Anatomy and Physiology with Pataphysiology

Topic 2: Levels of Organization of the Human Body

Hierarchy of Organization  Ionically bonded molecules separate to become ions
from simplest to most complex: in water.
chemical → organelles → cells → tissues → organs  Ions are charged atoms.
→ systems → organism.  Ions in solution are electrolytes.
Level of Organization: Chemical Level Water
 Chemical Level – All matter is composed of Water – carries out five vital functions in the body:
atoms containing protons, neutrons, and o allows for ions in solution.
electrons. o works as a lubricant.
Atomic number = number of protons. o aids in chemical reactions.
Atomic mass = number of protons + number of o helps with transportation.
neutrons. o used for temperature regulation.
Electron = atomic mass – number of neutrons Solutions
Solutions – composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Atomic structure. - Solutes are substances dissolved in a
o Protons and neutrons – contained in the central predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
nucleus of an atom. solvent.
o Electrons circle the nucleus. *Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move
Charges of subatomic particles. from an area of higher concentration of a solute to an
o Protons – positively charged. area of lower concentration of that same solute in
solution.
o Neutrons – no electrical charge.
o Electrons – negatively charged.

Atoms contain the same number of protons and electrons

and are electrically neutral.

Isotopes – atoms that have additional or missing

neutrons. Concentration – amount of solute relative to the amount
*Radiostope – if an isotope freely gives off of solvent.
particles Tonicity
Bonding to Form Molecules In comparing solutions,
Atoms bond to form molecules.

- hypertonic solution – more concentrated

o Atoms share electrons to form a covalent - isotonic solution – same concentration
bond. - hypotonic solution – less concentrated.
Acids, Bases, and pH
o Acids – hydrogen ion (H+) donors.
o Bases – accept hydrogen (H+) ions.
pH scale – used to measure acidity and alkalinity.
Every one-number difference is a tenfold difference
in the amount of H+ or OH−.
Organic Molecules

o Atoms give up and receive electrons in an

ionic bond.
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3 types: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic - composed of carbon, hydrogen,
acids. oxygen, and nitrogen atoms.
o All organic molecules must contain - consist of an amine group, acid group, and a R
atoms of carbon and hydrogen. group.
o Organic molecules are composed of - 20 different types of amino acids, each differ in their
building blocks, which are subunits of R groups.
complex molecules. Amino acids – building units of proteins.
 Carbohydrates Polypeptides – long strings of amino acids that folds to
form functional proteins.

 Nucleic Acids
Two types in cells:
o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
– formed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen o Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
atoms. Nucleotides – building blocks.
*2 hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom. *Composed of 1 pentose sugar, 1 phosphate, and 1
– primary source of nutrient energy for body cells. nitrogenous base.
– classified by molecular size due to numbers of The nitrogenous bases are:
bonded subunits: o DNA – guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine
 Monosaccharides – simple sugars or (GCAT)
simple carbohydrates; building o RNA – guanine, cytosine, adenine, uracil
blocks of carbohydrates (GCAU)
Glucose (C6H12O6) – major fuel for The pentose sugars are:
cells. o DNA – deoxyribose
Fructose and galactose – 6- carbon o RNA – ribose
simple sugars found in foods. Nucleic Acids
 Disaccharides – formed by o Nucleotides are arranged in three-letter
chemically combining 2 sequences called triplets.
monosaccharides.  Triplets determined the genetic
Maltose – glucose + glucose code.
Sucrose – glucose + fructose  Gene – a “word” in the genetic
Lactose – glucose + galactose code.
 Polysaccharides – formed by chemically o Genes code for instructions such as how
combining many monosaccharides. to make a protein molecule.
Glycogen – animal carbohydrate Chemical Reactions
storage o Molecules must come together to react.
Starch – plant carbohydrate storage o Metabolism – total of all the chemical reactions
 Lipids – consist of carbon, hydrogen, and in the body.
oxygen atoms. Reactants → Products.
o Carbon atoms form the backbone of lipid
Speed of Reactions
molecules. Reactions happen faster if:
o There are many more hydrogen atoms than
o The concentration of the reactants is increased
oxygen atoms.
o Building blocks are often glycerol and fatty o The speed of the reactants is increased by adding
acids. heat
Most abundant in the body are: o A catalyst is used.
 Fats (triglycerides) *Enzymes – major catalysts in the human
 Phospholipids body.
 Steroids Cellular Respiration
 Proteins Cellular Respiration - one of the most important
chemical reactions in the body.
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Glucose + Oxygen yields Carbon dioxide and Water
This process yields a great deal of energy which is used
to produce molecules of ATP.
ATP – contains the usable form of energy for the cell.
Energy + ADP + P → ATP
Energy + Adenosine Diphosphate + Phosphate
→ Adenosine Triphosphate
Passive Membrane Transport
Passive membrane transport
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- does not require the cell to expend energy.
- mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, and
facilitated diffusion.

o Diffusion – involves movement of substances in

a solution down a concentration gradient. o Osmosis – diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from a region
of higher water concentration to one of lower
water concentration.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure,
which is the force required to prevent movement of
water across cell membrane
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution
concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the cell.

This movement from high concentration to a low

concentration is diffusion.
o Concentration Gradient – difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the
concentration difference is large and/or the distance is
small. A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
Leak and Gated Channels hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to the cell
o Lipid soluble substances can diffuse cytoplasm.
directly through the phospholipid Hypotonic – lower concentration of solutes
bilayer. and a higher concentration of water relative
o Water-soluble substances, such as ions, to the cytoplasm of the cell.
can diffuse across the cell membrane The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the
only by passing through cell membrane cell.
channels. Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
When the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
Isotonic – the same solute concentrations
inside and outside the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic – lower solute concentration
and higher water concentration than the
surrounding solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell, resulting in
cell shrinkage, or crenation.
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized
Two classes of cell membrane channels include: particles cannot enter or leave through the cell
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass membrane by diffusion. These include amino acids,
through. glucose, and some polar molecules produced by the
Gated channels limit the movement of ions cell.
across the membrane by opening and closing. Carrier molecules – proteins within the cell membrane
involved in carrier-mediated transport.
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include
facilitated diffusion and Active transport.
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for energy.
Active transport does require ATP for transport.
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cells and a higher concentration of K+ inside cells.

o Facilitated Diffusion – carrier-mediated

transport process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower o Secondary Active Transport – uses the energy
concentration of that substance. provided by a concentration gradient established
Because movement is with the concentration by the active transport of one substance, such as
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not Na+ to transport other substances.
required.
Active Membrane Transport No additional energy is required above the energy
Active membrane transport provided by the initial active transport pump.
- require the cell to expend energy, usually in the In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the
form of ATP. same direction as the initial active transported substance.
- mechanisms include active transport, In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a
secondary active transport, endocytosis, and direction opposite to that of the initial active transported
exocytosis. substance.
o Active Transport – carrier-mediated o Endocytosis – process that brings materials
process, requiring ATP, that moves into cell using vesicles.
substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those of
higher concentration against a concentration
gradient.
Active transport processes accumulate necessary
substances on one side of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater than those on the
other side.

Sodium-Potassium Pump - major example Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific

of active transport and is present in cell substance binds to the receptor molecule and is
membranes. transported into the cell.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of Phagocytosis – often used for endocytosis when solid
cells and K+ into cells. particles are ingested.
The result is a higher concentration of Na + outside Pinocytosis – has much smaller vesicles formed, and

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they contain liquid rather than solid particles. - There are usually one to several nucleoli within
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound the nucleus.
sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate - The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
materials for release from the cell. cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
nucleolus.
- These ribosomal components exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores.

o Exocytosis – the releasing material when

vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes. ©Dr. Birgit H. Satir
General Cell Structure

Ribosomes – where proteins are produced

- Ribosome components are produced in the
nucleolus.

- Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles,

Cytoplasm – the interior of a cell, which is a jelly-like such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
fluid that surrounds the organelles. - Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
Organelles – specialized structures that perform certain organelle are called free ribosomes.
functions. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – series of
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, membranes forming sacs and tubules that
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, extends from the outer nuclear membrane
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, into the cytoplasm.
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and  Rough ER – involved in protein synthesis
microvilli. and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
Cell Membrane – gives structure to the cell and  Smooth ER – no attached ribosomes and is
facilitates in what may enter or leave the cell. a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
Nucleus – a large organelle usually located detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
near the center of the cell. skeletal muscle cells.
 Nuclear envelope – consists of outer and inner Golgi Apparatus – also called the Golgi
membranes with a narrow space between them. complex, consists of closely packed stacks
 Nuclear membrane – contains nuclear pores, of curved, membrane-bound sacs.
through which materials can pass into or out of - collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
the nucleus. proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
- The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of - The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
chromosomes which consist of DNA and which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
proteins. other vesicles.s/Scienc
- During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes
are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin.
- When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.
 Nucleoli – diffuse bodies with no eS
surrounding membrane. that are found Lysosomes – membrane-bound vesicles
within the nucleus
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formed from the Golgi apparatus. protein associated with skin cells.
- contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
- Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.
Peroxisomes – small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break
down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and
amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. Centrioles
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.  Centrosome – specialized area of cytoplasm
Mitochondria – small organelles close to the nucleus where microtubule
responsible for producing considerable formation occurs.
amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) - It contains two centrioles, which are normally
metabolism. oriented perpendicular to each other.
- have inner and outer membranes separated by a - Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
space. composed of microtubules.
- outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the - The centriole is involved in the process of
inner membranes have numerous folds, called mitosis.
cristae, which project into the interior of the Cilia – project from the surface of certain cells. They are
mitochondria. responsible for the movement of materials over the top
- The material within the inner membrane is the of cells, such as mucus. They are cylindrical structures
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and that extend from the cell and are composed of
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). microtubules.
- Cells with a large energy requirement have more Flagella – have a structure similar to that of cilia but are
mitochondria than cells that require less energy. much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the
sperm cell.
Microvilli – specialized extensions of the cell membrane
that are supported by microfilaments. They do not
actively move as cilia and flagella do. They are
numerous on cells that have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is
an important function.
Whole Cell Activity
- A cell’s characteristics are determined by the
Cytoskeleton - gives internal framework to the type of proteins produced.
cell. It consists of protein structures that support - The proteins produced are in turn determined by
the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the the genetic information in the nucleus.
cell to change shape. - Information in DNA provides the cell with a
These protein structures are microtubules, code for its cellular processes.
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. DNA
 Microtubules – hollow structures formed DNA – contains the information that directs protein
from protein subunits. It performs variety of synthesis; a process called gene expression.
roles, including helping to support the A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together
cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, to form two nucleotide strands.
and forming essential components of certain - The two strands are connected and resemble a
organelles, such as cilia and flagella. ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
 Microfilaments – small fibrils formed from - Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
protein subunits that structurally support the phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
cytoplasm, determining cell shape. Some are - Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
involved with cell movement. specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide on
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the the opposite strand.
cells to shorten, or contract. Gene – a sequence of nucleotides that provides a
 Intermediate Filaments – fibrils formed chemical set of instructions for making a specific
from protein subunits that are smaller in protein.
diameter than microtubules but larger in Gene Expression – which is protein synthesis, involves
diameter than microfilaments. They provide transcription and translation.
mechanical support to the cell. A specific Transcription involves copying DNA into
type of intermediate filament is keratin, a messenger RNA.
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Translation involves messenger RNA being - Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are
used to produce a protein. read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA).
- Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain.
- The process continues until the entire
polypeptide is completely formed.

Transcription
- takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
- DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
transcription.
- During transcription, the double strands of a
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of
the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form
the mRNA. Overview of Gene Expression
- DNA contains one of the following organic The Cell Cycle
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil,
adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
- DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
nucleotides.
o DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s
adenine.
o DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
o DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s
guanine
o DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s
cytosine.

During growth and development, cell division occurs to

increase the number of cells or replace damaged or dying
ones. This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing
phase, called interphase, and a cell dividing phase,
termed mitosis.
Interphase
Translation - A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
- occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has performing its normal functions.
exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores. - During interphase, the DNA (located in
- The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
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- The two strands of DNA separate from each the center of the cell.
other, and each strand serves as a template for The movement of the chromosomes is regulated
the production of a new strand of DNA. by the attached spindle fibers.
- Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand  Anaphase
pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
joined by enzymes to form a new strand of separate and each chromatid is called a
DNA. chromosome.
- The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
template determines the sequence of nucleotides moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole
in the new strand of DNA. at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
 Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of
the daughter cells become organized to form two
separate nuclei, one in each newly formed
daughter cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and
resemble the genetic material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.
Differentiation – process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
body.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA

- Replication of DNA gives two identical

chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosome. are active, but others are inactive.
Cell Genetic Content Diversity of Cell Types
- Each human cell (except sperm and egg) Apoptosis – termed programmed cell death, is a normal
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46. process by which cell numbers within various tissues are
- The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes adjusted and controlled.
total. In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
- One pair of chromosomes are the sex tissue, such as cells between the developing
chromosomes, which consist of two X fingers and toes.
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
and Y chromosome if the person is a male. excess cells to maintain a constant number of
• Mitosis cells within the tissue.
- involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a Cellular Aspects of Aging
single parent cell. There are various causes for cellular aging.
- divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, o Existence of a cellular clock
anaphase, and telophase. o Presence of death genes
 Prophase o DNA damage
During prophase the chromatin condenses to o Formation of free radicals
form visible chromosomes. o Mitochondrial damage
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to Tumors – abnormal proliferations of cells. They are due
assist in breaking the centromere between the to problems occurring in the cell cycle. Some tumors are
chromatids and move the chromosomes to benign and some are malignant (cancer). Malignant
opposite sides of the cell. tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
 Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near
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