial bookkeeping, converting weights and measures, calculation of interest, money-changing,
and other applications. The book was well-received throughout educated Europe and had a profound impact on
European thought. The original 1202 manuscript is not known to exist.[27]
In a 1228 copy of the manuscript, the first section introduces the Hindu-Arabic numeral system and compares the
system with other systems, such as Roman numerals, and methods to convert the other numeral systems into
Hindu-Arabic numerals. Replacing the Roman numeral system, its ancient Egyptian multiplication method, and
using an abacus for calculations, with a Hindu-Arabic numeral system was an advance in making business
calculations easier and faster, which assisted the growth of banking and accounting in Europe.[28][29]
The second section explains the uses of Hindu-Arabic numerals in business, for example converting different
currencies, and calculating profit and interest, which were important to the growing banking industry. The book also
discusses irrational numbers and prime numbers.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Fibonacci showed the world how to use what is now our current numbering system in his
book "Liber Abaci," which he published in 1202. The title translates as "The Book of
Calculation." The following problem was written in his book:

"A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many
pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month
each pair begets a new pair, which from the second month on becomes productive?"
 Born c. 598 CE

 The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of Died c. 668 CE

numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers. Although
Fibonacci's Liber Abaci contains the earliest known description
Zero
of the sequence outside of India, the sequence had been Known for
described by Indian mathematicians as early as the sixth Modern number system
century.[30][31][32][33] Brahmagupta's theorem
In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is the sum of the Brahmagupta's identity
previous two numbers. Fibonacci omitted the "0" included today
and began the sequence with  1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, Brahmagupta's problem

55... He carried the calculation up to the thirteenth place, the Brahmagupta-Fibonacci identity
value 233, though another manuscript carries it to the next Brahmagupta's interpolation formula
place, the value 377.[34][35] Fibonacci did not speak about
the golden ratio as the limit of the ratio of consecutive numbers Brahmagupta's formula
in this sequence. The Fibonacci Sequence defines the
Scientific career
curvature of naturally occurring spirals, such as
snail shells and even the pattern of seeds in Fields astronomy, mathematics
flowering plants. The Fibonacci Sequence was
Institutions Bhillamāla, Gurjaradesa[1]
actually given the name by a French mathematician
Edouard Lucas in the 1870s. Ujjaini, Avanti[2]

OTHER WORKS

In addition to "Liber Abaci," Fibonacci authored several other books on mathematical topics
ranging from geometry to squaring numbers (multiplying numbers by themselves). The city of
Pisa (technically a republic at that time) honored Fibonacci and granted him a salary in 1240
for his help in advising Pisa and its citizens on accounting issues. Fibonacci died between
1240 and 1250 in Pisa.

Fibonacci is famous for his contributions to number theory.

 In his book, "Liber Abaci," he introduced the Hindu-Arabic place-valued decimal

system and the use of Arabic numerals into Europe.
 He introduced the bar that is used for fractions today; previous to this, the numerator
had quotations around it.
 The square root notation is also a Fibonacci method.

It has been said that the Fibonacci Numbers are nature's numbering system and that they
apply to the growth of living things, including cells, petals on a flower, wheat, honeycomb,
pine cones, and much more.

10. BRAHMAGUPTA
Brahmagupta (born c. 598 CE, died c. 668 CE) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He is the author
of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (BSS, "correctly
established doctrine of Brahma", dated 628), a theoretical treatise, and the Khaṇḍakhādyaka ("edible bite",
dated 665), a more practical text.
Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero. The texts composed by Brahmagupta were in
elliptic verse in Sanskrit, as was common practice in Indian mathematics. As no proofs are given, it is not known
how Brahmagupta's results were derived.
CONTRIBUTION TO MATHEMATICS
1.ALGEBRA
Brahmagupta gave the solution of the general linear equation in chapter eighteen of Brahmasphutasiddhānta,
The difference between rupas, when inverted and divided by the difference of the [coefficients] of the unknowns, is
the unknown in the equation. The rupas are [subtracted on the side] below that from which the square and the
unknown are to be subtracted.[13]

which is a solution for the equation bx + c = dx + e 

 equivalent to x = e − c/b − d, where rupes refers to the constants c and e. He further gave two equivalent solutions
to the general quadratic equation
18.44. Diminish by the middle [number] the square-root of the rupas multiplied by four times the square and
increased by the square of the middle [number]; divide the remainder by twice the square. [The result is] the middle
[number].
18.45. Whatever is the square-root of the rupas multiplied by the square [and] increased by the square of half the
unknown, diminish that by half the unknown [and] divide [the remainder] by its square. [The result is] the unknown.
which are, respectively, solutions for the equation ax2 + bx = c equivalent to,

± √ 4 ac−b 2 −b
x=
2a ❑

And

b 2 −b
x= √ ac+
a
4 2
❑

He went on to solve systems of simultaneous indeterminate equations stating that the desired variable must first be
isolated, and then the equation must be divided by the desired variable's coefficient. In particular, he recommended
using "the pulverizer" to solve equations with multiple unknowns.
18.51. Subtract the colors different from the first color. [The remainder] divided by the first [color's coefficient] is the
measure of the first. [Terms] two by two [are] considered [when reduced to] similar divisors, [and so on] repeatedly.
If there are many [colors], the pulverizer [is to be used]. [13]

Like the algebra of Diophantus, the algebra of Brahmagupta was syncopated. Addition was indicated by placing the
numbers side by side, subtraction by placing a dot over the subtrahend, and division by placing the divisor below the
dividend, similar to our notation but without the bar. Multiplication, evolution, and unknown quantities were
represented by abbreviations of appropriate terms. [14] The extent of Greek influence on this syncopation, if any, is not
known and it is possible that both Greek and Indian syncopation may be derived from a common Babylonian
source.[
2.ARITHMETIC
The four fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) were known to many
cultures before Brahmagupta. This current system is based on the Hindu Arabic number system and first
appeared in Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Brahmagupta describes the multiplication as thus "The multiplicand is
repeated like a string for cattle, as often as there are integrant portions in the multiplier and is repeatedly
multiplied by them and the products are added together. It is multiplication. Or the multiplicand is repeated as
many times as there are component parts in the multiplier". [15][page  needed] Indian arithmetic was known in Medieval
Europe as "Modus Indorum" meaning method of the Indians. In Brahmasphutasiddhanta, multiplication was
named Gomutrika. In the beginning of chapter twelve of his Brahmasphutasiddhānta, entitled Calculation,
Brahmagupta details operations on fractions. The reader is expected to know the basic arithmetic operations as
far as taking the square root, although he explains how to find the cube and cube-root of an integer and later
 gives rules facilitating the computation of squares and square roots. He then gives rules for dealing with five
a b a b a b a b a a(d +b) a b a a(d−b)
types of combinations of fractions:  + ; × ; + ; + × = and − × = .
c c c d 1 d c d c cd c d c cd

3.SERIES
Brahmagupta then goes on to give the sum of the squares and cubes of the first n integers.
12.20. The sum of the squares is that [sum] multiplied by twice the [number of] step[s] increased by one [and]
divided by three. The sum of the cubes is the square of that [sum] Piles of these with identical balls [can also be
computed].[17]

Here Brahmagupta found the result in terms of the sum of the first n integers, rather than in terms of n as is the
modern practice.[18]
n(n+1)(2 n+1)
He gives the sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers as and the sum of the cubes of the
6
n ( n+1 ) 2
first n natural numbers as ( ).
2
4.ZERO
Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that provides rules for arithmetic manipulations that
apply to zero and to negative numbers.[19] The Brahmasphutasiddhānta is the earliest known text to treat zero as
a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit in representing another number as was done
by the Babylonians or as a symbol for a lack of quantity as was done by Ptolemy and the Romans. In chapter
eighteen of his Brahmasphutasiddhānta, Brahmagupta describes operations on negative numbers. He first
describes addition and subtraction,
18.30. [The sum] of two positives is positives, of two negatives negative; of a positive and a negative [the sum]
is their difference; if they are equal it is zero. The sum of a negative and zero is negative, [that] of a positive and
zero positive, [and that] of two zeros zero.
[...]
18.32. A negative minus zero is negative, a positive [minus zero] positive; zero [minus zero] is zero. When a
positive is to be subtracted from a negative or a negative from a positive, then it is to be added.[13]
He goes on to describe multiplication,
18.33. The product of a negative and a positive is negative, of two negatives positive, and of positives positive;
the product of zero and a negative, of zero and a positive, or of two zeros is zero.[13]
But his description of division by zero differs from our modern understanding:
18.34. A positive divided by a positive or a negative divided by a negative is positive; a zero divided by a zero
is zero; a positive divided by a negative is negative; a negative divided by a positive is [also] negative.
18.35. A negative or a positive divided by zero has that [zero] as its divisor, or zero divided by a negative or a
positive [has that negative or positive as its divisor]. The square of a negative or of a positive is positive; [the
square] of zero is zero. That of which [the square] is the square is [its] square-root.[13]
0 a
Here Brahmagupta states that  =0 and as for the question of  where a ≠ 0 he did not commit himself.[20] His rules
0 0
for arithmetic on negative numbers and zero are quite close to the modern understanding, except that in modern
mathematics division by zero is left undefined.
 3.DIOPHANTINE ANALYSIS
PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLETS
In chapter twelve of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Brahmagupta provides a formula useful for
generating Pythagorean triples:
12.39. The height of a mountain multiplied by a given multiplier is the distance to a city; it is not erased. When it is
divided by the multiplier increased by two it is the leap of one of the two who make the same journey. [21]

mx
Or, in other words, if d=
x +2
, then a traveller who "leaps" vertically upwards a distance d from the top of a mountain of height m, and then
travels in a straight line to a city at a horizontal distance mx from the base of the mountain, travels the same
distance as one who descends vertically down the mountain and then travels along the horizontal to the city.
[21]
 Stated geometrically, this says that if a right-angled triangle has a base of length a = mx and altitude of
length b = m + d, then the length, c, of its hypotenuse is given by c = m(1 + x) − d. And, indeed, elementary
algebraic manipulation shows that a2 + b2 = c2 whenever d has the value stated. Also, if m and x are rational, so
are d, a, b and c. A Pythagorean triple can therefore be obtained from a, b and c by multiplying each of them by
the least common multiple of their denominators.
PELL’S EQUATION
Brahmagupta went on to give a recurrence relation for generating solutions to certain instances of Diophantine
equations of the second degree such as Nx2 + 1 = y2 (called Pell's equation) by using the Euclidean algorithm. The
Euclidean algorithm was known to him as the "pulverizer" since it breaks numbers down into ever smaller pieces. [22]
The nature of squares:
18.64. [Put down] twice the square-root of a given square by a multiplier and increased or diminished by an arbitrary
[number]. The product of the first [pair], multiplied by the multiplier, with the product of the last [pair], is the last
computed.
18.65. The sum of the thunderbolt products is the first. The additive is equal to the product of the additives. The two
square-roots, divided by the additive or the subtractive, are the additive rupas.[13]

The key to his solution was the identity,[23]

( x 21−N y 21 )( x 22−N y 22 )=( x 1 x 2 + N y 1 y 2 )2 −N ( x 1 y 2 + x 2 y 1 )2

which is a generalisation of an identity that was discovered by Diophantus,

( x 21− y21 )( x22 − y 22)=(x 1 x 2+ y 1 y 2)2 −(x 1 y 2 + x 2 y 1 )2 .

Using his identity and the fact that if (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are solutions to the
equations x2 − Ny2 = k1 and x2 − Ny2 = k2, respectively, then (x1x2 + Ny1y2, x1y2 + x2y1) is a solution
to x2 − Ny2 = k1k2, he was able to find integral solutions to Pell's equation through a series of equations of the
form x2 − Ny2 = ki. Brahmagupta was not able to apply his solution uniformly for all possible values of N, rather he
was only able to show that if x2 − Ny2 = k has an integer solution for k = ±1, ±2, or ±4, then x2 − Ny2 = 1 has a
solution. The solution of the general Pell's equation would have to wait for Bhaskara II in c. 1150 CE.
4.GEOMETRY
BRAHMAGUPTA’S FORMULA
Brahmagupta's most famous result in geometry is his formula for cyclic quadrilaterals. Given the lengths of the sides
of any cyclic quadrilateral, Brahmagupta gave an approximate and an exact formula for the figure's area,
12.21. The approximate area is the product of the halves of the sums of the sides and opposite sides of a triangle
and a quadrilateral. The accurate [area] is the square root from the product of the halves of the sums of the sides
diminished by [each] side of the quadrilateral. [17]
 p+ r q+ s
So given the lengths p, q, r and s of a cyclic quadrilateral, the approximate area is  . while, letting
2 2
p+ q+r + s
t= , the exact area is √ (t− p)(t−q)(t−r)(t−s).
2
Although Brahmagupta does not explicitly state that these quadrilaterals are cyclic, it is apparent from his rules that
this is the case.[24] Heron's formula is a special case of this formula and it can be derived by setting one of the sides
equal to zero.

TRIANGLES
Brahmagupta dedicated a substantial portion of his work to geometry. One theorem gives the lengths of the two
segments a triangle's base is divided into by its altitude:
12.22. The base decreased and increased by the difference between the squares of the sides divided by the base;
when divided by two they are the true segments. The perpendicular [altitude] is the square-root from the square of a
side diminished by the square of its segment. [17]

1 c 2−a2 .
Thus the lengths of the two segments are ( b± )
2 b
He further gives a theorem on rational triangles. A triangle with rational sides a, b, c and rational area is of the form:
1 u2 1 u2 1 u2 u2
a= ( )
2 v
+ v , b= (
2 w )
+ w , c= ( −v + −w) for some rational numbers u, v, and w.
2 v w
BRAHMAGUPTA’S THEOREM
Brahmagupta continues,
12.23. The square-root of the sum of the two products of the sides and opposite sides of a non-unequal
quadrilateral is the diagonal. The square of the diagonal is diminished by the square of half the sum of the base and
the top; the square-root is the perpendicular [altitudes]. [17]
So, in a "non-unequal" cyclic quadrilateral (that is, an isosceles trapezoid), the length of each diagonal is √ pr + qs.
He continues to give formulas for the lengths and areas of geometric figures, such as the circumradius of an
isosceles trapezoid and a scalene quadrilateral, and the lengths of diagonals in a scalene cyclic quadrilateral. This
leads up to Brahmagupta's famous theorem,
12.30–31. Imaging two triangles within [a cyclic quadrilateral] with unequal sides, the two diagonals are the two
bases. Their two segments are separately the upper and lower segments [formed] at the intersection of the
diagonals. The two [lower segments] of the two diagonals are two sides in a triangle; the base [of the quadrilateral is
the base of the triangle]. Its perpendicular is the lower portion of the [central] perpendicular; the upper portion of the
[central] perpendicular is half of the sum of the [sides] perpendiculars diminished by the lower [portion of the central
perpendicular].[17]
Pi

In verse 40, he gives values of π,

12.40. The diameter and the square of the radius [each] multiplied by 3 are [respectively] the practical circumference
and the area [of a circle]. The accurate [values] are the square-roots from the squares of those two multiplied by ten.
[17]

So Brahmagupta uses 3 as a "practical" value of π, and √ ❑ √ 10  ≈ 3.1622 …as an "accurate" value of π. The error in
this "accurate" value is less than 1%.
Measurements and constructions
In some of the verses before verse 40, Brahmagupta gives constructions of various figures with arbitrary sides. He
essentially manipulated right triangles to produce isosceles triangles, scalene triangles, rectangles, isosceles
trapezoids, isosceles trapezoids with three equal sides, and a scalene cyclic quadrilateral.
After giving the value of pi, he deals with the geometry of plane figures and solids, such as finding volumes and
surface areas (or empty spaces dug out of solids). He finds the volume of rectangular prisms, pyramids, and the
frustum of a square pyramid. He further finds the average depth of a series of pits. For the volume of a frustum of a
pyramid, he gives the "pragmatic" value as the depth times the square of the mean of the edges of the top and
bottom faces, and he gives the "superficial" volume as the depth times their mean area.
5.TRIGONOMETRY
SINE TABLE
In Chapter 2 of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, entitled Planetary True Longitudes, Brahmagupta presents a sine table:
2.2–5. The sines: The Progenitors, twins; Ursa Major, twins, the Vedas; the gods, fires, six; flavors, dice, the gods;
the moon, five, the sky, the moon; the moon, arrows, suns [...] [27]

Here Brahmagupta uses names of objects to represent the digits of place-value numerals, as was common with
numerical data in Sanskrit treatises. Progenitors represents the 14 Progenitors ("Manu") in Indian cosmology or 14,
"twins" means 2, "Ursa Major" represents the seven stars of Ursa Major or 7, "Vedas" refers to the 4 Vedas or 4,
dice represents the number of sides of the tradition die or 6, and so on. This information can be translated into the
list of sines, 214, 427, 638, 846, 1051, 1251, 1446, 1635, 1817, 1991, 2156, 2312, 1459, 2594, 2719, 2832, 2933,
3021, 3096, 3159, 3207, 3242, 3263, and 3270, with the radius being 3270.
INTERPOLATION FORMULA
In 665 Brahmagupta devised and used a special case of the Newton–Stirling interpolation formula of the second-
order to interpolate new values of the sine function from other values already tabulated.[29] The formula gives an
estimate for the value of a function f at a value a + xh of its argument (with h > 0 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1) when its value is
already known at a − h, a and a + h.
The formula for the estimate is:

∆ f ( a ) +∆ f ( a−h ) x 2 ∆2 f ( a−h)
f ( a+ xh ) ≈ f ( a ) + x ( 2 ) +
2!
where Δ is the first-order forward-difference operator, i.e. ∆ f ( a ) ≝ f ( a+h ) −f (a).
6.BRAHMAGUPTA-FIBONACCI IDENTIY
In algebra, the Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity[1][2] expresses the product of two sums of two squares as a sum of
two squares in two different ways. Hence the set of all sums of two squares is closed under multiplication.
Specifically, the identity says
¿ (1)
=( ac +bd )2 +(ad−bc)2 (2)
For example,¿
The identity is also known as the Diophantus identity,[3][4] as it was first proved by Diophantus of Alexandria. It is a
special case of Euler's four-square identity, and also of Lagrange's identity.
Brahmagupta proved and used a more general identity (the Brahmagupta identity), equivalent to
¿ (3)
=( ac +nbd )2 +n(ad−bc)2 (4)
This shows that, for any fixed A, the set of all numbers of the form x2 + Ay2 is closed under multiplication.
These identities hold for all integers, as well as all rational numbers; more generally, they are true in
any commutative ring. All four forms of the identity can be verified by expanding each side of the equation. Also, (2)
can be obtained from (1), or (1) from (2), by changing b to −b, and likewise with (3) and (4).
SPREAD OF HIS WORKS AND HIS FOLLOWERS
The historian of science George Sarton called him "one of the greatest scientists of his race and the greatest of his
time."[2] Brahmagupta's mathematical advances were carried on further by Bhāskara II, a lineal descendant in Ujjain,
who described Brahmagupta as the ganaka-chakra-chudamani (the gem of the circle of
mathematicians). Prithudaka Svamin wrote commentaries on both of his works, rendering difficult verses into
simpler language and adding illustrations. Lalla and Bhattotpala in the 8th and 9th centuries wrote commentaries on
the Khanda-khadyaka.[9] Further commentaries continued to be written into the 12th century. [2]
A few decades after the death of Brahmagupta, Sindh came under the Arab Caliphate in 712 CE. 
The court of Caliph Al-Mansur (754–775) received an embassy from Sindh, including an astrologer called Kanaka,
who brought (possibly memorised) astronomical texts, including those of Brahmagupta. Brahmagupta's texts were
translated into Arabic by Muhammad al-Fazari, an astronomer in Al-Mansur's court under the
names Sindhind and Arakhand. An immediate outcome was the spread of the decimal number system used in the
texts. Through Al-Khwarizmi’s texts, the decimal number system and Brahmagupta's algorithms for arithmetic have
spread throughout the world. 
 11. JOHN NAPIER
John Napier of Merchiston (/ˈneɪpɪər/;[1] 1 February 1550 – 4 April 1617); also signed as Neper, Nepair;
nicknamed Marvellous Merchiston) was a Scottish landowner known as a mathematician, physicist,
and astronomer. He was the 8th Laird of Merchiston. His Latinized name was Ioannes Neper.
John Napier is best known as the discoverer of logarithms. He also invented the so-called "Napier's bones" and
made common the use of the decimal point in arithmetic and mathematics.
Napier's birthplace, Merchiston Tower in Edinburgh, is now part of the facilities of Edinburgh Napier University.
Napier died from the effects of gout at home at Merchiston Castle and his remains were buried in
the kirkyard of St Giles.
ADVANCES IN MATHEMATICS
His work, Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (1614) contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter
and ninety pages of tables of numbers related to natural logarithms.
NAPIERIAN LOGARITHM
The term Napierian logarithm or Naperian logarithm, named after John Napier, is often used to mean
the natural logarithm. Napier did not introduce this natural logarithmic function, although it is named after
him.[1] However, if it is taken to mean the "logarithms" as originally produced by Napier, it is a function given
by (in terms of the modern natural logarithm):
NapLog(x)=−107 ∈¿
The Napierian logarithm satisfies identities quite similar to the modern logarithm, such as
NapLog ( xy ) =NapLog ( x )+ NapLog ( y )−161180956
xy
Or NapLog( 7 )=NapLog ( x ) + NapLog( y)
10
Napier's "logarithm" is related to the natural logarithm by the relation
NapLog(x)≈ 10000000 ¿)
And to the common logarithm by
NapLog( x)≈ 23025851(7−log 10 x )
Note that
16.11809565≈ 7∈(10) and 23025851≈ 107 ∈(10)
Napierian logarithms are essentially natural logarithms with decimal points shifted 7 places rightward and with sign
reversed. For instance the logarithmic values
In(.5000000)= -0.6931471806
In(.3333333)= -1.0986123887
would have the corresponding Napierian logarithms:
NapLog(5000000)=6931472
NapLog(3333333)=10986124
The book also has an excellent discussion of theorems in spherical trigonometry, usually known as Napier's Rules
of Circular Parts. John Napier (1550–1617) discovered a way to reduce 10 equations in spherical trig
down to 2 equations and to make them easier to remember.

Draw a right triangle on a sphere and label the sides a, b, and c where c is the hypotenuse. Let A be
the angle opposite side a, B the angle opposite side b, and C the right angle opposite the
hypotenuse c.

There are 10 equations relating the sides and angles of the triangle:

sin a = sin A sin c = tan b cot B

sin b = sin B sin c = tan a cot A
cos A = cos a sin B = tan b cot c
cos B = cos b sin A = tan a cot c
cos c = cot A cot B = cos a cos b
Here’s how Napier reduced these equations to a more memorable form. Arrange the parts of the
triangle in a circle as below.

Then Napier has two rules:

1. The sine of a part is equal to the product of the tangents of the two adjacent parts.
2. The sine of a part is equal to the product of the cosines of the two opposite parts.
For example, if we start with a, the first rule says sin a = cot B tan b. (The tangent of the
complementary angle to B is the cotangent of B.) Similarly, the second rule says that sin a =
sin c sin A. (The cosine of the complementary angle is just the sine.)
For a more algebraic take on Napier’s rules, write the parts of the triangle as

(p1, p2, p3, p4, p5) = (a , b, co-A, co-c, co-B).

Then the equations above can be reduced to

sin pi = tan pi-1 tan pi+1 = cos pi+2 cos pi+3

where the addition and subtraction in the subscripts is carried out mod 5. This is just using subscripts
to describe the adjacent and opposite parts in Napier’s diagram.

IT CAN ALSO BE UNDERSTOOD BY Pentagramma mirificum.

Pentagramma mirificum (Latin for miraculous pentagram) is a star polygon on a sphere, composed of five great
circle arcs, all of whose internal angles are right angles. This shape was described by John Napier in his 1614
book Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio (Description of the wonderful rule of logarithms) along with rules that
link the values of trigonometric functions of five parts of a right spherical triangle (two angles and three sides). The
properties of pentagramma mirificum were studied, among others, by Carl Friedrich Gauss.
On a sphere, both the angles and the sides of a triangle (arcs of great circles) are measured as angles.
There are five right angles, each measuring π/2, at A, B, C, D AND E.
There are ten arcs, each measuring π/2: PC ,PE ,QD, QA ,RE, RB, SA ,SC, TB and TD.
In the spherical pentagon PQRST ,  every vertex is the pole of the opposite side. For instance, point P is the pole of
equator RS, point Q – the pole of equator ST, etc.
At each vertex of pentagon PQRST , the external angle is equal in measure to the opposite side. For instance,
Angle APT=Angle BPQ=RS, Angle BPQ=Angle CQR=ST , etc.
Napier's circles of spherical triangles APT, BQP, CRQ, DSR and ETS are rotations of one another.
Modern English translations of both Napier's books on logarithms and their description can be found on the web, as
well as a discussion of Napier's bones and Promptuary (another early calculating device).[8]
His invention of logarithms was quickly taken up at Gresham College, and prominent English mathematician Henry
Briggs visited Napier in 1615. Among the matters they discussed were a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms, in which
the presence of the mathematical constant now known as e (more accurately, e times a large power of 10 rounded
to an integer) was a practical difficulty. Neither Napier nor Briggs actually discovered the constant e; that discovery
was made decades later by Jacob Bernoulli.
Napier delegated to Briggs the computation of a revised table. The computational advance available via logarithms,
the converse of powered numbers or exponential notation, was such that it made calculations by hand much
quicker.[9] The way was opened to later scientific advances, in astronomy, dynamics, and other areas of physics.
Napier made further contributions. He improved Simon Stevin's decimal notation. Lattice multiplication, used
by Fibonacci, was made more convenient by his introduction of Napier's bones, a multiplication tool using a set of
numbered rods.
Napier may have worked largely in isolation, but he had contact with Tycho Brahe who corresponded with his
friend John Craig. Craig certainly announced the discovery of logarithms to Brahe in the 1590s (the name itself
came later); there is a story from Anthony à Wood, perhaps not well substantiated, that Napier had a hint from Craig
that Longomontanus, a follower of Brahe, was working in a similar direction.
It has been shown that Craig had notes on a method of Paul Wittich that used trigonometric identities to reduce a
multiplication formula for the sine function to additions.
INFLUENCE
The development of logarithms is given credit as the largest single factor in the general adoption of decimal
arithmetic.[26] The Trissotetras (1645) of Thomas Urquhart builds on Napier's work, in trigonometry.[27]
Henry Briggs (mathematician) was an early adopter of the Napierian logarithm. He later computed a new table of
logarithms formatted in base 10. An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named
after Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland.

List of works
 (1593) A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John
 (1614) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio (Edward Wright's English translation was published in
1616).
 (1617) Rabdologiæ seu Numerationis per Virgulas libri duo (Google Books link)(published
posthumously) Rabdology (Wikipedia)
 (1619) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio (written before the Descriptio, but published posthumously
by his son Robert)
 (1839) De arte logistica

12. Rene Descartes

Have you ever heard of the expression ''jack of all trades?'' That expression refers to people who know a lot
about many different types of things. René Descartes was like that. He was a philosopher, academic,
mathematician, and scientist.

Early Life
Descartes was born in La Haye en Touraine, France on March 31, 1596. His mother died when he was very young,
so he and his brothers were sent to live with his grandmother. His father believed that a good education was
important, so Descartes was sent off to boarding school at a young age.
Descartes was a good student and eventually earned a law degree at the University of Poitiers in 1616 at about 20
years of age. During this time, he began to develop a sense that it was important to use our ability to reason (or
think) to discover truth. He believed reasoning should be based on evidence. Descartes is the philosopher who said,
''I think, therefore I am.''
ACCOMPLISHMENT AND DISCOVERIES
Descartes is considered the father of modern philosophy, a key figure in the scientific revolution of the 17th Century,
and a pioneer of modern mathematics.

In mathematics, his contribution lies chiefly in geometry that’s why today he is known as father of
analytical geometry. His main achievement was to bridge the gulf between algebra and geometry.
Thus he is widely acclaimed as first mathematician who laid the foundation of modern geometry that
resulted in development of analysis and calculus. With regard to algebra, he explained in detail that
how algebric equations can be expressed and explained through use of geometrical shapes. His major
contribution lies in bringing forth coordinate system that also bears his last name. This Cartesian coordinate
system tended to explain the algebraic equations through geometrical shapes. Descartes discovered that you
can plot any two-dimensional point on a mathematical plane. A mathematical plane is made up of
an x and y axis. Descartes was also the first mathematician to assign the letters from the early alphabet (like a, b, c)
to represent data and later alphabet letters (like x, y, z) to represent variables. 
He also sought to find out the systematic meaning of knowledge by application of mathematical
techniques. In this way, he broke from conventional scholastic-Aristotelian philosophy that used to
explain haphazardly the interrelationship between ideas. Thus, instead of following the tradition, he
replaced this casual explanation of nature of things with more scientific method. He intended to reach
at mechanistic rationalization of beliefs by providing a more concrete basis. This mechanistic principle
is not only applied to human or animal bodies but also plants. Thus, he embarked upon a quest to
engage in a scientific enquiry as contrary to his predecessors. He also changed the scholastic
explanation of substantial forms in physics by his mechanistic philosophy.

Descartes also tended to apply geometric method to physics and also explained it by deductive
method that results can be inferred by perceptions of geometric properties of body. In 1619, Descartes
developed four rules for deductive reasoning (or rational, scientific thinking). He used rules based on mathematical
principles but applied them to all of the sciences.

13. PIERRE DE FERMAT

Pierre de Fermat (French: [pjɛːʁ də fɛʁma]) (between 20 August 1601[1] – 12 January 1665) was
a French lawyer[3] at the Parlement of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is given credit for early
developments that led to infinitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality. In particular, he is
recognized for his discovery of an original method of finding the greatest and the smallest ordinates of
curved lines, which is analogous to that of differential calculus, then unknown, and his research into number
theory. He made notable contributions to analytic geometry, probability, and optics. He is best known for
his Fermat's principle for light propagation and his Fermat's Last Theorem in number theory, which he
described in a note at the margin of a copy of Diophantus' Arithmetica.

20 August 1601 [1]

Born
Beaumont-de-Lomagne, France

Died 12 January 1665

(aged 63)

Castres, France

Education University of Orléans (LL.B., 1626)

Known for Contributions to number theory, analytic

geometry, probability theory

Folium of Descartes

Fermat's principle

Fermat's little theorem

Fermat's Last Theorem

 Adequality

Fermat's "difference quotient" method[2]

(See full list)

Scientific career

Fields Mathematics and law

Influences François Viète, Gerolamo Cardano, Diophantus

Fermat's pioneering work in analytic geometry (Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam et de tangentibus

linearum curvarum) ,also known as Cartesian Geometry, was circulated in manuscript form in 1636 (based on
results achieved in 1629),[11] predating the publication of Descartes' famous La géométrie (1637), which exploited the
work.[12] This manuscript was published posthumously in 1679 in Varia opera mathematica, as Ad Locos Planos et
Solidos Isagoge (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci).[13]
In Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam and in De tangentibus linearum curvarum, Fermat developed a
method (adequality) for determining maxima, minima, and tangents to various curves that was equivalent
to differential calculus.[14][15] In these works, Fermat obtained a technique for finding the centers of gravity of various
plane and solid figures, which led to his further work in quadrature. Fermat used adequality first to find maxima of
functions, and then adapted it to find tangent lines to curves.
To find the maximum of a term p(x) , Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) p(x) and p(x+e) and after
doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of e and then discard any remaining terms involving e. To illustrate the
method by Fermat's own example, consider the problem of finding the maximum of p(x)=b(x)−x 2  (In Fermat's
words, it is to divide a line of length b at a point x, such that the product of the two resulting parts be a maximum. [1])
Fermat adequated bx−x 2 with
b ( x +e )−( x +e )2=bx−x 2+ be=2 ex−e 2
 That is (using the notation   to denote adequality, introduced by Paul Tannery):

bx−x 2 bx−x 2+ be=2ex −e 2

Canceling terms and dividing by e Fermat arrived at b 2 x+ e.
Canceling terms and dividing by e Fermat arrived at x=b /2.
Fermat also used his principle to give a mathematical derivation of Snell's laws of refraction directly from the
principle that light takes the quickest path.
Fermat was the first person known to have evaluated the integral of general power functions. With his method, he
was able to reduce this evaluation to the sum of geometric series.[16] The resulting formula was helpful to Newton,
and then Leibniz, when they independently developed the fundamental theorem of calculus.[citation needed]
In number theory, Fermat studied Pell's equation, perfect numbers, amicable numbers and what would later
n
become Fermat numbers. These are the positive integers of the form F n=22 +1 where n is a non-negative integer.
The first few Fermat numbers are:
3, 5, 17, 257, 65537, 4294967297, 18446744073709551617, …
 It was while researching perfect numbers that he discovered Fermat's little theorem. Fermat's little theorem states
that if p is a prime number, then for any integer a, the number ap − a is an integer multiple of p. In the notation
of modular arithmetic, this is expressed as a p ≡ a (mod p). For example, if a = 2 and p = 7, then 27 = 128, and
128 − 2 = 126 = 7 × 18 is an integer multiple of 7.
If a is not divisible by p, Fermat's little theorem is equivalent to the statement that a p−1−1  is an integer multiple
of p, or in symbols:a p−1 ≡1 (mod p). For example, if a = 2 and p = 7, then 26 = 64, and 64 − 1 = 63 = 7 × 9 is thus a
multiple of 7.
Fermat's little theorem is the basis for the Fermat primality test and is one of the fundamental results of elementary
number theory. The theorem is named after Pierre de Fermat, who stated it in 1640. It is called the "little theorem" to
distinguish it from Fermat's last theorem.
 He invented a factorization method—Fermat's factorization method—and popularized the proof by infinite descent,
which he used to prove Fermat's right triangle theorem which includes as a corollary Fermat's Last Theorem for the
case n = 4. Fermat's factorization method is based on the representation of an odd integer as the difference of
two squares: N =a 2−b2. That difference is algebraically factorable as (a+b)(a-b) ; if neither factor equals one, it is a
proper factorization of N.
Each odd number has such a representation. Indeed, if N=cd is a factorization of N, then

c+ d 2 c−d 2
N=( ) −( )
2 2
Since N is odd, then c and d are also odd, so those halves are integers. (A multiple of four is also a difference of
squares: let c and d be even.)
In its simplest form, Fermat's method might be even slower than trial division (worst case). Nonetheless, the
combination of trial division and Fermat's is more effective than either.
This can be proved by INFINITE DESCENT- In mathematics, a proof by infinite descent, also known as Fermat's
method of descent, is a particular kind of proof by contradiction used to show that a statement cannot possibly hold
for any number, by showing that if the statement were to hold for a number, then the same would be true for a
smaller number, leading to an infinite descent and ultimately a contradiction. [1][2] It is a method which relies on
the well-ordering principle, and is often used to show that a given equation, such as a diophantine equation, has no
solutions.
INFINITE DESCENT was also used to prove Fermat’s right triangle theorem. Fermat's right triangle theorem is
a non-existence proof in number theory, the only complete proof left by Pierre de Fermat.[1][2] It has several
equivalent formulations:

 If three square numbers form an arithmetic progression, then the gap between consecutive numbers in the
progression (called a congruum) cannot itself be square.
 There do not exist two Pythagorean triangles in which the two legs of one triangle are the leg and
hypotenuse of the other triangle.
 A right triangle for which all three side lengths are rational numbers cannot have an area that is the square
of a rational number. An area defined in this way is called a congruent number, so no congruent number can be
square.
 A right triangle and a square with equal areas cannot have all sides commensurate with each other.

 The only rational points on the elliptic curve y 2=x ( x−1)(x+ 1)  are the three trivial points (0,0), (1,0), and
(−1,0).
 The Diophantine equation x 4 − y 4=z 2 has no integer solution.

An immediate consequence of the last of these formulations is that Fermat's last theorem is true for the
exponent n=4 and hence for any multiple of 4.

Fermat developed the two-square theorem, and the polygonal number theorem, which states that each number
is a sum of three triangular numbers, four square numbers, five pentagonal numbers, and so on.
1. In additive number theory, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares states that an odd prime p can
be expressed as: p=x 2 + y 2 with x and y integers, if and only if p ≡1 (mod 4).
 The prime numbers for which this is true are called Pythagorean primes. For example, the primes 5,
13, 17, 29, 37 and 41 are all congruent to 1 modulo 4, and they can be expressed as sums of two
squares in the following ways:

5=12+22 , 13=22 +32 , 17=12 + 42 , 29=22 +52 ,37=12 +62 , 41=4 2+5 2
On the other hand, the primes 3, 7, 11, 19, 23 and 31 are all congruent to 3 modulo 4, and none of
them can be expressed as the sum of two squares. This is the easier part of the theorem, and
follows immediately from the observation that all squares are congruent to 0 or 1 modulo 4.
2. In additive number theory, the Fermat polygonal number theorem states that every positive
integer is a sum of at most n n-gonal numbers. That is, every positive integer can be written as the
sum of three or fewer triangular numbers, and as the sum of four or fewer square numbers, and as
the sum of five or fewer pentagonal numbers, and so on. That is, the n-gonal numbers form
an additive basis of order n.
Three such representations of the number 17, for example, are shown below:

 17 = 10 + 6 + 1 (triangular numbers)
 17 = 16 + 1 (square numbers)
 17 = 12 + 5 (pentagonal numbers).
3. In number theory, Fermat's Last Theorem (sometimes called Fermat's conjecture, especially in
older texts) states that no three positive integers a, b, and c satisfy the equation an + bn = cn for any
integer value of n greater than 2. The cases n = 1 and n = 2 have been known since antiquity to
have infinitely many solutions.[1]
The proposition was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat around 1637 in the margin of a copy
of Arithmetica; Fermat added that he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin. However, there were
doubts that he had a correct proof because his claim was published by his son without his consent and after
his death.[2] After 358 years of effort by mathematicians, the first successful proof was released in 1994
by Andrew Wiles, and formally published in 1995; it was described as a "stunning advance" in the citation for
Wiles's Abel Prize award in 2016.[3] It also proved much of the modularity theorem and opened up entire new
approaches to numerous other problems and mathematically powerful modularity lifting techniques.
NOTE: 1.The modularity theorem (formerly called the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture) states that elliptic
curves over the field of rational numbers are related to modular forms. Andrew Wiles proved the modularity
theorem for semistable elliptic curves, which was enough to imply Fermat's Last Theorem.
2.Algebraic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses the techniques of abstract algebra to
study the integers, rational numbers, and their generalizations. Number-theoretic questions are expressed in
terms of properties of algebraic objects such as algebraic number fields and their rings of integers, finite
fields, and function fields. These properties, such as whether a ring admits unique factorization, the behavior
of ideals, and the Galois groups of fields, can resolve questions of primary importance in number theory, like
the existence of solutions to Diophantine equations.

The unsolved problem stimulated the development of algebraic number theory in the 19th century and the
proof of the modularity theorem in the 20th century. It is among the most notable theorems in the history of
mathematics and prior to its proof was in the Guinness Book of World Records as the "most difficult
mathematical problem" in part because the theorem has the largest number of unsuccessful proofs.
Through their correspondence in 1654, Fermat and Blaise Pascal helped lay the foundation for the theory of
probability. From this brief but productive collaboration on the problem of points, they are now regarded as
joint founders of probability theory.[17] Fermat is credited with carrying out the first-ever rigorous probability
calculation. In it, he was asked by a professional gambler why if he bet on rolling at least one six in four
throws of a die he won in the long term, whereas betting on throwing at least one double-six in 24 throws of
two dice resulted in his losing. Fermat showed mathematically why this was the case.
Pierre de Fermat died on January 12, 1665, at Castres, in the present-day department of Tarn. Together
with René Descartes, Fermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century.
 14. BLAISE PASCAL
He was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer Born 19 June 1623
and Catholic theologian. He was a child prodigy who was
educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. Pascal's Clermont-Ferrand,
earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences. In
Auvergne, France
1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work
on calculating machines. After three years of effort and 50
prototypes,[8] he built 20 finished machines (called Pascal's
Died 19 August 1662 (aged 39)
calculators and later Pascalines) over the following 10 years,
[9]
 establishing him as one of the first two inventors of Paris, France
the mechanical calculator.[10][11]
Pascal was an important mathematician, helping create two
major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise Nationality French
on the subject of projective geometry at the age of 16, and
later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability
theory, strongly influencing the development of modern Era 17th-century philosophy
economics and social science. Throughout his life, Pascal
was in frail health, especially after the age of 18; he died just
Region Western philosophy
two months after his 39th birthday.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO MATHEMATICS
School Jansenism
Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his
life. His Traité du triangle arithmétique ("Treatise on the
Arithmetical Triangle") of 1654 described a convenient Main interests Theology
tabular presentation for binomial coefficients, now Mathematics
called Pascal's triangle. The triangle can also be
represented: Philosophy

Physics
He defines the numbers in the triangle by recursion: Call the
number in the (m + 1)th row and (n + 1)th column tmn. Notable ideas Pascal's Wager
Then tmn = tm–1,n + tm,n–1, for m = 0, 1, 2, ... and n = 0, 1, 2, ... The
boundary conditions are tm,−1 = 0, t−1,n = 0 for m = 1, 2, 3, ... Pascal's triangle
and n = 1, 2, 3, ... The generator t00 = 1. Pascal concludes Pascal's law
with the proof,
Pascal's theorem
( m+ n )( m+n−1 ) …(m+1)
t mn=
n ( n−1 ) … 1
In 1654, he proved Pascal's identity relating the sums of the p-th powers of the first n positive integers for p = 0, 1, 2,
..., k.
In 1654, prompted by his friend the Chevalier de Méré, he corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on the subject of
gambling problems, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probabilities.[19] The specific
problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game,
want to divide the stakes fairly(The problem of points, also called the problem of division of the stakes, is a
classical problem in probability theory.), based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point. From
this discussion, the notion of expected value was introduced. Pascal later (in the Pensées) used a probabilistic
argument, Pascal's Wager, to justify belief in God and a virtuous life. Pascal's wager is an argument in philosophy
presented by the seventeenth-century French philosopher, mathematician and physicist, Blaise Pascal (1623–
1662).[1] It posits that humans bet with their lives that God either exists or does not. The work done by Fermat and
Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for Leibniz' formulation of the calculus.[20]
NOTE:
1.In probability theory, the expected value of a random variable is closely related to the weighted
average and intuitively is the arithmetic mean of a large number of independent realizations of that variable. The
expected value is also known as the expectation, mathematical expectation, mean, average, or first moment.
 3. Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability. Although there are several
different probability interpretations, probability theory treats the concept in a rigorous mathematical manner
by expressing it through a set of axioms.
After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics.
PHILOSOPHY IN MATHS
Pascal's major contribution to the philosophy of mathematics came with his De l'Esprit géométrique ("Of the
Geometrical Spirit"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous "Petites-Ecoles de
Port-Royal" ("Little Schools of Port-Royal"). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here,
Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal of such a method would be to found all
propositions on already established truths. . Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was
as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them.
In De l'Art de persuader ("On the Art of Persuasion"), Pascal looked deeper into geometry's axiomatic method,
specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based.
Pascal agreed with Montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is
impossible. He asserted that these principles can be grasped only through intuition, and that this fact underscored
the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths.
15. ISSAC NEWTON
Sir Isaac Newton PRS (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27[a]) was an English
mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author (described in his own day as a "natural
philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in
the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made
seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the
infinitesimal calculus.  In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of
power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for
approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

Born 4 January 1643 [O.S. 25 December 1642][a]

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, E

ngland

Died 31 March 1727 (aged 84) [O.S. 20 March

1726][a]

Kensington, Middlesex, England

Resting place Westminster Abbey

Nationality English

Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge

Newtonian mechanics
Known for
Universal gravitation

Calculus

Newton's laws of motion

 Optics

Binomial series

Principia

Newton's method

Awards FRS (1672)[3]

Knight Bachelor (1705)

Scientific career

Fields Physics

Natural philosophy

Alchemy

Theology

Mathematics

Astronomy

Economics

Institutions University of Cambridge

Royal Society

Royal Mint

Academic Isaac Barrow[4]

advisors Benjamin Pulleyn[5][6]

Notable Roger Cotes

students William Whiston

Signature

CONTRIBUTION TO MATHEMATICS
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied." [22] His work on
the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published
among Newton's mathematical papers.
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the Leibniz–
Newton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus
independently, although with very different mathematical notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that
Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz
began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays
recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and
after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.
His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small
quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and
last ratios"[25] and explained why he put his expositions in this form, [26] remarking also that "hereby the same thing
is performed as by the method of indivisibles."[ Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with
 the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times [28] and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is
of this calculus.”
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. 
In elementary algebra, the binomial theorem (or binomial expansion) describes the algebraic expansion
of powers of a binomial. According to the theorem, it is possible to expand the polynomial (x + y)n into
a sum involving terms of the form axbyc, where the exponents b and c are nonnegative integers with b + c = n,
and the coefficient a of each term is a specific positive integer depending on n and b. For example (for n = 4),

( x + y )4=x 4 + 4 x 3 y +6 x 2 y 2+ 4 x y 3 + y 4
n ❑n
The coefficient a in the term of axbyc is known as the binomial coefficient   or  ❑  (the two have the same
b c
value). 
Around 1665, Isaac Newton generalized the binomial theorem to allow real exponents other than nonnegative
integers. (The same generalization also applies to complex exponents.) In this generalization, the finite sum is
replaced by an infinite series. In order to do this, one needs to give meaning to binomial coefficients with an
arbitrary upper index, which cannot be done using the usual formula with factorials. However, for an arbitrary
number r, one can define
r ( r −1 ) … (r−k +1) ( r ) k
( rk)= k!
=
k!
where (.)k ¿ is the Pochhammer symbol, here standing for a falling factorial. This agrees with the usual
definitions when r is a nonnegative integer. Then, if x and y are real numbers with |x| > |y|,[Note 1] and r is any
complex number, one has
∞
( x + y ) =∑ ( r ) xr −k y k
r

k=0 k

r ( r −1 ) r−2 2 r ( r−1 ) ( r−2 ) r −3 3

¿ x r r x r −1 y + x y+ x y +…
2! 3!
When r is a nonnegative integer, the binomial coefficients for k > r are zero, so this equation reduces to the
usual binomial theorem, and there are at most r + 1 nonzero terms. For other values of r, the series
typically has infinitely many nonzero terms.
For example, r = 1/2 gives the following series for the square root:

1 1 2 1 3 5 4 7 5
√ 1+ x=1+ x− x + x − x + x −…
2 8 16 128 256
Taking r = −1, the generalized binomial series gives the geometric series formula, valid for |x| < 1:
1
❑❑ ( 1+ x )−1= =1−x+ x2 −x3 + x 4 −x 5+ …
1+ x
More generally, with r= -s:

∞
❑ 1 = ( s +k −1) x k
❑ (1−x )s ∑
k=0 k
So, for instance, when s = 1/2,
1 1 3 5 35 4 63 5
=1− x + x 2− x 3 + x− x +…
√ 1+ x 2 8 16 128 256
He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in
two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional
indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He
approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and was
the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was
inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.
NEWTON IDENTITIES-In mathematics, Newton's identities, also known as the Girard-Newton formulae, give
relations between two types of symmetric polynomials, namely between power sums and elementary symmetric
polynomials. Evaluated at the roots of a monic polynomial P in one variable, they allow expressing the sums of
the k-th powers of all roots of P (counted with their multiplicity) in terms of the coefficients of P, without actually
finding those roots. These identities were found by Isaac Newton around 1666, apparently in ignorance of earlier
work (1629) by Albert Girard. They have applications in many areas of mathematics, including Galois
theory, invariant theory, group theory, combinatorics, as well as further applications outside mathematics,
including general relativity.
NEWTON’S METHOD-In numerical analysis, Newton's method, also known as the Newton–Raphson method,
named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, is a root-finding algorithm which produces successively
better approximations to the roots (or zeroes) of a real-valued function. The most basic version starts with a single-
variable function f defined for a real variable x, the function's derivative f ′, and an initial guess x0 for a root of f. If the
f ( x0 )
function satisfies sufficient assumptions and the initial guess is close, then x 1=x 0− .
f '¿¿
is a better approximation of the root than x0. Geometrically, (x1, 0) is the intersection of the x-axis and the tangent of
the graph of f at (x0, f (x0)): that is, the improved guess is the unique root of the linear approximation at the initial
f (x n)
point. The process is repeated as x n+1=x n − .
f ' ¿¿
until a sufficiently precise value is reached. This algorithm is first in the class of Householder's methods, succeeded
by Halley's method. The method can also be extended to complex functions and to systems of equations.
FINITE DIFFERENCES-A finite difference is a mathematical expression of the form f (x + b) − f (x + a). If a finite
difference is divided by b − a, one gets a difference quotient. The approximation of derivatives by finite differences
plays a central role in finite difference methods for the numerical solution of differential equations,
especially boundary value problems.
Certain recurrence relations can be written as difference equations by replacing iteration notation with finite
differences.  Newton forward difference equation, named after Isaac Newton; in essence, it is the Newton
interpolation formula, first published in his Principia Mathematica in 1687,[6] namely the discrete analog of the
continuous Taylor expansion,
∞ ∞
∆k |f |( a)
f ( x )= ∑ ( x−a)k =∑ ( x−a ¿ ¿)∆k ∨f ∨(a)¿¿
k=0 k! k =0 k
POWER SERIES- they were first used by Newton. In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite
series of the form
∞

∑ an ¿ ¿
n=0

where an represents the coefficient of the nth term and c is a constant. an is independent of x and may be
expressed as a function of n (e.g., ❑❑ a n=1/ n !). Power series are useful in analysis since they arise
as Taylor series of infinitely differentiable functions. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CUBICS- Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised them into
four types.[when?] In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, James Stirling proved that every cubic was one of
these four types. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of
them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death.
 16. GOTTFRIED WILHELM LIEBNIZ
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (sometimes spelled Leibnitz) (/ˈlaɪbnɪts/;[11] German: [ˈɡɔtfʁiːt ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn
ˈlaɪbnɪts][12][13] or [ˈlaɪpnɪts];[14] French: Godefroi Guillaume Leibnitz;[15] 1 July 1646 [O.S. 21 June] – 14
November 1716) was a prominent German polymath and one of the most important logicians,
mathematicians and natural philosophers of the Enlightenment. As a representative of the seventeenth-
century tradition of rationalism, Leibniz developed, as his most prominent accomplishment, the ideas
of differential and integral calculus, independently of Isaac Newton's contemporaneous developments.
[16]
 Mathematical works have consistently favored Leibniz's notation as the conventional expression of
calculus.[citation needed] It was only in the 20th century that Leibniz's law of continuity and transcendental law of
homogeneity found mathematical implementation (by means of non-standard analysis). He became one of
the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic
multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in
1685[17] and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical
calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is the foundation of all digital computers.

Born Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

1 July 1646

Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony, Holy Roman Empire

Died 14 November 1716 (aged 70)

Hanover, Electorate of Hanover, Holy Roman Empire

Nationality German

Alte Nikolaischule
Education
(1655–1661)
Leipzig University (1661–1666:
B.A. in phil., Dec. 1662

M.A. in phil., Feb. 1664

LL.B., Sep. 1665

Dr. phil. hab., Mar. 1666)

University of Jena

(summer school, 1663)[1]

University of Altdorf

(Dr. jur., November 1666)

Era 17th-/18th-century philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Rationalism

Pluralistic idealism[2]

Foundationalism[3]

Conceptualism[4]
 Optimism

Indirect realism[5]

Correspondence theory of truth[6]

Relationism

Theses De Arte Combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art) (March 1666)

Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure (Inaugural Disputation on Ambiguous Legal

Cases) (November 1666)

Doctoral de:Bartholomäus Leonhard von Schwendendörffer (Dr. jur. advisor)[7][8]

advisor

Other acade Erhard Weigel (Jena)[1]

mic advisors Jakob Thomasius (B.A. advisor)[9]

Christiaan Huygens

Notable Jacob Bernoulli (epistolary correspondent)

students Christian Wolff (epistolary correspondent)

Main Mathematics, physics, geology, medicine, biology, embryology, epidemiology, veterinary
interests
medicine, paleontology, psychology, engineering, linguistics, philology, sociology, metaphysics, ethics, economics, dip

lomacy, history, politics, music theory, poetry, logic, theodicy, universal language, universal science

Contribution to mathematics
Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his
day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts
derived from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular.[87] In the 18th century,
"function" lost these geometrical associations. Leibniz also believed that the sum of an infinite number of zeros
would equal to one half using the analogy of the creation of the world from nothing. [88] Leibniz was also one of the
pioneers in actuarial science, calculating the purchase price of life annuities and the liquidation of a state's debt. [89]
Leibniz's discoveries of Boolean algebra and of symbolic logic are also relevant to mathematics. The best overview
of Leibniz's writings on calculus may be found in Bos (1974).
1.Linear equations
Leibniz arranged the coefficients of a system of linear equations into an array, now called a matrix, in order to find a
solution to the system if it existed.[91] This method was later called Gaussian elimination. Leibniz laid down the
foundations and theory of determinants, although Seki Takakazu discovered determinants well before Leibniz.[92]
[93]
 His works show calculating the determinants using cofactors. [94] Calculating the determinant using cofactors is
named the Leibniz formula. Finding the determinant of a matrix using this method proves impractical with large n,
requiring to calculate n! products and the number of n-permutations.[95] He also solved systems of linear equations
using determinants, which is now called Cramer's rule. This method for solving systems of linear equations based
on determinants was found in 1684 by Leibniz (Cramer published his findings in 1750). [93] Although Gaussian
elimination requires 0( n3) o 0000 lm . arithmetic operations, linear algebra textbooks still teach cofactor expansion
before LU factorization.
LIEBNIZ FORMULA—It  expresses the determinant of a square matrix in terms of permutations of the matrix
elements. If A is an n×n matrix, where ai,j is the entry in the ith row and jth column of A, the formula is
n n
det ( A )= ∑ sgn(r ) ∏ a i, r (i )= ∑ sgn (σ ) ∏ a σ (i ) ,i
r ∈ Sn i=1 r ∈ Sn i=1
GEOMETRY
1 1 1 π
The Leibniz formula for  π states that 1− + + + …= .
3 5 7 4
Leibniz wrote that circles "can most simply be expressed by this series, that is, the aggregate of fractions alternately
added and subtracted".[98] However this formula is only accurate with a large number of terms, using 10,000,000
terms to obtain the correct value of π/4  to 8 decimal places.[99] Leibniz attempted to create a definition for a straight
line while attempting to prove the parallel postulate.[100] While most mathematicians defined a straight line as the
shortest line between two points, Leibniz believed that this was merely a property of a straight line rather than the
definition.
CALCULUS
Leibniz is credited, along with Sir Isaac Newton, with the discovery of calculus (differential and integral calculus).
According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on 11 November 1675, when he employed
integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of a function y = f(x).[102] He introduced several
notations used to this day, for instance the integral sign ∫, representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa,
and the d used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia. Leibniz did not publish anything about his calculus
until 1684.[103] Leibniz expressed the inverse relation of integration and differentiation, later called the fundamental
theorem of calculus, by means of a figure[104] in his 1693 paper Supplementum geometriae dimensoriae....
[105]
 However, James Gregory is credited for the theorem's discovery in geometric form, Isaac Barrow proved a more
generalized geometric version, and Newton developed supporting theory. The concept became more transparent as
developed through Leibniz's formalism and new notation. [106] The product rule of differential calculus is still called
"Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral sign is called
the Leibniz integral rule.
Leibniz exploited infinitesimals (quantities that are closer to zero than any standard real number, but are not
zero. ) in developing calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting that they had paradoxical algebraic properties.
From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with John Keill, Newton and others, over whether
Leibniz had invented calculus independently of Newton. This subject is treated at length in the article Leibniz–
Newton calculus controversy.
1. The law of continuity is a heuristic principle introduced by Gottfried Leibniz based on earlier work
by Nicholas of Cusa and Johannes Kepler. It is the principle that "whatever succeeds for the finite,
also succeeds for the infinite". [1] Kepler used The Law of Continuity to calculate the area of the circle
by representing the latter as an infinite-sided polygon with infinitesimal sides, and adding the areas
of infinitely-many triangles with infinitesimal bases. Leibniz used the principle to extend concepts
such as arithmetic operations, from ordinary numbers to infinitesimals, laying the groundwork
for infinitesimal calculus. A mathematical implementation of the law of continuity is provided by
the transfer principle in the context of the hyperreal numbers.
2. In mathematics, the transcendental law of homogeneity (TLH) is a heuristic principle enunciated
by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz most clearly in a 1710 text entitled Symbolismus memorabilis calculi
algebraici et infinitesimalis in comparatione potentiarum et differentiarum, et de lege homogeneorum
transcendentali.[1] Henk J. M. Bos describes it as the principle to the effect that in a sum
involving infinitesimals of different orders, only the lowest-order term must be retained, and the
remainder discarded.[2] Thus, if a is finite and dx is infinitesimal, then one sets a+dx=a .
Similarly, dv + v du +du dv=u dv + v du .
where the higher-order term du dv is discarded in accordance with the TLH. A recent study argues that
Leibniz's TLH was a precursor of the standard part function over the hyperreals.
TOPOLOGY
What is Topology?
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek words τόπος, 'place', and λόγος, 'study') is concerned with the
properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such
as stretching, twisting, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing.
 Leibniz was the first to use the term analysis situs,[110] later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now
known as topology.We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that "the straight line is a
curve, any part of which is similar to the whole", he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As
for "packing", Leibniz told his friend and correspondent Des Bosses to imagine a circle, then to inscribe
within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even
smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good
idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept. de
17. EULER
Leonhard Euler (/ˈɔɪlər/ OY-lər;[2] German: [ˈɔʏlɐ] ( listen)[3]; 15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a Swiss
mathematician, physicist, astronomer, geographer, logician and engineer who made important and influential
discoveries in many branches of mathematics, such as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making
pioneering contributions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory. He also introduced much
of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of
a mathematical function.[4] He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy and music
theory.[5]
Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century and is held to be one of the greatest in
history. He is also widely considered to be the most prolific, as his collected works fill 92 volumes, [6] more than
anyone else in the field. He spent most of his adult life in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital
of Prussia.
A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read
Euler, he is the master of us all."

Born 15 April 1707

Basel, Switzerland

Died 18 September 1783 (aged 76)

[OS: 7 September 1783]

Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire

Alma mater University of Basel (MPhil)

Known for See full list

Spouse(s) Katharina Gsell (1734–1773)

Salome Abigail Gsell (1776–1783)

Scientific career

Fields Mathematics and physics

Institutions Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences

Berlin Academy
 Thesis Dissertatio physica de sono ("Physical

dissertation on sound") (1726)

Doctoral advisor Johann Bernoulli

Doctoral students Johann Hennert

Other notable Nicolas Fuss

students Stepan Rumovsky

Joseph-Louis Lagrange (epistolary

correspondent)

DEATH-Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. In 1738, three years after nearly
expiring from fever, he became almost blind in his right eye. He later developed a cataract in his left eye,
which was discovered in 1766. Just a few weeks after its discovery, a failed surgical restoration rendered
him almost totally blind. In St. Petersburg on 18 September 1783, after a lunch with his family, Euler was
discussing the newly discovered planet Uranus and its orbit with a fellow academician Anders Johan Lexell,
when he collapsed from a brain hemorrhage. He died a few hours later.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO MATHEMATICS
Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics, such as geometry, infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra,
and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in
the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between
60 and 80 quarto volumes.[25] Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics.
Euler is the only mathematician to have two numbers named after him: the important Euler's number in calculus, e,
approximately equal to 2.71828, and the Euler–Mascheroni constant γ (gamma) sometimes referred to as just
"Euler's constant", approximately equal to 0.57721. It is not known whether γ is rational or irrational.
1. MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely
circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function[4] and was the first to
write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation
for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known
as Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit.
[34]
 The use of the Greek letter π to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was
also popularized by Euler, although it originated with Welsh mathematician William Jones.

2. ANALYSIS
The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th-century mathematical research, and
the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their
influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not
acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour[36] (in particular his reliance on the principle of the generality
of algebra), his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use and
development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as
∞
xn 1 x x2 xn
e x =∑ =lim ( + + +…+ )
n=0 n ! n →∞ 0 ! 1 ! 2 ! n!
Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function.
(Indirect proof via the inverse power series technique was given by Newton and Leibniz between
 1670 and 1680.) His daring use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in
1735 (he provided a more elaborate argument in 1741): [
∞
π2
∑ n12 =¿ nlim
→∞ ( 1 1 1
+ +
12 22 32
+…+
1
=
n2 6 )
¿
n =1

Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to
express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative
and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms. [34] He also
defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For
any real number φ (taken to be radians), Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies

e iφ=cos φ+i sin φ . A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity, e iπ +1=0 .
called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard P. Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of
addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and π.
[37]
 In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever".[38] In
total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll. [38]
De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.

Moivre formula-- (cos ( x ) +i sin ( x ) )n=cos ( nx ) +i sin ⁡(nx ) where i is the imaginary unit (i2 = −1).
In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and
introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex
limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis. He also invented the calculus of
variations including its best-known result, the Euler–Lagrange equation.
Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two
disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground
for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and
the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of
the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are
distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.

3. NUMBER THEORY
 A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed some of
Fermat's ideas and disproved some of his conjectures.
Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the
primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime
numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.
Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made
distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n), the number of
positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function, he
generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the
theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. He proved that the relationship
shown between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes earlier proved by Euclid was one-to-one, a result
otherwise known as the Euclid–Euler theorem. Euler also conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The concept
is regarded as a fundamental theorem of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich
Gauss.[40] By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 − 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained
the largest known prime until 1867.

4. GRAPH THEORY
SEVEN BRIDGES OF KONIGSBERG PROBLEM-The city of Königsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) was
set on both sides of the Pregel River, and included two large islands—Kneiphof and Lomse—which were connected
to each other, or to the two mainland portions of the city, by seven bridges. The problem was to devise a walk
through the city that would cross each of those bridges once and only once.
By way of specifying the logical task unambiguously, solutions involving either

1. reaching an island or mainland bank other than via one of the bridges, or
2. accessing any bridge without crossing to its other end
are explicitly unacceptable.
In 1735, Euler presented a solution to the problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.  It is not possible:
there is no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory, specifically of planar
graph theory.[42]
Euler also discovered the formula V-E+F=2 relating the number of vertices, edges and faces of a convex
polyhedron,[43] and hence of a planar graph. The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler characteristic for
the graph (or other mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object.[44] The study and generalization of
this formula, specifically by Cauchy[45] and L'Huilier,[46] is at the origin of topology.
5. APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in
describing numerous applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Euler numbers, the
constants e and π, continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with
Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical
problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing
what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations
are Euler's method and the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential
equations, in particular introducing the Euler–Mascheroni constant:
❑
1 1 1 1
γ =lim (1+ + + + …+ −¿ ( n ) )
n→∞ 2 3 4 n
One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote
the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics. This
part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians
and too musical for mathematicians.[47]
In 1911, almost 130 years after Euler's death, Alfred J. Lotka used Euler's work to derive the Euler–Lotka
equation for calculating rates of population growth for age-structured populations, a fundamental method that is
commonly used in population biology and ecology.
Basel problem-The Basel problem asks for the precise summation of the reciprocals of the squares of the natural
numbers, i.e. the precise sum of the infinite series:
∞

∑ n12 = 112 + 212 + 312 + …

n =1

18. CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (/ɡaʊs/; German: Gauß [ˈkaʁl ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɡaʊs] ( listen);[1][2] Latin: Carolus
Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician and physicist who made
significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science. [3] Sometimes referred to as the Princeps
mathematicorum[4] (Latin for '"the foremost of mathematicians"') and "the greatest mathematician since
antiquity", Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science, and is ranked
among history's most influential mathematicians.

Born Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss

30 April 1777
 Brunswick, Principality of Brunswick-

Wolfenbüttel

Died 23 February 1855 (aged 77)

Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover, German

Confederation

Nationality German

Alma mater Collegium Carolinum, University of

Göttingen, University of Helmstedt

Known for See full list

Johanna Osthoff (1805–1809)

Spouse(s)
Minna Waldeck (1810–1831)

Children Joseph

Wilhelmina

Louis

Eugene

Wilhelm

Therese

Awards Lalande Prize (1809)

Copley Medal (1838)

Scientific career

Fields Mathematics and physics

Institutions University of Göttingen

Thesis Demonstratio nova... (1799)

Doctoral advisor Johann Friedrich Pfaff

Other academic Johann Christian Martin Bartels

advisors

Doctoral students Johann Listing

Christian Ludwig Gerling

Richard Dedekind

Bernhard Riemann
 Christian Peters

Moritz Cantor

Other notable Johann Encke

students Christoph Gudermann

Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet

Gotthold Eisenstein

Carl Wolfgang Benjamin Goldschmidt

Gustav Kirchhoff

Ernst Kummer

August Ferdinand Möbius

L. C. Schnürlein

Julius Weisbach

Sophie Germain (correspondent as

«Monsieur Le Blanc»)

Influenced Ferdinand Minding

PERSONALITY
Gauss was an ardent perfectionist and a hard worker. He was never a prolific writer, refusing to publish work
which he did not consider complete and above criticism. This was in keeping with his personal motto pauca
sed matura ("few, but ripe"). His personal diaries indicate that he had made several important mathematical
discoveries years or decades before his contemporaries published them. Scottish-American mathematician
and writer Eric Temple Bell said that if Gauss had published all of his discoveries in a timely manner, he
would have advanced mathematics by fifty years.
CONTRIBUTIONS
ALGEBRA
In his 1799 doctorate in absentia, A new proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one
variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree, Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of
algebra which states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one
complex root. Mathematicians including Jean le Rond d'Alembert had produced false proofs before him, and
Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. Ironically, by today's standard, Gauss's own attempt is
not acceptable, owing to the implicit use of the Jordan curve theorem. However, he subsequently produced three
other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts clarified the concept of complex numbers
considerably along the way.
Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Latin,
Arithmetical Investigations), which, among other things, introduced the symbol ≡ for congruence and used it in a
clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed
the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a
regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. It appears that Gauss
already knew the class number formula in 1801.[51]
In addition, he proved the following conjectured theorems:

 Fermat polygonal number theorem for n = 3

 Fermat's last theorem for n = 5
 Descartes's rule of signs
 In mathematics, Descartes' rule of signs, first described by René Descartes in his work La Géométrie, is a
technique for getting information on the number of positive real roots of a polynomial. It asserts that the number
of positive roots is at most the number of sign changes in the sequence of polynomial's coefficients (omitting the
zero coefficients), and that the difference between these two numbers is always even. This implies, in particular,
that if the number of sign changes is zero or one, then there are exactly zero or one positive roots, respectively.

 Kepler conjecture for regular arrangements

The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, is
a mathematical theorem about sphere packing in three-dimensional Euclidean space. It states that no
arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close
packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. The density of these arrangements
is around 74.05%.
He also

 explained the pentagramma mirificum (see University of Bielefeld website)

 developed an algorithm for determining the date of Easter
 invented the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm for calculating the discrete Fourier transforms 160 years before
Cooley and Tukey
 The Cooley–Tukey algorithm, named after J. W. Cooley and John Tukey, is the most common fast Fourier
transform (FFT) algorithm. It re-expresses the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of an
arbitrary composite size N = N1N2 in terms of N1 smaller DFTs of sizes N2, recursively, to reduce the
computation time to O(N log N) for highly composite N (smooth numbers). Because of the algorithm's
importance, specific variants and implementation styles have become known by their own names, as
described below.
 Because the Cooley–Tukey algorithm breaks the DFT into smaller DFTs, it can be combined arbitrarily with
any other algorithm for the DFT.

NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRIES

In mathematics, non-Euclidean geometry consists of two geometries based on axioms closely related to those

specifying Euclidean geometry. As Euclidean geometry lies at the intersection of metric geometry and affine
geometry, non-Euclidean geometry arises when either the metric requirement is relaxed, or the parallel
postulate is replaced with an alternative one. In the latter case one obtains hyperbolic geometry and elliptic
geometry, the traditional non-Euclidean geometries. When the metric requirement is relaxed, then there are
affine planes associated with the planar algebras which give rise to kinematic geometries that have also been
called non-Euclidean geometry.
Gauss also claimed to have discovered the possibility of non-Euclidean geometries but never published it. This
discovery was a major paradigm shift in mathematics, as it freed mathematicians from the mistaken belief that
Euclid's axioms were the only way to make geometry consistent and non-contradictory.
Research on these geometries led to, among other things, Einstein's theory of general relativity, which describes the
universe as non-Euclidean. 

THEOREMA EGREGIUM
The geodetic survey of Hanover, which required Gauss to spend summers traveling on horseback for a decade,
[62]
 fueled Gauss's interest in differential geometry and topology, fields of mathematics dealing
with curves and surfaces. Among other things, he came up with the notion of Gaussian curvature. This led in 1828
to an important theorem, the Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem), establishing an important property of the
notion of curvature. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by
measuring angles and distances on the surface.
That is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be embedded in 3-dimensional space or 2-
dimensional space.
 19. SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN

Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS (/ˈsrɪnɪvɑːs rɑːˈmɑːnʊdʒən/;[1] born Srinivasa Ramanujan Aiyangar,

22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920)[2][3] was an Indian mathematician who lived during the British
Rule in India. Though he had almost no formal training in pure mathematics, he made
substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued
fractions, including solutions to mathematical problems then considered unsolvable. Ramanujan
initially developed his own mathematical research in isolation. During his short life, Ramanujan
independently compiled nearly 3,900 results (mostly identities and equations).[6] Many were
completely novel; his original and highly unconventional results, such as the Ramanujan prime,
the Ramanujan theta function, partition formulae and mock theta functions, have opened entire
new areas of work and inspired a vast amount of further research. [7] Nearly all his claims have
now been proven correct. In 1919, ill health—now believed to have been
hepatic amoebiasiscompelled Ramanujan's return to India, where he died in 1920 at the age of
32. 

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS

In mathematics there is a distinction between insight and formulating or working through a proof.
Ramanujan proposed an abundance of formulae that could be investigated later in depth. G. H.
Hardy said that Ramanujan's discoveries are unusually rich and that there is often more to them
than initially meets the eye. As a byproduct of his work, new directions of research were opened
up. Examples of the most intriguing of these formulae include infinite series for π, one of which is
given below:
∞
1 2√2 ( 4 k ) !(1103 +26390 k )
= ∑
π 9801 k=0 (k !)4 3964 k

his result is based on the negative fundamental discriminant d = −4 × 58 = −232 with class

number h(d) = 2. Further, 26390 = 5 × 7 × 13 × 58 and 16 × 9801 = 3962, which is related to the
fact that e π √ 58=3964 −104.000000177 …
This might be compared to Heegner numbers, which have class number 1 and yield similar formulae.
Ramanujan's series for π converges extraordinarily rapidly (exponentially) and forms the basis of some of the fastest
algorithms currently used to calculate π. Truncating the sum to the first term also gives the
approximation 9801√2/4412  for π, which is correct to six decimal places; truncating it to the first two terms gives a
value correct to 14 decimal places. One of Ramanujan's remarkable capabilities was the rapid solution of problems.
His intuition also led him to derive some previously unknown identities, such as
¿¿
for all θ, where Γ(z) is the gamma function, and related to a special value of the Dedekind eta function. Expanding
into series of powers and equating coefficients of θ0, θ4, and θ8 gives some deep identities for the hyperbolic secant.
In 1918 Hardy and Ramanujan studied the partition function P(n) extensively. They gave a non-convergent
asymptotic series that permits exact computation of the number of partitions of an integer. In 1937 Hans
Rademacher refined their formula to find an exact convergent series solution to this problem. Ramanujan and
Hardy's work in this area gave rise to a powerful new method for finding asymptotic formulae called the circle
method.[66]
In the last year of his life, Ramanujan discovered mock theta functions.[67] For many years these functions were a
mystery, but they are now known to be the holomorphic parts of harmonic weak Maass forms.
In mathematics, a mock modular form is the holomorphic part of a harmonic weak Maass form, and a mock theta
function is essentially a mock modular form of weight 1/2. The first examples of mock theta functions were
described by Srinivasa Ramanujan in his last 1920 letter to G. H. Hardy and in his lost notebook. Sander
Zwegers (2001, 2002) discovered that adding certain non-holomorphic functions to them turns them into harmonic
weak Maass forms.
RAMANUJAN CONJECTURE
Although there are numerous statements that could have borne the name Ramanujan conjecture, one was highly
influential on later work.  That Ramanujan conjecture is an assertion on the size of the tau-function, which has as
generating function the discriminant modular form Δ(q), a typical cusp form in the theory of modular forms. It was
finally proven in 1973, as a consequence of Pierre Deligne's proof of the Weil conjectures. The reduction step
involved is complicated. 
In his paper "On certain arithmetical functions", Ramanujan defined the so-called delta-function, whose coefficients
are called τ(n) (the Ramanujan tau function).[68] He proved many congruences for these numbers, such as τ(p) ≡ 1
+ p11 mod 691 for primes p. This congruence (and others like it that Ramanujan proved) inspired Jean-Pierre
Serre (1954 Fields Medalist) to conjecture that there is a theory of Galois representations that "explains" these
congruences and more generally all modular forms. Δ(z) is the first example of a modular form to be studied in this
way. The proof of Fermat's Last Theorem proceeds by first reinterpreting elliptic curves and modular forms in terms
of these Galois representations. Without this theory there would be no proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.

HARDY-RAMANUJAN NUMBER 1729

The number 1729 is known as the Hardy–Ramanujan number after a famous visit by Hardy to see Ramanujan at a
hospital. Immediately before this anecdote, Hardy quoted Littlewood as saying, "Every positive integer was one of
[Ramanujan's] personal friends."[72]
The two different ways are:1729=13 +123 =93 +103. Generalizations of this idea have created the notion of "taxicab
numbers".
20. EMMY NOETHER
Amalie Emmy Noether[a] (German: [ˈnøːtɐ]; 23 March 1882 – 14 April 1935) was
a German mathematician who made important contributions to abstract
algebra and theoretical physics.[1] She invariably used the name "Emmy Noether" in her life
and publications.[a] She was described by Pavel Alexandrov, Albert Einstein, Jean
Dieudonné, Hermann Weyl and Norbert Wiener as the most important woman in the history
of mathematics.[2][3] As one of the leading mathematicians of her time, she developed the
theories of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the connection
between symmetry and conservation laws. On 14 April she fell unconscious, her temperature
soared to 109 °F (42.8 °C), and she died. 

Born Amalie Emmy Noether

23 March 1882

Erlangen, Bavaria, German Empire

Died 14 April 1935 (aged 53)

Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, United States

Nationality German

Alma mater University of Erlangen

Abstract algebra
Known for
 Theoretical physics

Noether's theorem

Awards Ackermann–Teubner Memorial Award (1932)

Scientific career

Fields Mathematics and physics

Institutions University of Göttingen

Bryn Mawr College

Thesis On Complete Systems of Invariants for Ternary

Biquadratic Forms (1907)

Doctoral Paul Gordan

advisor

Doctoral Max Deuring

students Hans Fitting

Grete Hermann

Chiungtze C. Tsen

Jacob Levitzki

Otto Schilling

Ernst Witt

She showed an acute propensity for abstract thought, which allowed her to approach
problems of mathematics in fresh and original ways.
Noether's mathematical work has been divided into three "epochs". [5] In the first (1908–1919),
she made contributions to the theories of algebraic invariants and number fields. Her work on
differential invariants in the calculus of variations, Noether's theorem, has been called "one
of the most important mathematical theorems ever proved in guiding the development of
modern physics".[6] In the second epoch (1920–1926), she began work that "changed the
face of [abstract] algebra".[7] In her classic 1921 paper Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen (Theory
of Ideals in Ring Domains) Noether developed the theory of ideals in commutative rings into
a tool with wide-ranging applications. She made elegant use of the ascending chain
condition, and objects satisfying it are named Noetherian in her honor. In the third epoch
(1927–1935), she published works on noncommutative algebras and hypercomplex
numbers and united the representation theory of groups with the theory of modules and
ideals. In addition to her own publications, Noether was generous with her ideas and is
credited with several lines of research published by other mathematicians, even in fields far
removed from her main work, such as algebraic topology.

INTEGERS AS A RING
The integers form a commutative ring whose elements are the integers, and the combining operations are addition
and multiplication. Any pair of integers can be added or multiplied, always resulting in another integer, and the first
operation, addition, is commutative, i.e., for any elements a and b in the ring, a + b = b + a. The second operation,
multiplication, also is commutative, but that need not be true for other rings, meaning that a combined with b might
be different from b combined with a. Examples of noncommutative rings include matrices and quaternions. The
integers do not form a division ring, because the second operation cannot always be inverted; there is no
integer a such that 3 × a = 1.
The integers have additional properties which do not generalize to all commutative rings. An important example is
the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which says that every positive integer can be factored uniquely into prime
numbers. Unique factorizations do not always exist in other rings, but Noether found a unique factorization theorem,
now called the Lasker–Noether theorem, for the ideals of many rings. Much of Noether's work lay in determining
what properties do hold for all rings, in devising novel analogs of the old integer theorems, and in determining the
minimal set of assumptions required to yield certain properties of rings.
3 EPOCHS
In the first epoch (1907–1919), Noether dealt primarily with differential and algebraic
invariants, beginning with her dissertation under Paul Gordan. Her mathematical horizons
broadened, and her work became more general and abstract, as she became acquainted
with the work of David Hilbert, through close interactions with a successor to Gordan, Ernst
Sigismund Fischer. After moving to Göttingen in 1915, she produced her work for physics,
the two Noether's theorems.
WHAT IS INVARIANT THEORY?
Invariant theory is a branch of abstract algebra dealing with actions of groups on algebraic varieties, such as vector
spaces, from the point of view of their effect on functions. Classically, the theory dealt with the question of explicit
description of polynomial functions that do not change, or are invariant, under the transformations from a
given linear group. One of the main goals of invariant theory was to solve the "finite basis problem". The sum or
product of any two invariants is invariant, and the finite basis problem asked whether it was possible to get all the
invariants by starting with a finite list of invariants, called generators, and then, adding or multiplying the generators
together. For example, the discriminant gives a finite basis (with one element) for the invariants of binary quadratic
forms.
Noether's advisor, Paul Gordan, was known as the "king of invariant theory", and his chief contribution to
mathematics was his 1870 solution of the finite basis problem for invariants of homogeneous polynomials in two
variables.[90][91] He proved this by giving a constructive method for finding all of the invariants and their generators, but
was not able to carry out this constructive approach for invariants in three or more variables.
Galois theory provides a connection between field theory and group theory. Galois
theory concerns transformations of number fields that permute the roots of an equation.
Consider a polynomial equation of a variable x of degree n, in which the coefficients are
drawn from some ground field, which might be, for example, the field of real
numbers, rational numbers, or the integers modulo 7. There may or may not be choices of x,
which make this polynomial evaluate to zero. Such choices, if they exist, are called roots. If
the polynomial is x2 + 1 and the field is the real numbers, then the polynomial has no roots,
because any choice of x makes the polynomial greater than or equal to one. If the field
is extended, however, then the polynomial may gain roots, and if it is extended enough, then
it always has a number of roots equal to its degree.
In 1918, Noether published a paper on the inverse Galois problem.[95] Instead of determining
the Galois group of transformations of a given field and its extension, Noether asked
whether, given a field and a group, it always is possible to find an extension of the field that
has the given group as its Galois group. She reduced this to "Noether's problem", which asks
whether the fixed field of a subgroup G of the permutation group Sn acting on the
field k(x1, ... , xn) always is a pure transcendental extension of the field k. She showed this
was true for n = 2, 3, or 4. In 1969, R.G. Swan found a counter-example to Noether's
problem, with n = 47 and G a cyclic group of order 47[97] (although this group can be realized
as a Galois group over the rationals in other ways). The inverse Galois problem remains
unsolved.

SECOND EPOCH
ASCENDING AND DESCENDING CHAIN CONDITIONS
In this epoch, Noether became famous for her deft use of ascending (Teilerkettensatz) or
descending (Vielfachenkettensatz) chain conditions. A sequence of non-
empty subsets A1, A2, A3, etc. of a set S is usually said to be ascending, if each is a subset of
 the next A1 ∁ A 2 ∁ A 3 … ¿ Conversely, a sequence of subsets of S is called descending if each
¿
contains the next subset: A1 ¿ A 2 ¿ A 3… ¿
¿

A chain becomes constant after a finite number of steps if there is an n such that ❑❑ A n=A m for all m ≥ n. A
collection of subsets of a given set satisfies the ascending chain condition if any ascending sequence becomes
constant after a finite number of steps. It satisfies the descending chain condition if any descending sequence
becomes constant after a finite number of steps.
Ascending and descending chain conditions are general, meaning that they can be applied to many types of
mathematical objects—and, on the surface, they might not seem very powerful. Noether showed how to exploit such
conditions, however, to maximum advantage.
COMMUTATIVE RINGS, IDEALS AND MODULES
Noether's paper, Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen (Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains, 1921),[102] is the foundation of
general commutative ring theory, and gives one of the first general definitions of a commutative ring. Noether proved
that in a ring which satisfies the ascending chain condition on ideals, every ideal is finitely generated. Noether's
work Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern (Abstract Structure of the
Theory of Ideals in Algebraic Number and Function Fields, 1927)[104] characterized the rings in which the ideals have
unique factorization into prime ideals as the Dedekind domains: integral domains that are Noetherian, 0- or 1-
dimensional, and integrally closed in their quotient fields. This paper also contains what now are called
the isomorphism theorems, which describe some fundamental natural isomorphisms, and some other basic results
on Noetherian and Artinian modules.
ELIMINATION THEORY
n 1923–1924, Noether applied her ideal theory to elimination theory in a formulation that she attributed to her
student, Kurt Hentzelt. She showed that fundamental theorems about the factorization of polynomials could be
carried over directly.[105][106][107] Traditionally, elimination theory is concerned with eliminating one or more variables
from a system of polynomial equations, usually by the method of resultants.
For illustration, a system of equations often can be written in the form   M v = 0   where a matrix (or linear transform)
M   (without the variable x) times a vector v (that only has non-zero powers of x) is equal to the zero vector, 0.
Hence, the determinant of the matrix   M   must be zero, providing a new equation in which the variable x has been
eliminated.
INVARIANT THEORY OF FINITE GROUPS
Noether found a solution to the finite basis problem for a finite group of transformations   G   acting on a finite-
dimensional vector space over a field of characteristic zero. Her solution shows that the ring of invariants is
generated by homogeneous invariants whose degree is less than, or equal to, the order of the finite group; this is
called Noether's bound. Her paper gave two proofs of Noether's bound, both of which also work when the
characteristic of the field is coprime to   |G|!   (the factorial of the order   |G|   of the group G). The degrees of
generators need not satisfy Noether's bound when the characteristic of the field divides the number   |G| ,[109] but
Noether was not able to determine whether this bound was correct when the characteristic of the field divides   |G|!  
but not   |G| . For many years, determining the truth or falsehood of this bound for this particular case was an open
problem, called "Noether's gap". It was finally solved independently by Fleischmann in 2000 and Fogarty in 2001,
who both showed that the bound remains true.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO TOPOLOGY
 Noether's contributions to topology illustrate her generosity with ideas and how her insights could transform entire
fields of mathematics. In topology, mathematicians study the properties of objects that remain invariant even under
deformation, properties such as their connectedness. Noether is credited with fundamental ideas that led to the
development of algebraic topology from the earlier combinatorial topology, specifically, the idea of homology groups.
Noether's suggestion that topology be studied algebraically was adopted immediately by Hopf, Alexandrov, and
others,[116] and it became a frequent topic of discussion among the mathematicians of Göttingen. [117] Noether
observed that her idea of a Betti group makes the Euler–Poincaré formula simpler to understand. Noether mentions
her own topology ideas only as an aside in a 1926 publication, [120] where she cites it as an application of group
theory.[121]
Third epoch (1927–1935): Hypercomplex numbers and representation
theory[edit]
Much work on hypercomplex numbers and group representations was carried out in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, but remained disparate. Noether united these results and gave the first general representation
theory of groups and algebras.[123]
Briefly, Noether subsumed the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into
a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions. This single work by
Noether was of fundamental importance for the development of modern algebra.
NONCOMMUNATIVE ALGEBRA
Noether also was responsible for a number of other advances in the field of algebra. With Emil Artin, Richard
Brauer, and Helmut Hasse, she founded the theory of central simple algebras. These theorems allow one to classify
all finite-dimensional central division algebras over a given number field. A subsequent paper by Noether showed,
as a special case of a more general theorem, that all maximal subfields of a division algebra D are splitting fields.
[127]
 This paper also contains the Skolem–Noether theorem which states that any two embeddings of an extension of
a field k into a finite-dimensional central simple algebra over k, are conjugate. The Brauer–Noether theorem[128] gives
a characterization of the splitting fields of a central division algebra over a field.

ABSTRACT ALGEBRA DEFINITION

In algebra, which is a broad division of mathematics, abstract algebra (occasionally called modern algebra) is the
study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices,
and algebras. The term abstract algebra was coined in the early 20th century to distinguish this area of study from
the other parts of algebra.
Algebraic structures, with their associated homomorphisms, form mathematical categories. Category theory is a
formalism that allows a unified way for expressing properties and constructions that are similar for various
structures.
Universal algebra is a related subject that studies types of algebraic structures as single objects. For example, the
structure of groups is a single object in universal algebra, which is called variety of groups.

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MATHEMATICIANS WERE NOT ONLY THE MATHEMATICIANS BUT ALSO THE PHILOSOPHERS,
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