LESSON 5 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

As we have mentioned in the previous sections, plasma membranes must allow certain substances
to enter and leave a cell, and prevent some harmful materials from entering and some essential materials
from leaving. In other words, plasma membranes are selectively permeable—they allow some
substances to pass through, but not others. If they were to lose this selectivity, the cell would no longer be
able to sustain itself, and it would be destroyed.

To help us visualize about the different type of transport mechanisms. Consider the following
situations and write your thoughts about it.

Situation A. Someone spray a perfume in a room filled with people. The perfume is at its highest
concentration in the bottle; its lowest concentration is at the edges of the room. Why do you think even
the people at the edge of the room will smells the perfume?

Thoughts:

Situation B: Glucose is a large molecule that cannot diffuse freely across the cell membrane. Ions like
sodium, potassium, and calcium are charged and are repelled by the cell membrane. However, these are
molecules that are vital for cellular processes. How do you think these molecules still end up inside the
cell and use these?

Thoughts:

I. Passive Transport

The most direct forms of membrane transport and is a naturally occurring phenomenon and does
not require the cell to exert any of its energy to accomplish the movement. In passive transport…

 substances move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

 physical space in which there is a range of concentrations of a single substance is said to
have a concentration gradient.

FORMS OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

A. Diffusion

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 Recall in situation A where a person sprayed a perfume in one area of the room and then
everyone in the room gets to smell the perfume. This is an example of diffusion in air. Diffusion is a
process where a single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the concentration is equal across a space. Materials move within the cell’s cytosol
by diffusion, and certain materials move through the plasma membrane by diffusion (Figure 3).
Diffusion expends no energy. On the contrary, concentration gradients are a form of potential
energy, dissipated as the gradient is eliminated.

Figure 3. Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a substance from an area of high concentration
(extracellular fluid, in this case) down its concentration gradient (into the cytoplasm). (credit: modification of
work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
Photo retrieved from: https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/5-4-bulk-transport

Factors Affecting Diffusion

This lack of a concentration gradient in which there is no net movement of a substance is known
as dynamic equilibrium. While diffusion will go forward in the presence of a concentration gradient of a
substance, several factors affect the rate of diffusion.

a. Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid
the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of
diffusion becomes.
b. Mass of the diffusing molecules: Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse
more slowly. The reverse is true for lighter molecules.
c. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the
molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion. Lower temperatures decrease the energy of the
molecules, thus decreasing the rate of diffusion.

d. Solvent density: As the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The
molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium.
If the medium is less dense, diffusion increases. Because cells primarily use diffusion to move
materials within the cytoplasm, any increase in the cytoplasm’s density will inhibit the movement
of the materials. An example of this is a person experiencing dehydration. As the body’s cells lose
water, the rate of diffusion decreases in the cytoplasm, and the cells’ functions deteriorate.
Neurons tend to be very sensitive to this effect. Dehydration frequently leads to unconsciousness
and possibly coma because of the decrease in diffusion rate within the cells.

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 e. Solubility: As discussed earlier, nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma
membranes more easily than polar materials, allowing a faster rate of diffusion.

f. Surface area and thickness of the plasma membrane: Increased surface area increases the rate
of diffusion, whereas a thicker membrane reduces it.
g. Distance travelled: The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower the rate of
diffusion. This places an upper limitation on cell size. A large, spherical cell will die because
nutrients or waste cannot reach or leave the center of the cell, respectively. Therefore, cells must
either be small in size, as in the case of many prokaryotes, or be flattened, as with many single-
celled eukaryotes.

B. Facilitated Diffusion

In this mechanism materials diffuse across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane
proteins. In situation B, glucose molecules, ions and sodium, despite their large size and charge
respectively, are able to pass through the bilayer through the help of membrane proteins. A concentration
gradient exists that would allow these materials to diffuse into the cell without expending cellular energy.

The material being transported is first

attached to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the
exterior surface of the plasma membrane. This
allows the material that is needed by the cell to be
removed from the extracellular fluid. The substances
are then passed to specific integral proteins that
facilitate their passage. Others are carrier proteins
which bind with the substance and aid its diffusion
through the membrane.

Figure 4. Some substances are able to move down their

concentration gradient across the plasma membrane
with the aid of carrier proteins. Carrier proteins change shape as they move molecules across the membrane.

Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

Transport proteins – general term applied to integral proteins involved in facilitated transport

 Channel proteins  - are specific for the substance that is being transported
- have hydrophilic domains exposed to the intracellular and extracellular fluids; they
additionally have a hydrophilic channel through their core that provides a hydrated
opening through the membrane layers
- are either open at all times or they are “gated,” which controls the opening of the channel.
o Aquaporins are channel proteins that allow water to pass through the membrane at a
very high rate

C. Osmosis

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 Osmosis is the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane according to the
concentration gradient of water across the membrane. While diffusion transports material across
membranes and within cells, osmosis transports only water across a membrane and the membrane limits
the diffusion of solutes in the water. Not surprisingly, the aquaporins that facilitate water movement play
a large role in osmosis, most prominently in red blood cells and the membranes of kidney tubules.

Below is an illustration on how water moves from one to another through osmosis.

Figure 5. In osmosis, water always moves from an area of higher water concentration to one of lower
concentration. In the diagram shown, the solute cannot pass through the selectively permeable membrane,
but the water can.

Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

In connection to osmosis is the term “tonicity” and “osmolarity”.

Tonicity - describes how an extracellular solution can change the volume of a cell by affecting osmosis.

Osmolarity - describes the total solute concentration of the solution. A solute is the material/molecule
being dissolve in a solution.

 low osmolarity has a greater number of water molecules relative to the number of solute
particles
 high osmolarity has fewer water molecules with respect to solute particles.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

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Hypotonic Solutions – the extracellular fluid has lower osmolarity than the fluid inside the cell, and
water enters the cell. In living systems, the point of reference is always the cytoplasm, so the
prefix hypo– means that the extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes, or a lower
osmolarity, than the cell cytoplasm. It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher
concentration of water in the solution than does the cell. In this situation, water will follow its
concentration gradient and enter the cell.

Hypertonic Solutions - the prefix hyper– refers to the extracellular fluid having a higher osmolarity than
the cell’s cytoplasm; therefore, the fluid contains less water than the cell does. Because the cell
has a relatively higher concentration of water, water will leave the cell.

Isotonic Solutions - the extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cell. If the osmolarity of the
cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement of water into or out of
the cell, although water will still move in and out.

Below is an example of blood cells and plant cells (Figure 7) in hypertonic, isotonic, and
hypotonic solutions take on characteristic appearances.

Figure 6. Osmotic pressure changes the shape of red blood cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions. The
turgor pressure within a plant cell depends on the tonicity of the solution that it is bathed in.

Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

Self-checked question:
1. Briefly discuss the movement of water in a red blood cell each type of solutions in figure 6.
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2. A doctor injects a patient with what the doctor thinks is an isotonic saline solution. The patient dies,
and an autopsy reveals that many red blood cells have been destroyed. Do you think the solution the
doctor injected was really isotonic?
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To personally observe osmosis, perform the simple activity below.

OSMOSIS EGGS

OBJECTIVE: To observe osmotic processes.

TIME: 45 Minutes (spread over 2-3 days)

MATERIALS

2 large eggs, 2 glasses (preferably wider rather than taller), vinegar, Water, food coloring (dark color),
Super saturated sugar solution, Toothpick, Tape measure (or a piece of string and ruler), Pen, Paper,
Foil or plastic wrap (optional)

*This activity is completed in three parts. It is suggested that the first part of the activity is done in
the afternoon or evening, the second part of the activity can be done the following afternoon or
evening, and the third part the following day.

PART 1:
1. Place each of the 2 eggs in a separate glass.
2. Pour vinegar inside each of the glasses so it completely covers each of the eggs. You may like to
cover the glasses with foil or plastic wrap to reduce in your storage area (which could be the
refrigerator).
3. Set aside the eggs for 24 hours. The vinegar will react with the eggshell and remove it, leaving
only the inner membrane. The eggs will look like the one below when the shell is removed. It is
ok if all the shell is not removed, as long as the majority of the shell is removed.

Part 2:
1. Empty the vinegar out of each of the glasses and lightly rinse each of the eggs with water.
2. Place the eggs back into the glasses.
3. Label each of the glasses 1 and 2, and use the table provided at the end of this activity to keep
track of the two eggs.
4. Measure each egg around at the widest point using a tape measure or a piece of string. To use a
piece of string, Take a piece of string and wrap it around the egg once. Mark with your finger the
length of string that is needed to go around the egg once and measure it using a ruler.
5. Record the length around for each egg using the table provided.
6. Cover one egg with water and a drop of blue food coloring while the other one with super
saturated sugar solution.
7. You may also like to cover the glasses with plastic wrap or foil to lessen the smell.
8. Wait several hours (such as until the morning) to see what happens to the eggs.

Part 3:
1. Carefully remove the eggs from the substances and rinse them carefully with water.
2. Just as before, measure the eggs around at the widest part using either a tape measure or string
and a ruler.

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 3. Record the measurements in the appropriate part of the provided table.
4. Finally, place the eggs back inside the glasses after they have been properly washed or place them
in new cups or glasses.
5. Use a toothpick to carefully pop each of the membranes of the eggs.
6. What did you notice about what was inside? Did any of the outside substance make it to the
inside of the egg? Record your observations in the appropriate space in the table provided.
7. Answer the questions that follows.

RESULTS. Table 1

Substance Use as Width Width What Was Inside the

Other Observations
bath Before After Egg?

EGG
1

EGG
2

LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What happened to the water in the egg when placed into the colored water solution?

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2. What happened to the water in the egg when placed into the super saturated sugar solution?
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3. What type of solution was the sugar syrup? _______________ colored water? _____________

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EXTENSION

As you can imagine, if too much water rushes into the egg due to osmosis, this could cause the egg
membrane to pop! This could happen to our cells also. However, the only process that could be
observed here is called passive transport. This means that the cell did not use any energy to move
things through the membrane. Another way living cells can move things through the membrane
is active transport.

CONCLUSION:
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BIG IDEA: Passive Transport includes diffusion, facilitated diffusion and Osmosis.

Activity retrieved from: Egg Osmosis from https://www.mrsec.psu.edu/content/osmosis-eggs

Active Transport

Active transport mechanisms require the use of the cell’s energy, usually in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell against its concentration gradient—
that is, if the concentration of the substance inside the cell is greater than its concentration in the
extracellular fluid (and vice versa)—the cell must use energy to move the substance. Some active
transport mechanisms move small-molecular weight materials, such as ions, through the membrane. Other
mechanisms transport much larger molecules.

What is an Electrochemical Gradient?

A concentration gradient is the difference in concentrations of a substance across a space or a

membrane. In a living system, an electrical gradient exist which is a difference of charge, across the
plasma membrane.

Study figure ___ as you follow the discussion. The interior of living cells is electrically negative
with respect to the extracellular fluid in which they are bathed, and at the same time, cells have higher
concentrations of potassium (K+) and lower concentrations of sodium (Na+) than does the extracellular
fluid. So in a living cell, the concentration gradient of Na+ tends to drive it into the cell, and the electrical
gradient of Na+ (a positive ion) also tends to drive it inward to the negatively charged interior. The
situation is more complex, however, for other elements such as potassium. The electrical gradient of K+ (a
positive ion) also tends to drive it into the cell, but the concentration gradient of K+ tends to drive
K+ out of the cell (Figure 1). The combined gradient of concentration and electrical charge that affects an
ion is called its electrochemical gradient.

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Figure 7. Electrochemical gradients arise from the combined effects of concentration gradients and electrical
gradients.
Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

LINK TO LEARNING
To learn more about electrochemical gradient, visit the website https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ba02v7eoVWQ

Self-checked question:

1. Injection of a potassium solution into a person’s blood is lethal; this is used in capital punishment and
euthanasia. Why do you think a potassium solution injection is lethal?

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Moving Against a Gradient

To move substances against a concentration or electrochemical gradient, the cell must use energy.
This energy is harvested from ATP generated through the cell’s metabolism.

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 Active transport mechanisms…
 has collectively called pumps that work against electrochemical gradients. Small
substances constantly pass through plasma membranes.
 maintains concentrations of ions and other substances needed by living cells in the face of
these passive movements.
 are sensitive to many metabolic poisons that interfere with the supply of ATP.

Two mechanisms exist for the transport of small-molecular weight material and small molecules. 

a. Primary active transport moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge
across that membrane, which is directly dependent on ATP. 

b. Secondary active transport describes the movement of material that is due to the

electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport that does not directly require
ATP.

Carrier Proteins for Active Transport

There are three types of proteins or transporters that pumps to facilitate movement

a.  Uniporter -  carries one specific ion or molecule
b. symporter carries two different ions or molecules, both in the same direction
c. antiporter also carries two different ions or molecules, but in different directions.

All of these transporters can also transport small, uncharged organic molecules like glucose.
These three types of carrier proteins are also found in facilitated diffusion, but they do not require ATP to
work in that process.

Figure 8. A uniporter carries one molecule or ion. A symporter carries two different molecules or ions, both in the
same direction. An antiporter also carries two different molecules or ions, but in different directions.

Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

Primary Active Transport

The primary active transport that functions with the active transport of sodium and potassium
allows secondary active transport to occur. The second transport method is still considered active because
it depends on the use of energy as does in primary transport.

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 Figure 9. Primary active transport moves ions across a membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient
(electrogenic transport).
Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

One of the most important pumps in animals cells is the sodium-potassium pump (Na +-
K+ ATPase), which maintains the electrochemical gradient (and the correct concentrations of Na + and K+)
in living cells. The sodium-potassium pump moves K + into the cell while moving Na+ out at the same
time, at a ratio of three Na + for every two K+ ions moved in. The Na+-K+ ATPase exists in two forms,
depending on its orientation to the interior or exterior of the cell and its affinity for either sodium or
potassium ions. The process consists of the following six steps.

As a result, the carrier

With the enzyme oriented changes shape and re-
towards the interior of the ATP is hydrolyzed by the orients itself towards the
cell, the carrier has a high protein carrier and a low- exterior of the membrane.
affinity for sodium ions. energy phosphate group The protein’s affinity for
Three ions bind to the attaches to it. sodium decreases and the
protein. three sodium ions leave the
carrier.

The carrier protein, in its

The shape change increases
new configuration, has a
the carrier’s affinity for With the phosphate group
decreased affinity for
potassium ions, and two removed and potassium
potassium, and the two
such ions attach to the ions attached, the carrier
ions are released into the
protein. Subsequently, the protein repositions itself
cytoplasm. The protein
low-energy phosphate towards the interior of the
now has a higher affinity
group detaches from the cell.
for sodium ions, and the
carrier.
process starts again.
Several things have happened as a result of this process. They are as follows.

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 1. There are more sodium ions outside of the cell than inside and more
potassium ions inside than out.

2. For every three ions of sodium that move out, two ions of potassium move
in. This results in the interior being slightly more negative relative to the
exterior.

3. The difference in charge is important in creating the conditions necessary

for the secondary process

4. The sodium-potassium pump is an electrogenic pump creating an electrical

imbalance across the membrane and contributing to the membrane potential.

Secondary Active Transport (Co-transport)

Secondary active transport brings sodium ions, and possibly other compounds, into the cell. As
sodium ion concentrations build outside of the plasma membrane because of the action of the primary
active transport process, an electrochemical gradient is created. If a channel protein exists and is open, the
sodium ions will be pulled through the membrane. This movement is used to transport other substances
that can attach themselves to the transport protein through the membrane (Figure 4). The potential energy
that accumulates in the stored hydrogen ions is translated into kinetic energy as the ions surge through the
channel protein ATP synthase, and that energy is used to convert ADP into ATP.
To sum it up, an electrochemical gradient, created by primary active transport, can move other
substances against their concentration gradients, a process called co-transport or secondary active
transport.

LINK TO LEARNING
To learn more about electrochemical gradient, visit the website

LET’S CHECK YOUR PROGRESS!

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Using the Venn diagram below, compare and contrast the following transport mechanisms. Place the
features at the right to its correct position in the diagram.

DIFFUSION OSMOSIS
 Involves water only
 Requires energy
 Is passive
 Movement of particles
 Need a semi-permeable
membrane

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

II. For the items 1 and 2, circle the letter of the correct answer. Briefly answer item number 3.

1. The dots represents the molecules of a gas in fur tubes at the beginning of an experiment. In which
tube will more molecules move from X to Y than in the opposite direction?

2. The diagram shows an experiment when set up and the same experiment two hours later. What
explains the phenomena?

Movement of water Movement of dye

a Diffusion Osmosis
b Osmosis Diffusion

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 C Osmosis Facilitated diffusion
d Facilitated diffusion Osmosis

3. Jam is a very strong sugar solution. By contrast, the cytoplasm in a microbe is a much weaker
solution.
a. The cell of a microbe is made up of a semi-permeable membrane. Would water flow from
the microbe to the jam, of from the jam to the microbe?
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b. Suggest a reason why microbes find it difficult to survive in jams.

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BULK TRANSPORT

In addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells also need to remove
and take in larger molecules and particles. Some cells are even capable of engulfing entire unicellular
microorganisms. You might have correctly hypothesized that when a cell uptakes and releases large
particles, it requires energy. A large particle, however, cannot pass through the membrane, even with
energy that the cell supplies.

Endocytosis 

Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of
cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. The cell's plasma membrane invaginates, forming a pocket around
the target particle. The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle containing itself in a newly created
intracellular vesicle formed from the plasma membrane.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
Phagocytosis

 the condition of “cell eating”

 the process by which a cell takes in large particles, such as other cells or relatively large
particles

 For example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell, a
neutrophil, will remove the invaders through this process, surrounding and engulfing the
microorganism, which the neutrophil then destroys.

Figure 10.  In phagocytosis, the cell membrane

surrounds the particle and engulfs it.

A portion of the plasma membrane's inward-

facing surface becomes coated with the
protein clathrin, which stabilizes this
membrane's section. The membrane's coated

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portion then extends from the cell's body and surrounds the particle, eventually enclosing it. Once
the vesicle containing the particle is enclosed within the cell, the clathrin disengages from the
membrane and the vesicle merges with a lysosome for breaking down the material in the newly
formed compartment (endosome).

When accessible nutrients from the vesicular contents' degradation have been extracted, the
newly formed endosome merges with the plasma membrane and releases its contents into the
extracellular fluid. The endosomal membrane again becomes part of the plasma membrane.

Pinocytosis

 This literally means “cell drinking”

 In reality, this is a process that takes in molecules, including water, which the cell needs
from the extracellular fluid. Pinocytosis results in a much smaller vesicle than does
phagocytosis, and the vesicle does not need to merge with a lysosome.

Potocytosis – a variation of pinocytosis

 this

process uses a coating protein, caveolin, on the

plasma membrane's cytoplasmic side, which
performs a similar function to clathrin.

The vacuoles or vesicles formed in caveolae (singular caveola) are smaller than those in
pinocytosis. Potocytosis brings small molecules into the cell and transports them through the cell
for their release on the other side, a process we call transcytosis.

Figure 11.  In pinocytosis, the cell membrane invaginates, surrounds a small volume of fluid, and pinches
off.

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 Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

As in phagocytosis, clathrin attaches to the plasma membrane's cytoplasmic side. If a

compound's uptake is dependent on receptor-mediated endocytosis and the process is ineffective,
the material will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids
and increase in concentration. The failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis causes some human
diseases.

For example, receptor mediated endocytosis removes

low density lipoprotein or LDL (or "bad" cholesterol)
from the blood. In the human genetic disease familial
hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective
or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-
threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because
their cells cannot clear LDL particles.

Figure 12.  In receptor-mediated endocytosis, the cell's uptake of

substances targets a single type of substance that binds to the
receptor on the cell membrane's external surface.

LINK TO LEARNING
See receptor-mediated endocytosis in action, and click on different https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hLbjLWNA5c0 for a focused animation.

EXOCYTOSIS

Exocytosis is the opposite of the processes we

discussed above in that its purpose is to expel material from the
cell into the extracellular fluid. Waste material is enveloped in a
membrane and fuses with the plasma membrane's interior. This
fusion opens the membranous envelope on the cell's exterior,
and the waste material expels into the extracellular space

Figure 13.  In exocytosis, vesicles containing substances fuse with

the plasma membrane. The contents then release to the cell's
exterior.
Photo retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
biology1/chapter/biological-molecules/

LET’S WRAP UP!

Methods of Transport, Energy Requirements, and Types of Transported Material

Transport Method Active/Passive Material Transported

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 Diffusion Passive Small-molecular weight material

Osmosis Passive Water

Sodium, potassium, calcium,

Facilitated transport/diffusion Passive
glucose

Primary active transport Active Sodium, potassium, calcium

Secondary active transport Active Amino acids, lactose

Large macromolecules, whole

Phagocytosis Active
cells, or cellular structures

Pinocytosis and potocytosis Active Small molecules (liquids/water)

Large quantities of
Receptor-mediated endocytosis Active
macromolecules

LET’S WRAP UP!

Create a concept map/diagram that summarizes the different types of transport mechanism. You
should include its different types, the usage of energy, types of material being transported and other key
ideas that you find essential for this lesson. Make use of the box below.

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REFERENCES

https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/5-4-bulk-transport

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